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Ej ercicios espirituales
de san Ignacio de
Loyola,Amberes, 1689.
Biblioteca Francisco
Artes de Mxico iniciamos hace tres aos. Hoy presentamos, con gozo y
Xavier Clavigero.
Universidad
Iberoamericana.
Mxico, D.F.
como lo hicieron las ediciones anteriores sobre los colegios y las misiones,
ayude a dar mayor sentido a nuestro proyecto universitario.
Ciudad de Mxico
en el frontispicio de los
Ej ercicios espirituales,
Amberes, 1689.
Biblioteca Francisco
JesuitArt and Spirituality is the title of this most recent issue of Artes de
Xavier Clavigero.
Universidad
Iberoamericana.
great experience of seeing God in all things, and seeing all things in God.
Mxico, D.F.
Pgina siguiente:
Juan Correa.
and excited to present the texts and images making up this latest
Mxico, D.F.
Mexico City
~~~i
DE MEXICO
REVISTA LIBRO
NMERO
70. Ao 2004.
FUNDADA EN
1953
POR
VICENTE ROJO
Direcc1:n generll,l
BEATRIZ DE LA FUENTE
FOTOGRAFA
SANTIAGO SAAVEDRA
CARLOS FUENTES
Portada:
RAMiREZ
MARGARITA DE OREUANA
SERGIO GARCA
Gerente de ad'm,inistradn
TERESA VERGARA
Interiores:
Jefa de redaccin
ANDRs HENESTROSA
GABRfELA OLMOS
JOS E. 111JRRlAGA
Jefa de dise110
MIGUEL LEN-PORTILLA
PABLO WASTIDA
EMBAJADA DE ALEMANIA
GEMALDEGALERIE DER AKADEMlE
DER BlLDENDEN KNSTE WIEN
CAROUNA MARriNEZ
p. 57,58
p. 71
A. BRACCHETTI: p . 32-33
Diseo
ELlsABETTA CORSl:
DANIEL MORENO
MEo EL
ARTHornc
I BURSTEeN
COLLECTION:
p. 71
MICHELLE SUDERMAN
VICENTE
A.si"tentes de d'iseo
J..VARO MUTIS
AIDEE SANTIAGO
BRUNO J. NEWMAN
MARIANA ZNlGA
A ~>:i/i l ent, e8
BRIAN NISSEN
CORBIS
MARICARMEN MENDDZA
DOLORES DAHLHAUS:
SAMANTHA OGAZN
JACQUES PONTVIANNE
de redaccin
p.38-.39
MARA PALOMAR
GUILLERMO TOVAR
p. 40, 41,70
HUMBERTO TACHIQuN
1'mduccin al '/:ngls
JUAN URQUIAGA
CAROLE CASTELLl
HCTOR VASCONCELOS
RlCHARD MOSZKA
ELlOT WElNBERGER
'l'raduccin al espmiol
RAMN XlRAU
DANIEL GIANONI:
JAVIER HINOJOSA:
p . 44-45
Publicidad
ViCTOR ACUA
Virreinato, Instituto
Nacional de
Antropologa e
Historia.
Pgina 1:
Compaa de Jess.
ctuito,
ARTURO PlERA:
DE HurCHfNS
Of/:cws yenerale8
CRDOBA 69
06700 MXICO, D . F.
BRUNO J . NEWMAN
TELEFONOS:
JACQUES PONTVIANNE
ABEL
FAX:
JOS
55255925
TERESA VERGARA
www.arlesdemexico.com
JORGE VRTIZ
L.
C.
M . QUEZADA
TERN MORENO
KNSTIllSTORISCHES MUSEUM,
WlEN:
p. 18-19, 80
p. 32-33
p. 49, 103
p. 30-31
SCALA ARCHIVES
WORCESTER ART MUSEUM
TERESA PEYRET
I SPELTDOORN:
p.4-5
BERNARD TERLAY:
JORGE VRTIZ:
MUSEO VATICANO
GUADALAJARA, JALISCO
MUSEO SOUMAYA, MXICO
p.16-17
Arte s d e Mxi c o es un a
publ i ca c in d e Artes d e
M xico
Agradecimientos:
del Mundo,
Impresin
Presidente
Universidad Iberoamericana
d e la CANI E~r.
TRANSCONTINENTAL .
RECTORA
Certificado de Licitud d e
REPRODUCCIONES FOTOMECNlCAS,
Vicepres'i dente
JACQUES PONTVIANNE
Certificado de Licitud de
Consejeros
Comisin Calificadora de
PHILLIP HurCHINS
Direec'in de
Publicaciones
ENCUADERNADO
BRUNO J. NEWMAN
Cotll'lt'll.'icacin Socia.l
Ilustradas nm. 99 .
EN ENCUADERNADORA
MARGARITA DE ORELLANA
ABEL
CONSEJO DE ASESORES
ALFONSO ALFARO
TERESA VERGARA
L.
M. QUEZADA
MNICA NAVARRO
D ireccin de Formacin
Valon/
ALEJANDRO ROBLES
Revistas
LUIS ALMEroA
Con"isario
HOMlERO ARloJ1S
Jooo ORTIZ
TERESA MATABUENA
JUAN BARRAGN
Secretario
HUBERTO BATIS
ALBERTO BLANCO
SANTOS COY
ANToNIO BOLVAR
I~BN 970-683-095-2
STAATSGEMALoESAMMLUNGEN
BERKSHIRE MUSEUM, PITTSFIELD
JlJllFIA CAMPOS
EFRAlN CASTRO
CURIA 'GENERALICIA DE LA
lNsmuro DE INVESTIGACIONES
SALVADOR EUZONDO
ARTES DE MXIco
CRlSTINA ESTERAS
Director
MANuEL FELGUREZ
ALFONSO ALFARO
encuadernacin rstica:
BAAYERISCHE
Asesor legal en
derecho de autor
LEONOR CORTINA
Bveda la iglesia de la
GUADALUPE, MxIco
MUSEO DE ROMA
NINA RlST
Mural al temple.
BEAUX-ARTS DE BELGIQUE
MUSEO DE LA BASLICA DE
D'Arx-EN-PROVENCE
CRlSTINA BRlTTINGHAM
CONSEJO DE ADMlNISTRACIN
17f>5-1756.
MusE GRANET
MUSEO NAClONAL DE
ANOREA KETTENMANN:
arlesdemexico@Q,rtesdemexl:co.com
Ignacio de Loyola y
JACA BOOKS
LAURA BECERRIL
Miguel Cabrera.
ANTROPOLOGA E HISTORIA,
LUIS RODRGUEZ
Porlada:
INSmurO NACIONAL DE
p.54, 60, 61
p. 66-67, 72-73
(RlSTOPHE HlRTZ: p.1 , 50
ANrONELLO IDeNI: p . 20
ASAMBLEA DE ACCIONISTAS
MxIco
I Juuo DONoso: p. 56
STELLA CULLAR
MIGUEL ROMERO
I GIANNI DAGLl: p. 7
CORBIS I ARALDD DE LUCA:
CORBIS
Oor'recdn
MARA PALOMAR
MAsSACHUSSETTS
Distribuida por
Artes de Mxico e
Intermex S.A.
d e C.v. (Lucio B l anco 435 ,
COMPAA DE JESS
DEPARTAMENTO DE CULTURA DE
AMBERES
EDICIONES EL VISO, MADRID
JUNIO DE 2004.
de la Compa~ de Jess
Perla (Jhnchlla
Estas pginas:
EDITORIAL
Alfonso Alfara
os Ejercicios espirituales desan Ignacio de Loyola son un libro cuya importancia histrica no tiene correspondencia
con la modestia de su formato y la aparente sencillez de su lenguaj e y sus proposiciones. El volumen no intenta construir un sistema filosfico o teolgico, ni mucho menos aspira a dictar los
lineamientos de un programa poltico. Sin embargo,.a lo largo de los territorios marcados por la
presencia del catolicismo posterior al Concilio de Trento, esta obra contribuy a modelar los
comportamientos y los valores, e influy de manera decisiva en el rumbo del pensamiento y la
cultura. Los Ejercicios no son la obra de un terico sino de un mstico; que lleg a convertirse en
uno de los grandes maestros de la vida espiritual. IHS Inmersa en el impulso renacentista, que
buscaba ampliar y fortalecer los espacios de autonoma del individuo, esta obra se convirti en
un instrumento para explorar territorios interiores de difcil acceso, situados ms all de la conciencia racional, as como para manejar los afectos y utilizarlos como va de elevacin a la trascendencia. El proceso de consol~dacin del sujeto individual que pretenden los Ejercicios tena
como contrapartida el empeo por revitalizar los espacios comunitarios, y particularmente el
de la Iglesia. El libro propiciaba un encuentro vertiginoso con la propia libertad desnuda, y
ofreca tambin la apertura al espacio de una plenitud sin lmites. Sus efectos rebasaron el margen de la conciencia de los ejercitantes y llegaron a resonar en el mbito de toda una civilizacin. biS Las obras de la Compaa de Jess (colegios, misiones, publicaciones tericas, trabajos
cientficos .. . ) fueron la expresin viva de la propuesta espiritual de Loyola. Pero su modelo, sumamente atento a la dimensin sensible y afectiva de la experiencia interior, encontr en el universo de las formas un cauce privilegiado. Entre la Compaa y las artes se teji una red sorprendente de interacciones y complicidades. En todos los terrenos posibles (letras, msica,
teatro, arquitectura, pintura, escultura) y en todas las corrientes estilsticas a su alcance, los jesuitas proyectaron con entusiasmo su conviccin de que las criaturas y su imagen visible eran un
instrumento destinado por Dios para propiciar su dilogo amoroso con los seres humanos. Este
volumen es el tercero de una serie que lleva por ttulo Las formas del Espritu, dedicada por Artes de Mxico a explorar las huellas de la cultura cristiana en nuestro patrimonio esttico.
Debido al inters creciente que la historia de la Compaa de Jess suscita entre los investigadores de las ciencias humanas,publicamos dos nmeros dedicados allegado jesutico (nms.
58 y 65). En este tercero emprendemos la primera parte de un anlisis consagrado a una dimension al mismo tiempo ms secreta y deslumbrante de la herencia de estos religiosos: la proyeccin esttica de las experiencias de introspeccin sensorial a las que fueron guiados por los
Ejercicios. Tenemos la fortuna de contar para esta empresa con algunas de las ms brillantes y
prestigiosas plumas que en el mundo se han ocupado de estos temas. Los artculos estn destinados tanto a los estudiosos del arte y las letras, como a los interesados en la historia de la sensibilidad y de la cultura religiosa. IHS Las imgenes nos permiten percibir las adaptaciones que
los modelos europeos de este proyecto esttico tuvieron en las ms distantes regiones del globo.
Este tomo est situado bajo el signo que marca el ingreso del ejercitante en ese universo de excepcin instaurado por el mtodo ignaciano ("Principio y fundamento"). Ese espacio, situado fuera
del tiempo, propicia el surgimiento de los ms hondos y enterrados clamores del alma y permite
al sujeto construir el silencio interior necesario para acoger una posible respuesta. El segundo
volumen ser publicado el ao prximo y completar provisionalmente el crculo al aludir a la
ltima de las meditaciones de los Ejercicios. sta prepara al individuo a regresar al mundo exterior donde proliferan en todas las cosas creadas los testimonios del amor divino. Hubo entre
los siglos XVI YXVIII un arte que aspir a dar cuenta de estos procesos de exploracin de la conPgina siguiente:
ciencia y de apertura al mundo; ese arte pretenda convertir el trabajo y la riqueza en ofrenda
Giovanni BaUista
y transformar la materia en un instrumento de comunicacin entre la tierra y el cielo. El infinito
Gaulli, eIBaciccia.
derroche de la creacin se expresaba mediante la eclctica profusin de las formas visibles esEl triunfo del
tructuradas por los artistas como un torbellino capaz de raptar el alma del espectador, para imNombre de Jess.
pulsarla en busca de una luz perfecta e inmaterial. Las obras. de esa corriente fueron realizadas
Pintura al fresco.
con el propsito de que la percepcin llegara a propiciar la contemplacin, y que esta experiencia .
Iglesia del Gesu, Roma.
lograra inflamar al individuo con la ms alta de las pasiones: el ttulo de la ltima meditacin
Latin Stock / Corbis.
de los Ejercicios es "Contemplacin para alcanzar amor". IHS
ILUMINACiN INTERIOR
LA
"UNA METODOLOGA
24
aos en
1997,
Annim,o.
Seminllrio Concilillr de
GUlldllltlpe, ZlIc{,tecas.
narme"), aun las ms comunes, como el tomar los alimentos (cfr. EE 210 Y 214) .
IHS Pero en estas citas uno tambin puede
constatar que los Ejercicios no slo ataen
al intelecto, sino que, y sobre todo, van dirigidos a la transformacin de los sentimientos
y las emociones de la persona. Promueven un
"orden de los afectos" que consiste, en una
formulacin negativa, en "quitar de s todas
las afecciones desordenadas" (EE 1) y, positivamente, en suscitar los sentimientos, los
afectos y las emociones que ayudan a ver y
sentir las cosas como las vea y las senta
Jesucristo y como las presenta en su Evangelio. (Cfr. EE 167. En este texto, que describe la "tercera [manera de] humildad", dice
que "para imitar y parecer ms actualmente a Cristo nuestro Seor, quiero y elijo ms
pobreza con Cristo pobre, que riqueza ;
oprobios con Cristo lleno dellos, que honores,
y desear ms de ser estimado por vano y loco por Cristo, que primero fue tenido por
tal, que sabio ni prudente de este mundo").
IHs En la base y como instrumento de esta
educacin de los sentimientos se encuentra
tambin una educacin de los sentidos, es
decir, de la percepcin visual, auditiva, tctil:
una educacin "esttica" en sentido amplio.
y sobre este punto quiero detenerme primero para recoger algunos textos y, luego, proponer algunas reflexiones sobre ellos. Pero
antes quisiera insistir en la importancia y
significado de una educacin de los sentimientos y sentidos para el hombre actual.
Es muy frecuente la queja de los jvenes,
Annimo.
El triunfo de la Iglesia
Mu,seo Nacional
especialmente cuando aceptan hacer un momento de silencio y entrar en s mismos, sobre la confusin que reina en sus emociones
y afectos. "No logro reconocerme en lo que
estoy sintiendo", "no s quin soy, y siento en
del Virreinato.
Tepotzotln, Mxico.
logro poner orden en mis sentimientos": stas son algunas de las afirmaciones ms frecuentes. Y esto est relacionado con el extremo desorden y falta de disciplina de los
sentidos y las sensaciones, propiciados por
la sucesin desordenada de las imgenes de la
televisin, por las posibilidades ilimitadas del
internet y la escucha casi continua de msica, muchas veces a un volumen estruendoso. Es como si el concepto de disciplina de
Instituto Nacional
lIeAntropologa.
e Historia.
razn los Ejercicios espirituales de san Ignacio pueden considerarse como una metodologa para la educacin de los sentidos y,
a largo plazo, tambin para una esttica global de la existencia.
Recojamos ahora algunos textos del libreto de los Ejercicios espirituales que apoyan
nuestro propsito. Podemos notar que en la
misma oracin del Anima Christi, que ordinariamente anteponen las ediciones de los
Ejercicios -aunque no se encuentra en el
autgrafo primitivo-, la atencin est dirigida a los aspectos fsicos de la figura del
crucificado a quien se invoca: se habla del
cuerpo de Cristo, de su sangre, del agua que
brot de su costado, de sus heridas. Desde
el principio se seala como relevante -aunque luego se hace explcita a partir de la
Quarta Annotacin-, la actitud de la "contemplacin", que no es una actitud esttica,
sino un "mirar" real, entendido en el conIHS
11
Pginas interiores
de los Ejercicios
espirit uales, de
Biblioteca Francisco
Xavier Clavigero de la
Universidad
Iberoamericana,
j1!Jxico.
12
ALGUNAS REFLEXIONES
De lo dicho hasta aqu, queda claro el carcter sencillo, casi elemental, de la disciplina
ignaciana y de la doctrina que la sustenta.
San Ignacio se sirve de todo lo que el sentido comn y la tradicin escolstica de ese
tiempo aportan sobre los sentidos corporales
Escena de la vida de
Cristo y aprobacin
papc/ de los Ejercicios
espirituales de
san Ignacio de Loyo/a,
Amberes, 1689.
Biblio/ec(1 F'mncisco
Xavier Clavigem,
Universidad
Iberoamericana,
Mxico.
Los
ESLABONES
QUE
UNIERON A
EL ARTE
DE SU TIEMPO
P.
LOUIS RICHEOME,
5.0 . ,
CON
EL ARRAIGO
EN
LA MS ANTIGUA TRADICiN
DE LA ICONOFILlA CRISTIANA .
Lubin Bauguin.
La presentacin de la
Virgen en el templo
(detalle).
leo sobre lela.
148 x 188 cm.
Muse Granel,
Ai~NIl-PrOVece,
Fra ncia.
duda la Compaa de Jess, orden misionera creada para responder al desafio mortal lanzado contra la Iglesia romana por la
Reforma protestante -y entre otras cosas a su
iconoclasia-, hizo de las artes visuales una
de las principales vias de su defensa de la fe
catlica, lo cual no significa que la pintura
religiosa italiana, espaola o flamenca, bajo
los dictados de la ltima sesin del Concilio
de Trento en 1563, se circunscriba a la inspiracin de la joven Compaa aprobada por
el papa Pablo III Famesio 23 aos antes.
1'" Otras rdenes o congregaciones religiosas
de reciente creacin o reformadas -el Oratorio de Felipe Neri, la nueva familia franciscana de los capuchinos, los teatinos, los carmelitas descalzos-, as como las rdenes
mucho ms antiguas, con el nuevo vigor infundido en el combate a la hereja -los dominicos, los eremitas de san Agustn, entre
otros-, contribuyeron de manera considerable, cada cual con su matiz de espiritualidad y su iconografia, a la extraordinaria fecundidad de la pintura religiosa de fines del
siglo XVI y de las primeras dcadas del XVII.
1'" Francia qued mucho tiempo al margen
de este proceso. Empez realmente a participar en la reconquista catlica y en su produccin de imgenes devotas despus del
medio siglo de guerra civil entre catlicos y
protestantes (1540-1590) y sobre todo con la
llegada a Paris, altamente simblica, en 1600,
de una reina florentina formada desde la infancia en el espritu de la Reforma romana
italoespaola : Maria de Mdicis.
17
lable de su General y a la disciplina cuasimilitar que suponan sus cuatro votos (entre
ellos el de obediencia absoluta al Sumo Pontifice)- eran, de una Asistencia nacional a
otra, tan diferentes como poda serlo, en todas partes, la fuerte personalidad de cada
uno de ellos. Formaban un cuerpo tanto ms
impresionante, temido, odiado o admirado
cuanto que estaba compuesto de individualidades extraordinariamente diversas y singulares, capaces de salir airosas de las ms
dificiles misiones y adaptarse a los terrenos
ms diversos. El xito de la pedagoga de los
colegios de la Compaa yaca sobre el mismo principio que la larga y dura formacin
de los propios jesuitas: uniforme en sus objetivos y programa, sta saba, sin embargo,
tomar en cuenta la naturaleza de cada quien
y slo buscaba disciplinarla para llevar a la
perfeccin de m~or manera las propias capacidades naturales. De ah que resulte vano
cualquier intento apresurado de generalizacin retrospectiva. Un Nicolas Poussin tanto como un Rubens desbordan el pretendido
"molde" jesuita; el austero hermano Martellange, arquitecto de los jesuitas franceses
bajo el reinado de Luis XIII, no fue menos
fiel al espritu de la Compaa que, en Roma, el exuberante arquitecto de la columnata de san Pedro, Gian Lorenzo Bemini, que
tena como director espiritual al P. Oliva, General de la Compaa, y que practicaba regularmente los Ejercicios espirituales de san Ignacio. Hubo
incluso en Pars, bajo el
reinado de Luis XIV, jesuitas galicanos que
polemizaron con sus
cofrades ultramontanos defensores del poder temporal indirecto
de los papas sobre los soberanos laicos.
18
Habr por ende que renunciar a dilucidar lo que Rudolf Wittkower ha prudentemente bautizado como "contribucin jesuita" a la historia de las artes visuales? Sin duda
hay que descartar definitivamente la idea de
un "estilo jesuita" o de bocetar la "evolucin"
de ese fantasma huidizo. Pero en lo que hay
que insistir es en el carcter esencial, durante los siglos XVI y XVIT, de la contribucin
jesuita a la teoria de las imgenes sagradas y
a la retrica de las pasiones y del gesto que
hicieron de ellas, en respuesta al intelectualismo abstracto de la fe reformada, los vectores de una devocin imaginativa y ardiente por Cristo. Los discpulos de san Ignacio,
tericos de las imgenes sagradas contra la
hereja que las exclua de la devocin cristiana, retricos del pathos y de la elocuencia del cuerpo, inspirados a la vez por los
Ejercicios espirituales de su fundador y por
la Institucin oratoria de Quintiliano, no
crearon un estilo: construyeron la logstica
terica que permiti a la pintura catlica,
movilizada contra la hereja iconoclasta, inventar numerosos estilos y reclutar en sus
filas a los artistas ms singulares, incluso a
veces nacidos protestantes y originarios del
norte de Europa, para responder a la negacin y a desafo de una devocin por Cristo
desnuda y sin imgenes.
IHS La epopeya de las imgenes sagradas comenz bastante antes de la fundacin de la
Compaa de Jess. En 1527, el saco de Roma
por los lansquenetes luteranos del condestable de Borbn puso ante los ojos del papa
Clemente Vil y de una Italia estupefacta la
suprema blasfemia -de la que Francia y los
pases del norte de Europa slo haban conocido formas brutales y secundarias- contra
las imgenes hechas por mano humana. No
contentos con vandalizar las obras humanas
de arte -los frescos de Rafael, las imgenes de
los altares, las efigies de Cristo, la Virgen y los
IIiS
Los milagros de
san Ignacio.
Oleo sobre lela.
535 x 395 cm.
Knslhislorisches
Museum mit M 11 K ,,"d
O'l'M, Viena.
movedora de los "verdaderos retratos" de Cristo y su mudo reproche a los pecadores. La devocin metdica y personal de la Imitacin
de Cristo exiga ya un esfuerzo redoblado de
presencia visual y emotiva del Maestro y de
su jemplo divino. La Vernica de Memling
invitaba a adorar internamente el "verdadero rostro" de Cristo que el pintor mostraba
divinamente sereno en medio del peor sufrimiento humano de la pasin: exhortaba al
espectador devoto a reconciliarse interiormente con esa santa faz. El Autorretrato del
joven Durero supona que el pintor, para ser
digno de representar a Cristo y su pasin,
estaba a tal punto infundido de su presencia
viva que su rostro resplandecia a travs de los
rasgos del pintor y hasta en su gesto. Desde antes de la explosin iconoclasta de la dcada de 1520 y la reaccin catlica que le sigui en Italia, el arte de los pintores del Norte
ya haba logrado sustituir a la ausencia terrenal de Cristo con su presencia sobrecogedora en la intimidad de! corazn, y transportar a cada alma pecadora al momento de la
encarnacin, de la pasin y de la resurreccin para persuadirla de imitar a su salvador viviente y sufriente.
IHS La violencia y el sacrilegio iconoclastas de
1527 hicieron que la pintura religiosa italiana
se lanzase por el camino abierto en el Norte por los pintores de la Devotio moderna y
que representara a Cristo (y a la historia sagrada, cuyo centro son su vida, su muerte y
su resurreccin) por todas las vas que conducen a una ardiente recepcin sensorial y
emotiva. Mentras el Cristo protestante ms
se descarna y se retira a la abstraccin de
una devocin purificada de imgenes, ms
buscan el Cristo catlico y su historia sagrada, mediante e! arte de los pintores, crear en
la imaginacin y el corazn el efecto sobrecogedor de la presencia silenciosa y tcita
de los "autorretratos", donde an palpitan
IIiS
haba instaurado con su rememoracin sensible, sin duda haban tenido que ver en el
rechazo ms o menos radical de las "imgenes sagradas" por los reformadores protestantes. Tambin Lutero y Calvino pedan una
devocin a Cristo completamente interior y
personal, y justo para hacerla an ms pura-
sario las leyendas apcrifas relativas a los autorretratos de Cristo (la del rey Abgar, la de la
del auxilio espurio de las imgenes y regresarla al Cristo de las Sagradas Escrituras. Las
47.3 x 29 cm.
imgenes sagradas, objeto de devociones colectivas "explotadas" por las rdenes mons-
Franfois Spierre.
Roma.
Pginl anler'ior:
Gtill(mme Co!!rlois.
La obra fue dedicada a Enrique N, el rey calvinista que cuatro aos antes se haba con-
76. 7x J9.7cm.
Musei (/'Ar/e
Medioevale e Modema.
Museo di [{oma .
sula el efecto de una segunda pasin de Cristo, aunque sus ms fuertes sacudidas ocurrieron fuera de Italia.
IIiS La contraofensiva que la Iglesia romana
lanz en el terreno de las artes tras el saco
de Roma cobr nuevo impulso cuando el Concilio de Trento, en su ltima sesin (1563),
reafirm solemnemente la licitud cannica
y devocional de las imgenes sagradas. El
Concilio finc su doctrina en las decisiones
iconfilas del Concilio de Nicea, que tuvo lugar en plena querella de las imgenes, en 787,
y que defini para los siglos subsecuentes la
ortodoxia en la materia. Sobre las huellas de
la decisin resueltamente iconfila de Trento,
los telogos y apologistas catlicos multiplica ron tratados y ensayos en defensa de las
:21
escala, pues haba destruido en muchas prode arte de las iglesias. Richeome pas varios
aos en el exilio en Roma y en esos Tres discursos resumi para el pblico francs - del
que una parte significativa, incluso entre los
catlicos, haba sido seducida por la crtica
protestante- los argumentos para responder
a las tesis iconoclastas de los centuriadores de
Magdeburgo, historadores luteranos de la
Iglesia y de la Institucin cristiana de Calvino.
El tercer discurso de Richeome est dedica-
IIiS
cristiana e dolo pagano. IHS El dolo se presenta como inmediata y materialmente divino. La imagen es una representacin mnemotcnica de lo divino. El hombre, "hecho a la
imagen y semejanza de Dios", no es un dolo
de Dios, sino su creacin y su representacin
en el tiempo y el espacio terrenales. El Antiguo Testamento prohibi la creacin de imgenes -aun cuando su lenguaje y sus relatos
hacen intervenir sin cesar imgenes visuales
de Dios, de los querubines y de los ngelesporque el pueblo de la Antigua Alianza era
proclive a la idolatria, como toda la Antigedad. Los profetas tenan que contener y com-
batir tal tendencia; pero lo que resultaba peligroso en la Antigedad bblica cambi de
rostro tras la revelacin de Cristo.
IHS En la imagen propiamente moderna y cristiana, el material significante no es sino el vehculo de un significado que le es inconmensurable, que pertenece al orden del misterio,
pero que sin embargo se deja reconocer y
honrar a travs de ese canal material. Cristo,
Dios hecho hombre y mortal, educ la mirada que los cristianos ponen sobre las imgenes. Por su propia doble naturaleza instruy
acerca de la paradoja de una imagen finita
que no por ello deja de representar la infinitiud divina. Es, pues, la encamacin paradjica del Hijo de Dios la que hizo que la pintura sacra pasase del orden de los dolos
opacos al orden nuevo de las imgenes misteriosas y salvificas.
22
ra venerar la reliquia. sta fue llevada a Turn, capital del ducado de Sabaya, donde
Ne ri, La Profesa,
Cristbal de
Villalp(~ndo.
Mxico, D.F.
1582
1584.
reliquias originales, pero cuyas reproducciones, como las astillas de la Cruz, como las
plic. He aqu cmo Nuestro Seor se retrat en tres distintos tiempos: en su vida, en su
tre 1634 y 1636 Nicols Poussin quiso representar con perfecta fidelidad arq ueolgica
imgenes mayores de su
25
en~arnacin,
una
Ni iguel Cabrera.
La Asuncin de la
Virgen (detalles) .
fijaron, el sudor y la sangre que los impregnaron, hacen de ellos, escribe Richeome,
"imgenes vivas" de Cristo, homlogas a los
sacramentos del altar cristiano, instituidos,
dice, "con cosas corpreas": el agua, el pan, el
vino, pero tambin el lienzo y el aceite. El
parentesco entre las "imgenes vivas" "tomadas" del cuerpo de Cristo, y las sustancias
corporales que forman parte de las reliquias
-como la madera de la Cruz- y de los actos
sacramentales, y en el ms central de todos,
la Eucaristia, postula en cierta manera la invencin reciente de la pintura de caballete al
leo, metfora del lienzo de la Vernica, impregnado de sudor y sangre, y de la madera
de la Cruz sobre la cual ese lienzo est tendido. Para Richeome, la pintura moderna
cristiana es una mnemotecnia -que prolonga la que Cristo mismo invent, copi, multiplic y difundi ampliamente- de las
imgenes sagradas originales, y de ellas recibe una eficacia intacta pese a la dispersin
y la intervencin del arte humano. En tal sentido, la vida de los santos y de los mrtires,
imitadores de la pasin de Cristo, es en s misma repeticin y pintura del ejemplo humano-divino.
IHS Esa contigidad, paradjica y completamente moderna, entre, por un lado, sustancias orgnicas y materiales perecederos incorporados en las imgenes, y por el otro su
significado espiritual ms divinamente eficaz,
establece un parentesco esencial entre sacerdocio y pintura, entre la "cocina" sacramental de la Iglesia y la de los talleres de pintura. En la concepcin cristiana y moderna
de la pintura del padre Richeome, recin llegado de la Roma de Sixto V, el oficio y los ingredientes del pintor son del mismo orden
que el oficio y los ingredientes del sacerdote:
ambos representan los misterios trinitarios
y su actualizacin en la Vita Christi en una
continuidad esencial con los actos fundadores de las imgenes y los sacramentos del
26
IHS
las premisas de esta apologtica en los captulos consagrados a la pasin de Cristo. Escribe: "Todos los instrumentos de la pasin
y del sepulcro de Cristo han subsistido intactos, y tambin los lugares mismos donde fueron hechos, por la rememoracin consagrada
de un hecho de tal importancia, como otros
tantos trofeos de una victoria, y han sido
evidentes y fructferos ante los ojos del mundo entero, de tal suerte que han surgido de
ellos, como fuentes inagotables, torrentes de
gracias y milagros: de las espinas de la corona, la columna, la escalera, la esponja que
fue cliz de amargura, la misma tnica sin
costuras que los soldados se echaron a la
suerte, y que fue comprada y conservada por
cristianos; lo dice san Beda, el Venerable, y
hasta el sudario en el que fue envuelto el
cuerpo del Seor en el sepulcro, y que se
mantuvo intacto, por un efecto divino, pese
a un incendio, ha sido transmitido a las sucesivas generaciones. Este lienzo es distinto del
que, sobrepuesto por Berenice al rostro del
Seor baado de sangre y de sudor, retuvo
en l la efigie de su faz, como lo atestiguan
una tradicin cristiana y un texto manuscrito
conservado en la Biblioteca Vaticana, donde
Cristbal de
Vill(lpando.
El triunfo de la
religin (detalles).
leo sobre lela.
899 x 766 cm.
~~..
. . .,.!
'"
J'i;"
(detalle).
leo sobre tela.
243 x 210 cm.
Museo deArte de
Filadel{ia, adquirido
con el {onda
W P Wilstach.
..,. ...
~.
'.
I
1599
1606,
su exgesis del santo sudario de Turin, multiplica las comparaciones entre esta imagen
de orden completamente moderno y las imgenes de la antgedad pagana. El sudario es
un "trofeo" que significa calladamente una
victoria, como los trofeos de los generales romanos; pero esta victoria es de un orden totalmente diferente al de sus pobres anlogos
paganos. Los pintores paganos fueron clebres por sus colores. Pero se servian de colores tomados de la materia muerta. Cristo pint con su propia sangre. Apeles pudo evitar el
castigo de Ptolomeo pintando ante sus ojos
un retrato sobrecogedor del hombre que lo
haba inducido en el error. Cristo aplac la
clera de Dios y redimi el pecado pintando
con su sangre y con su martirio un retrato de
s mismo que agrada al Padre y hace arrepentirse a los hombres del pecado original. Este
retrato da una idea viva del amor y del sacrificio infinitos que los hombres recibieron de
Cristo. Lleva los signa immensi amoris; como
la propia eucarista, es el perpetuo monumen-
Giovann' Baltisla
Gaulli, el Baciccia.
La mu erte de San
Francisco J ,wier.
te de pintar "imgenes sagradas" es en realidad una exgesis de esas reliquias del sacrificio de Dios hecho hombre y de su pasin. El
pintor tiene las tareas de amplificar por todos los medios de su arte esta presencia sensible y visible que Cristo quiso perpetuar a
travs de sus autorretratos y de multiplicar
la recepcin apasionada que stas deben esperar del cristiano: temor y vergenza frente
al abismo de humildad y sufrimiento al fondo del cual el pecado de los hombres precipit al Dios del amor; entusiasmo y veneracin por el amor inifinito de Dios que quiso
encarnarse, sufrir y morir a fin de dar a los
hombres una oportunidad de salvacin y una
esperanza.
IHS Resulta significativo que, entre las leyendas
de autorretratos dejados por Cristo, la leyenda oriental del rey de Edesa haya sido ms o
menos identificada con la del velo de la Vernica. Segn la leyenda oriental, el autorretrato habria tenido los rasgos de Cristo antes de
la pasin, pero slo habria llegado a manos
del rey tras la pasin. Las raras representaciones de la leyenda en el arte occidental aprovechan esta cronologa para confundir el
mandylion con el pao de la Vernica. El
cadores. Y ese autorretrato era, por ello mismo, el principio legitimador de las "imgenes
sagradas" que la Iglesia romana opona a la
latra y la iconoclasia.
IHS A diferencia de Baronio y Richeome, el
1614,
das al papa Pablo V por el poeta Giambattista Marino. Este poema en prosa, titulado
"La Pittura", est consagrado al santo sudario y va precedido por una dedicatoria al
duque de Sabaya, Carlos Emanuel, cuya di-
1620
una
un gusto refinado y muy eclctico. Representa con excepcional maestria el medio de amateurs y coleccionistas que se form en Italia y
en Europa y que da cuenta de la fecundidad y
la diversidad de las artes visuales en el mundo
catlico. El que este testigo laico tome el
3;/
Villalpl/1u/o.
El Du lce Nombre
de ~la ra (de/ulles).
x 291 cm.
enamorados de las artes visuales con la doctrina catlica de las imgenes sagradas. Y
pone al servicio de la lectura del santo sudario, origen sagrado de todas las imgenes
sagradas, su experiencia de experto de artes
visuales catlicas de tema sacro o profano.
IHS Anticipndose a Hegel, para quien la pintura es el arte cristiano por excelencia, Marino comienza por plantear en principio que
"el propio Dios quiso mostrarse ms pintor
que escultor': Segn la antigua conviccin
cristiana, la escultura seria pues, para Marino, ms bien una herencia del paganismo y
de sus dolos: pese a la leyenda de la escultura de Cristo, fundida cuando an estaba
vivo, o de la cruz esculpida por santo Toms,
reportadas sin insistencia por Barona, son
sobre todo los autorretratos "pintados" por
el propio Cristo durante su encamacin terrenal, imgenes sacrificiales del autorretrato del Padre, que es Cristo en la Trinidad,
los que constituyen los verdaderos arquetipos
del arte cristiano y las pruebas del cristianismo esencial del arte de la pintura. Marino no
es iconoclasta de estatuas, su Gallera de 1620,
que tiene toda una seccin est consagrada a
los escultores, lo prueba de manera suficiente: ante sus ojos, la pintura es el arte de las artes; tiene una preeminencia esencial sobre la
escultura. El carcter "pictrico" que toma este arte en sus ms grandes representantes, Ber-
_4lflropologa e
HistQria.
Miguel Cabrera.
La aparicin de la
Santsima Trinidad a
san Ignacio.
Jfural al temple, en la
iglesia de San
Tepolzotln, Mxico.
IlIstituto Nacional de
3i
que, Hros et orateurs. Rhtorique et dramaturgie cornliennes. Este texto fu e escrito para la exposicin.
Baroqu e, vision jsuite, du Ti ntoret
a Rubens,
del
spaciodeldeseo
ESTAS
PGINAS,
ESCRITAS
DESDE
UNA POSICiN
INSLITA,
EN
CONTINUO
DES-
Ejercicios espirituales son como un libreto de pera que incluye un texto, pero que
no da indicaciones de la msica y los dilogos. y lo esencial de este texto se encuentra
fuera de l. No lo substituye. No est en lugar de las voces, ni las precede. No pretende
"expresarlas" ni transformarlas en escritura.
No es el relato de un itinerario, ni un tratado de espiritualidad.
lHs Los Ejercicios slo ofrecen un conjunto de
reglas y de prcticas relativas a experiencias
que no estn descritas ni justificadas. Experiencias que no estn en el texto y de las cuales ste no es, en manera alguna, representacin, ya que las plantea como externas.
Tienen la forma del dilogo oral entre el instructor y el ejercitante, o la de la historia silenciosa de las relaciones entre Dios yesos
dos interlocutores.
UNA FORMA DE PROCEDER
.4ndrea Pono.
La entrada dc ~all
19nacio al
Pami~o
(detalle) .
Pintura 1// {re.'(o.
g/ea de >{/I/ /[II/I/ci".
Roma.
Lati" Stock / Car!Ji.'.
de actos de una obra de teatro) : lugares tradicionales de oracin (por ejemplo, vietas y
pasajes evanglicos); puestas en escena artificiales (por ejemplo las meditaciones ignacianas del reino, de los estandartes, etctera);
composiciones gestuales (comportamientos y
actitudes del orante); indicaciones sobre la
iluminacin que especificar un lugar (obscuridad en la tercera semana o luz en la cuarta) ; trayectorias en que se regresa y se retoma
(las "repeticiones" de meditacin); simulaciones que piden al ejercitante actuar como si
estuviese en otras disposiciones (interiores)
o en otra situacin (la muerte) distintas de las
La Natiyida d.
Bildenllen J(iinsle,
Viena.
32 x 47.5 cm.
Gemalllegalerie der
Akade1llie der
40
espacio abierto a la enunciacin. En los Ejercicios espirituales este movimiento se expresa en funcin de la cosmologa y del clima
ideolgico de la poca. El movimiento que
vuelve a llevamos a Dios como "al fin para
el cual somos creados" sirve para retroceder
de la particularidad de los conocimientos o de
las actividades religiosas a su inasible principio y trmino. Este desplazaITento es descrito, en los Ejercicios espirituales, en los trminos del universo altamente estructurado
que es, en gran parte, el de la poca y, en
todo caso, tambin el de Ignacio. Una problemtica "filosfica" del "fin y los medios"
busca, como en la obra de Erasmo (el paralelismo entre el "fundamento" y el Enchiridion de Erasmo resulta evidente), relativizar
y rectificar los "medios" con respecto del
"fin": es una tctica moral destinada a favorecer la "indiferencia" con vistas a una
IHS
Ahulemie
Rr Bi/dellden Kllsle,
l'itnl,.
Gtmiildegalerie leT
4]
LA"VOLUNTAD"
La Asuncin
(detalles ).
leo sobre lela..
225 x 178 Cln.
Museo Regional de
GUlulalajara, Ja.lisco.
IHS
luntad fundamental que daba fuerza e impulso a la tarea de reorganizar la vida. Las reglas
y "composiciones de lugar" destinadas a precisar esa revisin del estado de la vida o de las
prcticas posibles actan en funcin de un
"fundamento" distinto de ellas, lo desconoci-
que sigue siendo otro en relacin con el orden manifestado. En el hombre, habla algo
inesperado, algo que nace de lo incognosci-
Iffi
Cristbal de lfillaIJ)audo.
.
."'~
.-
-'
"
.
-. .
".
',..
..
...'.'
~.
'
,.IA
.
,.'~.: '~':'~~
... ......,.
'
,. ~ ~.'.
.... ,
desequilibrio.
,,,, No resulta sorprendente que ese instante
hace hablar.
IHS
ITI!\EH:\R IO
1,.;
..
dos ejemplos que me parecen particularmente importantes (y que habria que comparar
delante de la \'irgen y
el Kio Jes s.
leo sobre lela.
cio abren el espacio en donde aparece el poema: "el espacio de la muerte y el espacio de la
Indiauapolis .1JuHe!l1n
of Art. Elma D.
((ud Orville A .
l17ilkinson 'ulld.
IHS
de las conductas efectivas. Enuncia el principio ntismo segn el cual una nueva articulacin de las prcticas va a efectuarse o debe
efectuarse en el curso del retiro. De lo que el
"fundamento " hace posible se puede reconocer el funcionantiento en algunos procedimientos de los Ejercicios espirituales. Evoco
IHS
ese id quod volo (lo que quiero) que tantas veces ha sido subrayado en los prembulos de
las meditaciones ignacianas. Reposa sobre el
postulado de una fe cristiana : lo que hay de
ms profundo y de menos conocido en Dios
(la inquietante extraeza de su voluntad) es lo
que hay de ms profundo y de menos conocido en el hombre (la inquietante familiaridad
con nuestra propia voluntad). Por ello, la tctica ignaciana hace volver al ejercitante a la
indeterminacin de ese querer, con miras a
una nueva determinacin de sus objetos. Se
va del volo a su objeto, itinerario posible gracias al movimiento que en un principio consista en desprender de las primeras representaciones en que estaba fijado, casi congelado,
un deseo del ejercitante. En este sent do, la
construccin del objeto a partir de un "querer"
y complementario del precedente. Las escenas y los tiempos previstos para las estancias sucesivas del ejercitante en cada uno de
esos lugares no constituyen la exposicin de
una doctrina, sino ms bien una serie de
distanciamientos respecto de la posicin anterior. Lo importante no es la "verdad" de cada lugar, como si se tuvieran que recorrer
los artculos de un credo o de un catecismo.
Lo que importa es la relacin que crea por referencia al lugar donde se est, la "composicin" de un nuevo lugar. Las puestas en escena (las meditaciones) o las indicaciones de
movimiento (por ejemplo, las peticiones sugeridas al ejercitante) reiteran el trabajo de
una diferencia y desempean el papel de un
paso ms por dar. Esta serie no organiza
verdades, sino operaciones. No articula
ideas, sino prcticas (o "ejercicios") que buscan producir cada vez un efecto de distanciantiento con respecto a la prctica anterior.
a una u otra tomada de manera aislada, como si una significara el "acuerdo" de Dios y
la otra su "disgusto". El sentido resulta de su
relacin y de la direccin que sta indica. Slo el desarrollo es signo (EE 33 1, 333).
En su singularidad, ningn momento tiene
valor; ningn lugar es verdadero o falso; ninguna objetividad es, pues, sagrada, y ningn
IIiS
IHS
texto multiplica artificialmente los protocolos destinados a hacer aparecer series gracias
a un juego de repeticiones, de variantes, de
hiptesis arbitrarias y de contramedidas (cfr.
el texto citado de Roland Barthes, en el que
dice con respecto a este tema: "se establece
un paradigma de dos trminos; a uno se le
reconoce por su contraste con el otro"). El
IHS
La,Anunciacin
(detalle) .
Paolo Caltri, el
Verons.
Florencia .
sentido o la orientacin
de la serie. As, la "con-
46
1'"
solacin" o la "desola-
siderada en s misma. Es
Paolo Ctliari,
el Verons.
La adoracin de los
pastores (de/a lle) .
Iglesia de sm Juan y
.,(111
?tIbio, Venecia.
deseo. Es el jardn construido para un caminante llegado de otra parte. Marca, mediante cortes y silencios, ese lugar que no ocupa. Lo que rene las piezas ordenadas con
vistas a un discernimiento es la ausencia del
otro - el ejercitante- que es su destinatario,
IHS
Otro. A este respecto, el texto hace lo que dice. Se forma al abrirse. Es el producto del deseo por el otro. Es un espacio construido por
ese deseo.
IHS El texto que articula as el deseo, sin tomar
su lugar, no funciona salvo si es practicado
por el otro y si hay Otro. Depende de su destinatario, que es tambin su principio. Qu
pasa con este texto cuando le falta su Otro?
El discurso no es sino objeto inerte cuando
el visitante que espera no viene y cuando el
Otro no es ms que una sombra. No queda
sino un instrumento todava marcado por
presencias desaparecidas, si, fuera de l, ya
no hay lugar para el deseo que lo organiz.
No da lo que supone. Es un espacio literario
al cual slo imprime sentido el deseo del otro.
IHS
MlCHEL DE CERTEAU,
S.J.
(19 25-1986),
troplogo, lingista y jesuita. Ense en varias universidades de Francia y Amrica. Entre sus obras ms importantes traducidas al espaol se encuentran La fbula
mstica siglos
XV/-XVI/,
1973,
En
la bula de fundacin de la
Compaa de Jess, Regimini militantis
Ecclesiae, expedida por el papa Paulo 1lI
el
27
de septiembre de
1540,
iH'
se sealan
ms representativos de la elocuencia
sacra del barroco, la llamada prdica de
las pasiones.
IH,
de distintas estructuras de
conceptista.
La bsqueda de las virtudes cristianas
que se haca al intentar "mover el
frecuentemente predicaban.
siglo
.JS
IH'
XVII-
Annimo
Escena de la
\~ da
de
.l/useo Nacional de
Arle, Mxico, D.E
JESUITAS
SE
LANZARON
TAMBIN
LAs
LA TAREA
DE
LLEVAR A
LA
PRCTICA
MARAVILLAS
DE
UNA
ESTTICA
ILUSIONISTA
QUE
ES
RESULTADO
DE
LOS
GRANDES AVANCES REALIZADOS POR LOS JESUITAS EN LOS TERRENOS DE LA CIENCIA, EL ARTE , LA FILOSOFA Y LA TEOLOG A.
Ac; ~N 1~:3.
IHS
1992 sobre los Ejercicios espirituales de san Ignacio de Loyola, define ms propiamente, a partir de la compositio oci igna-
IHS
estudio de
otra invisible. Sin embargo, ambas son proes decir, de la vista imaginativa. Es evidente
1><,>
contemplativa.
IHS
pro-
1548)
la Complllia. qU ito.
A.'Pldrea PO?2fI.
IHS
eL Arehitctl o rtllll.
RUl1la.lIi~I;\.
Bibliolffll Pmuri:wo
Xa /lier CII/1'igem de la
Universidad
Iberoamericana.
Mxico.
PE RSPECTNA
P ICTO RUM,
. "
E T
l .. .
ARCHITECTORUM
oAN DR EAi
8
.P fl TEI
O e 1 E T A "T S J E
P A R S P R 1 M A.
S ti.
la visin, 1935.
Bodleian Library,
tud divina, es de ms gusto y fruto espiritual que si el que da los ejercicios hubiese
mucho declarado y ampliado el sentido de
la historia" (EE 2).
IIiS El carcter insinuante y sumiso de los Ejercicios espirituales desarrolla entonces una
actitud contemplativa parecida a la que se
tiene ante las imgenes, sobre todo, obviamente, las sagradas. En ambos casos es necesario recurrir a la visin espiritual ~ercida
por el oculo mentis, el ojo de la comprensin,
o sea la imaginacin, pues slo en ella confluyen y se activan los sentidos.
IIiS En las ltimas dcadas, en algunos importantes trabajos se ha planteado el problema de estudiar las imgenes de una manera nueva, es decir, recuperando el valor y
la funcin que tenan en la antigedad y
que haba cado prcticamente en el olvido
a raz de una tradicin historiogrfica demasiado centrada en cuestiones de estilo.
En el contexto de estos estudios, la relacin
entre palabra e imagen cobra una importancia notable. Michael Baxandall ha sido
un pionero en esta direccin: ya en la dcada de 1970 estudi la actitud hacia las imgenes visuales propia de los siglos XIV y XV,
a partir de los tratados de retrica y los manuales de danza de la poca. Por otra parte,
sus estudios sobre el "ojo en el Quattrocento" lo han llevado a explorar los vinculo s
entre las prcticas mnemotcnicas ligadas
con la oracin y la mnemotecnia de las imgenes cultual es. Con base en un mecanismo
opuesto al que opera en los Ejercicios (de la
palabra a la imagen mental), el orante es
llamado a concentrar su atencin sobre la
imagen y a activar su visin interior para
integrar la experiencia mstica (de la imagen a la palabra).
Oxford.
" .~
" ' . ' .,
Pgina siguiente:
Kircher, S.J.,
Roma, 1646.
Biblioteca Vaticana,
Roma.
52
tafrico altamente rebuscado y, en lo visual, a complejas alegorias, "imgenes hechas para significar una cosa diferente de la
que el ojo percibe".
1... Los aparatos visuales alegricos podan
tomar dos formas, una ms manejable, como las empresas, es decir, las representaciones simblicas de un propsito (algo que se
quiere "emprender"), aptas para sustentar
r-=fll
..
53
Cpula de [a antiglla
"acl'ista.
Iglest y colegl:o de
"conceptos predicables" como de los aparatos visuales dependa de una buena dosis de
agudeza o ingenio. Tal como lo seala Ema-
de sustento a la oratoria para que la predicacin sea eficaz y sus amonestaciones lleguen al corazn de los feligreses, de la misma manera los grandes ciclos pictricos que
decoran las iglesias barrocas se sirven de un
1...
5.J
El vnculo entre perspectiva y retrica lo establece muy cabalmente el mismo Emanuele Tesauro: "La metfora comprime todos los
objetos en una palabra, de manera que se
vean, casi milagrosamente, uno dentro de
otro. Por esta razn grande es tu gozo, pues
una cosa mucho ms curiosa y apacible es
el observar diversos objetos en perspectiva
desde un nico ngulo en vez que si pasaran en sucesin delante de tus ojos".
lHs La perspectiva tambin es metfora. Ella
tambin, mediante el auxilio de la tcnica y
de la imaginacin, puede actuar con la pureza cristalina de la retrica. As lo expresa
Andrea Pozzo, S.J., de acuerdo con los principios de la "ptica espiritual" expuestos por
Henry Hawkins, S.J.: "[Emprende tu trabajo] con la resolucin de trazar todas las lneas
en tu operacin hacia el verdadero punto del
ojo, es decir la Gloria Divina".
IIiS De hecho, como lo seal Michael Baxandall, el proceso de alegorizacin y moralizacin de la perspectiva tiene una larga
55
hlerior de la iglesia de
Santa Jllara Achao.
Chile.
Latin SlockfCorbis.
guaje matemtico.
IHS El problema que los filsofos trataban de
abordar desde esos primeros aos era cmo
entender los procesos mediante los cuales el
ojo humano percibe las imgenes y el cerebro las transfiere a conceptos apropiados. Las
implicaciones metafsicas de la ciencia del
"ver a travs" fueron reconocidas por primera vez por Robert Grosseteste (ca. 1168-1253),
un maestro de la influyente escuela franciscana de Oxford.
IHS Grosseteste se dio cuenta de que el espacio
hipottico en el cual Euclides haba imaginaMi
"', La ciencia de la perspectiva haba sido incluida, junto con las "matemticas mixtas",
la versin del
1552
:j 7
1591
Opula de la catedral
Cristbal de
Vil/alpando.
58
1646) de Athanasius Kircher, S.J., los confines entre las dos disciplinas, es decir la
perspectiva lineal "moderna" y la ptica
medieval o perspectiva, parecen todavia
fluidos. La perspectiva lineal emerge como
una disciplina geomtrica independiente en
obras como Pantographice, sive ars deli-
Iglesia y colegio
mximo de san Pablo,
Lima.
Pgina anlerior:
.Volliciado e iglesia
de san .cInton ivAbad,
Lima.
Gherardini haba fundado un taller de pintura en perspectiva en la corte del emperador Kangxi y es posible que haya tenido al
mismo Nian Xiyao entre sus discpulos.
IHS Antes de entrar al servicio del emperador
haba decorado la Bei Tang, la Iglesia Septentrional que perteneca a los jesuitas franceses. All tambin luca una falsa cpula en
el estilo de Andrea Palla. En la mquina pictrca ideada por Gherardini, las columnas
sostenan arcos que culminaban en una balaustrada que "se abra" hacia el cielo con
el Padre eterno flotando en las nubes, rodeado por ngeles, y sosteniendo el mundo
en sus manos. Los visitantes chinos, segn
narran los relatos de la poca, se sorpren-
(1 698-1 766},
edi-
La Magdalena ante
Jess (detalles).
64
no podan ser abadas, ni conventos, ni residencias de sacerdotes seculares, sino simplemente puntos de anclaje temporal para los
miembros de un equipo altamente mvil, los
profesos. Sus casas de formacin no eran recintos universitarios ni monacales; los colegios erigidos por ellos eran muy distintos de
las instituciones medievales del mismo nombre. La necesidad de adaptarse a pases desconocidos exiga flexibilidad, capacidad de
asimilar materiales y tcnicas nuevas y tradiciones ajenas. Su red transcontinental de
obras e individuos traa y llevaba los influjos de todas las culturas por conducto de su
estructura de mando centralizada. Su sistema de gobierno, sin priores electos, obligaba
a consultar a la cabecera romana los proyectos de construccin.
IHS Es natural que una institucin recin fundada haya recurrido a los patrones estticos
que entonces se hallaban en plena eclosin:
las referencias clsicas, la escala humana (pe65
nografa postridentina?
,,,, En Occidente, las artes figurativas, parcial-
tambin a esa progresiva aunque lenta autonoma de las imgenes figurativas, alige-
que converta a las imgenes sagradas en vehculo privilegiado para la hierofana, haban
cho sino acentuar la tendencia. Por otra parte, de manera quiz paradjica, el nfasis de
mentos impulsados por las innovaciones tcnicas y estilsticas, la efervescencia de los ta-
cenazgo por excelencia en la capital del papado era la Iglesia, pero cardenales y pontifi-
Villalpallllo.
La Dolorosa (de/alle).
243 x 170em.
Museo Soumaya.
Mxico.
li 7
to de civilizacin; al fundamentar con sus argumentos una teologa de las imgenes sagradas que resultaba convergente con el programa esttico que los artistas haban ido
formulando, proporcionaba un sentido al
quehacer de los creadores y les daba ocasin
de inscribir su tarea en un gran designio: el de
una nueva Roma que aspiraba a transformar
el mundo. Por otra parte, desde el ngulo
eclesistico, las justificaciones tericas de este
tipo ayudaron a la esttica del barroco a
abrirse paso como el lenguaje oficioso, ya que
68
IHS
soluta claridad.
simblico de la Cristiandad.
'HS
d, [" 'uz.
U!J
tos artistas, la Compaa pudo proponer para sus obras apostlicas modelos de excelencia, y difundir un mensaje cuya calidad
formal era sin duda una de las caractersticas que lo hacan audible a travs de los innumerables filtros culturales que deba atrainsisti en dotar al edificio del Gesu de una
IHS
El reinado pacfico de
Jacobo 1.
chada
Imstdia -Archiv
ARTI/OTEn,
Romae propitius ero) y el carcter centralizado del gobierno de la Compaa, la insistencia de mecenas innovadores, el refinamiento aristocrtico de algunos prepsitos
generales (san Francisco de BOIja haba sido
duque y el P. Oliva, patricio genovs, era
amigo personal de Bernini), las proposiciones de un jesuita francs acerca de la naturaleza y las funciones de la imagen sagrada ... Sin embargo, todas esas circunstancias
poseen una coherencia subyacente. Su convergencia no obedece, como ya hemos dicho, a un plan premeditado, a una singular
visin estratgica, sino a una lgica ms poderosa y esencial, independiente de todo clculo: la profunda afinidad entre algunos de
los rasgos del lenguaje esttico que comenzaba a consolidarse de manera independiente,
D-lI'eilheilll. Jllunich.
del
Colegio
Romano
para
Gemiildegalerie der
Akademie
Viena.
Pgina siglente:
IHS
El juicio final.
6leo sobre lela.
Bayerische
Slaalsgemiildesam1llIn"gen,
iO
sarrollado por los artistas de aquell as generaciones? La orden haba nacido de una
conversin y de una experiencia mstica, no
1'"
eso escribi el libro de los Ejercicios espirituales y fund una orden religiosa.
lHs
Los Ejercicios permitan al individuo
Cristbal de
Vilhlprmdo.
(de/alles) .
J77xll-Jcln.
Museo SOlJ.1II0!l1l.
IHS
:ll:rito.
Cristbal de
Villalpallllo.
El triunfo de la Iglesia
(detalles).
leo sobre tela.
216 x 184 cm.
Museo Regional de
GuadalajaTa, Jalisco.
73
Cristbal de
Villalpando.
Glorificacin de la
Virgen.
a otro orden de cosas: "Ni el ojo vio, ni el odo oy ... " "ahora vemos en espejo y en enig-
ma ... "). Un recurso capital del barroco, el desconcierto, es un instrumento que permite
lHs
tiples. El primero era intrinseco al propio mtodo ignaciano, que delimitaba los momen-
permite construir estructuras formales a travs de cuya trabazn asimtrica logra esca-
vo (el fundador dej, para esos casos, claramente abiertas las puertas... de la Cartuja).
IH'
IH,
cuando
estuvieran
tlica,
y la voluntad de perfec-
humildad); el
19natio d('
Loy~ola..
Pyiua so:
Escena de los Ejerei('ios
espirituales de S(lU
Ignacio de Lo!!"la.
AH/beres.
!(iSf).
Iberoamericana.
.1JCO.
EDITORIAL
TheFormsoftheSpirit
Alfonso Alfaro
Te
Spiritual Exercises is disproportionate to the book's modest format and apparently simple language and ideas. It makes no
attempt to construct a philosophical or theological system, nor to dictate the lineaments of a political programo Nevertheless,
throughout the territories marked by the presence of Catholicism following the Council of Trent, this volume helped mold
behavior and values, and decisively influenced culture and ways of thinking. The Exercises are not the work of a theoretician but of a mystic, who was to become one of the great masters of spiritual life. % Caught up in the Renaissance impulse,
which sought to broaden and strengthen the individual's spaces of autonomy, this book became an instrument for exploring
interior territories that are difficult to access, as they lie beyond the rational conscience, as well as for managing the emotions and using them as a way to achieve elevation to transcendence. The process proposed by the Exercises for consolidating the individual subject was counterbalanced by the insisten ce on revitalizing community spaces, particularly those of the
Church. The book offered a vertiginous encounter with pure, unadorned freedom, as well as opening up a space of unlimited plenitude. Its effects went beyond the limits of the retreatants' conscience, resonating throughout an entire civilization. %
The projects of the Society of Jesus (colleges, missions, theoretical publications, scientific research ... ) were the living expression of Loyola's spiritual ideas. But his example, attentive in the extreme to the sensory and emotional dimension of the interior experience, could be best channeled into the universe of forms. A surprising web of interactions and complicities was
woven between the Society and the arts. On al! possible terrains (literature, music, theater, architecture, painting, sculpture)
and in al! the stylistic tendencies available to them, the Jesuits enthusiastically projected their conviction that Creation and
its visible image were an instrument that God had designed to foster his loving dialogue with human beings. This publication is the third in a series entitled The Forms 01 the Spirit, which Artes de Mxico has dedicated to the exploration of the
imprint left by Christian culture on our aesthetic patrimony. Due to the growing interest in the history of the Society of Jesus
among academics in the field of humanities, we have published two previous issues devoted to the Jesuit legacy (nos.
65).
58
and
In this third volume, we begin an analysis of a dimension that is at once the most secret and the most astounding aspect
of that legacy: the aesthetic projection of the sensorial and introspective experiences they attained under the guidance of the
Exercises. And to that end, we are fortunate enough to have the participation of sorne of the most prestigious researchers of
this subject. The artieles are directed at students of both art and literature, as wel! as anyone interested in the history of the
senses and of religious culture. % The images seen here allow us to observe how the European examples of this aesthetic
project were adapted to sorne of the most remote regions of the globe. The artieles explore the moment when the retreatant
enters that exceptional universe created by the Ignatian method ("PrincipIe and Foundation"). That space, which lies somewhere outside of time, furthers the emergence of the deepest and most hidden cries of the soul and allows the subject to construct the interior silence needed to hear whatever response may come. The second volume, to be published next year, will
provisional!y complete the cirele by alluding to the last meditation in the Exercises. This meditation prepares the individual
to return to the exterior world where divine love proliferates in al! things created. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, there existed an art that aspired to record those processes: the exploration of the conscience and the opening up of
the world. That art sought to convert work and wealth into an offering, and to transform materials nto a instrument of communication between heaven and earth. The infinite abundance of Creation was expressed in the eelectic profusion of visible
forros structured by artists to form a whirlwind capable of abducting the viewer's soul and compelling it to begin the quest
for a perfect, immaterial light. The artworks that fal! into this category were realized with the intention of using perception
to favor contemplation, so that this experience might inflame the individual with the greatest of passions: indeed, the title
of the final meditation in the Exercises is "ContempIation to Gain Love." %
82
INTERIOR
ILLU M INATI O N
0 11
after a serious illlless that practically paralyzed her for th e last jiue years of her life.
83
ercises (in the Fourth Annotation, the First Week is "consideration and contemplation on the sins"), although this will
become more important beginning in the Second Week.
% The prelude to the first exercise of the First Week refers to
"a visible contemplation or meditation-as, for instance, when
one contemplates Christ our Lord, Who is visible," and in
number 49, where one is reminded that one must always saya
preparatory prayer before "all Contemplations and Meditations." Then in each ofthe meditations in the First Week, even
if they are not called "contemplations," visible elements are
stressed in the scenes contemplated through visual imagination and via the other senses, particularly in the fifth exercise, that is to say, the "meditation on hell" (SE 65). Ihere, the
exerciser is asked not only to see (SE 66), but also to hear (SE
67), smeH (SE 68), taste with the taste (SE 69) and touch with
the touch (SE 70). Moreover, in every meditation, right from the
start, emphasis is placed on what Saint Ignatius caHs "composition seeing the place," when an effort is made to visualize
in detail a place or a situation, then to visualize entering it to
pray as per the indications given (cf for example SE 47, 55, 65).
% Rowever, the word and concept of "contemplation" appear
largely beginning in the Second Week under the same title:
"The call of the temporal king, it helps to contemplate the life
of the king eternal" (SE 91). The contemplations of the life of
Jesus the king eternal, proposed below, are extremely simple.
It is just a matter-as Saint Ignatius explained for the contemplation on the incarnation (SE 106)-of "seeing the various
persons," then "to hear what [they] are saying" (SE 107), and "to
look then at what [they] are doing" (SE 108). This visual, auditive and speculative progression will be present on every
page of the Exercises and wiH constitute a specific education for use of the senses in praying.
% Saint Ignatius does not consider it important to visualize
things with any historic precision, which is actuaHy impossible given the lack of documentation. What he asks is that
we give free rein to our imagination; for example, to "see with
sight ofthe imagination the road from Nazareth to Bethlehem;
considering the length and the breadth, whether it is flat or
hiHy; as weH as how big, how smaH, how low or how high
the birth grotto was, and how it was made ready" (SE 112).
% Setting aside the indications for the subsequent meditations, I will focus on another important exercise involving the
use of the senses: the one which Saint Ignatius proposes, after
the First Week, as the fifth exercise at the end of each day.
Rere the invitation is to "apply all five senses to the first and
second contemplation" of the day, that is, to the episodes in
Jesus' life recommended for prayers (SE 121). Ihe idea is not
only to "see" and "hear," as was the case with contemplations
earlier the same day, but to "to smell and to taste with the
smeH and the taste the infinite fragrance and sweetness of the
Divinity, of the soul, and of its virtues," and "to touch with
the touch, as for instance, to embrace and kiss the places
where such persons put their feet and sir' (SE 122- 125).
% Further indications for using the senses are found among
the suggestions for the three ways of praying (SE 238SS). One
variation of the first prayer mode starts by taking each of the
SOME THOUGHTS
84
FIGURATIVE
ILLUMINATION
Jesuitsa.ndtheApo logeticsof
acrecl lmages
85
86
ture, made "in his image and likeness." He had thus also represented himselfin these "small paintings" that bore his name.
With these "talking paintings," the Bible had then already attested to the essentiallegitimacy of these mute poems recalling and representing the human body inhabited by the Son
of God, before Gospel had recounted the visible actions and
audible words of God made mano Only the still un favorable
dimate of the history of salvation had delayed the spread of
this legitimacy to the art of sacred images under the Old Law.
It was the Incarnation of the Son of God, his teachings expressed in parables, that lifted the ancient interdiction on this
art and that established the legitimate correspondence between talking painting and mute poetry, between oral or written representations and visual representations of the divine-a
correspondence that had existed in divine wisdom since al!
eternity but that had adapted itself in time "to the scope of the
human soul's understanding." Holy images, on the same basis
as Holy Scripture, were not only divine in origin but also
established a doser relationship to the Word of God and were
just as intrinsic to it as sacred texts were.
% As the model and principie of all Christian painting,
Christ allowed Christians to perceive the infinite denoted by
the finite, the invisible denoted by the visible, the heavenly
denoted by the earthly, the spiritual denoted by the corporeal. Ihe manifestation of Jesus' twofold nature removed the
inner obstade that stopped pagans from distinguishing between idols and images or that banned irnages for the peopIe of Old Iestament Law-images too easily mistaken for
idols in their inadequate perception of things.
% After this theological analysis, Richeome focuses on history. He rebels against the Protestant thesis that the Church
rejected and ignored images during its first 500 years ,of existen ce. He attempts to establish that images, rehabilitated by
the Incamation, were present in worship not only over the
first five centuries AD but that they had, moreover, made their
appearance with Christ's approval while he was still alive. He
refers to the statue of Jesus erected in the town of Paneas by
the Haemorrhissa woman who had been healed by merely
touching Christ's dothes: far from disapproving of this image
of piety, God used it to perform several mirades. Richeome
also refers to the Cross as "the master of all images, and Christianity's most venerable sign" or as "the book of the Lamb
painted and outlined with his precious blood." But he places
more importance on the three self-portraits of Christ, the archetypes of modern Christian arto First, the one the Savior sent to
Abgar, king ofEdessa. Ihis instantaneous self-portrait, which
does not follow the ars imitatio Naturae and is the antithesis
of an idol, was of miraculous origin and itself brought about
many mirades, in time saving Edessa from King Chosrau's
siege. It was the tangible trace on canvas of the presence of
God-made-man among men, and its beneficial and redeeming effects were attributed to this presence.
% Another self-portrait left by Christ, Veronica's Cloth, which
appeared on a piece of fabric that a devout lady used to wipe
Jesus ' face while he carried the Cross toward Mount Calvary.
Ihe significance ofthis mute poetry ofthe true God had been
prophesied by Isaiah (53:2-4) : "He has no form or comeliness; and when we see Him, there is no beauty that we should
87
desire Rim. He is despised and rejected by men, aMan of sorrows and acquainted with grief. And we hid, as it were, our
faces from Him; He was despised, and we did not esteem Him.
Surely He has borne our grief and carried our sorrows ; yet
we esteemed Him stricken, smitten by God and afflicted."
% Thisdoth, which is kept at Saint Peter's Cathedral in
Rome and shown there every Good Friday, perpetuates and
represents the Passion: it gives onlookers the opportunity to
open their eyes and see the hidden meaning of this manGod's willful humiliation-one which his first witnesses did
not understand.
% Richeome finally refers to the Holy Shroud of Chambry
which had then only recently been taken to Turin. This acheiropoietoe (an image not made by human hands), unmentioned
by Orientallegends is a Westem addition, like Veronica's Cloth
itself, to the self-portraits of Christ worshipped in iconophilic
Byzantium. This doth is of unknown origin though it is believed to have covered the body of Christ while it lay entombed and to thus bear the precise imprint of his body and
tortured face. There is no mention of it until the thirteenth
century, when it was conserved at Besan;on before being
moved to Lirey in Franche-Comt and then to Chambry in
1502. In spite of the reservations expressed by Rome and the
episcopate, it was already an object of worship and pilgrimages, though only l?cally. Copies were nonetheless made of
it and displayed for worship in both Flanders and Mexico. In
1578, Cardinal Charles Borromeo, archbishop ofMilan-a figure who wielded immense authority since bringing the Council ofTrent to ajust dose-asked to be allowed to worship the
relic. It was taken to Turin, the capital of the Duchy of Savoy,
where it was received with great pomp by the cardinal and by
Duke Charles-Emmanuel. Borromeo went back to Turin to venerate the relic in 1582 and 1584. From then on the Holy Shroud
was authenticated de facto , if not de jure. Adopted by the
Savoy dynasty as its aegis, reproduced in engravings, disseminated and explained by both popular and scholarly literature,
this relic became the last, most complete and most moving
piece of silent evidence that Christ had left of his Incamation.
Archaeological digs undertaken in Roman catacombs over the
last three decades of the sixteenth century unearthed mummified bodies enveloped in doth-martyrs from the first centuries which gave Catholic apologists authentic proof of the
Roman Church's ancient origins. The object of worship for
many pilgrims, the Holy Shroud authenticated by Saint Charles
Borromeo could appear to Catholic scholars-in the context
ofthe science ofthe sacred-as a document ofthe same nature
as those recovered from the tombs of Christ's first Roman disciples. This exceptional relic at once established the authenticity of the historical existence of Christ and bore witness
to his divine will to miraculously leave behind an image of his
tortured body. From 1634 to 1636, when Nicolas Poussin wanted to depict the Last Supper with perfect archaeological accuracy for his leamed Roman patron Cassiano del Pozzo, he
based himself on engravings and drawings of the Sindone
of Turin to represent the face of Christ with the same historical precision as the shroud did in negative.
% Richeome's Essay on Images systematized the doctrine of
Christ's self-portraits. The Savior had wanted to leave behind
88
89
90
intensity the passionate reception that could rightly be expected from a Christian: horror and shame at the abyss ofhumility and suffering into which the sin of men had cast the God
of love; enthusiasm and veneration for the infinite love of
the God who decided to take human form, then suffer and die
in order to give men hope and an opportunity for salvation.
% Among the legends about Christ's self-portraits, it is significant that the Eastern tale of the king of Edessa was more
or less associated with that ofVeronica's Cloth. In it, the selfportrait depicted Christ's features prior to the Passion, though
it was presented to the king afterward. The few representations
of the legend that exist in Western art draw upon this timeline to confound the "mandylion" with Veronica's veil. The
Western Christ is less the Pantocrator than the Christ of the
Golgotha. Western Christian art has al so focused on those
self-portraits of Christ that depict the pinnade of his earthly
existen ce, around the hours in which he beco mes the Man of
sorrows. Both modern devotion and fifteenth-century mystic
piety took shape around the Passion. And, aboye all else, it is
the Christ of the Passion-the relics and self-portraits left by
his martyrdom of love-that the Catholic Reform deployed
against the worship of the cold, imageless and relic-Iess
Protestant Christ.
% It is thus no coincidence that the persona of Veronica is a
Westem invention, and it is following the same logic that the
Holy Shroud-the self-portrait of a martyred, dead Christbecame the relic par excellence ofpost-Tridentine Italy: it was
brought to light and universally venerated when it was transferred to Turin from the capital of the Duchy of Savoy fifteen
years after the Council ofTrent, in 1578. The Holy Shroud was
the most complete self-portrait of Christ and of the sacrifice to
which he had consented in order to take upon himselfthe full
extent of sinners' mortal, camal suffering. And it is for this
same reason that thls self-portrait became the legitimating
principie ofthe sacred images that the Roman Catholic Church
raised in opposition to the Protestant rejection of images.
% In the last thirty years of the sixteenth century and in the
early seventeenth century, countless literary works and numerous engravings ensured the dissemination of this devotion
which we may quality as modernoThis literature culminates,
so to speak, in 1614, with the third Dicerie sacre dedicated to
Pope Paul V by poet Giambattista Marino. This prose-poem entitled La PUtura (The Painting) is devoted to the Holy Shroud
and preceded by a special dedication to Charles Emmanuel,
duke of Savoy, whose dynasty took pride in thenceforth being
the keeper ofthe Catholic world's most famous relic. In a sense,
the work foUows in the footsteps of Daniele Mallonio's Latin
translation of Cardinal Paleotti's treatise Stigmata Sacrae Sindonis impressa, published in 1606. The prose-poem is a celebration of the art of painting, in which Marino darifies the
Catholic iconophilic thesis that the ecclesiastic apologists had
so delicately outlined and that we can glimpse in painters'
marked predilection for the subject of Veronica-that su eh
relics or self-portraits of Christ are the cornerstone of Christian
art and its justification against idolatry and iconodasm.
% Unlike Baronius and Richeome, Marino was neither a theologian nor a priest. He had no dogmatic authority. But as
a Catholic poet, a di/ettante d'arte and the friend of many
painters, he would publish in 1620 a compilation of epigrampoems which were so many exegeses of paintings or sculptures that spoke of a refined and very edectic taste. He skillfully depicted the milieu of art-Iovers and coHectors that
emerged in Italy and Europe and thus bore witness to the
fecundity and diversity ofthe Catholic world's visual arts. The
fact that Marino referred to the Holy Shroud as the prototype
for all Christian art thus provided a form of extrinsic validation-as a lay witness's account that was far from negligiblefor the thesis defended by Catholic theologians and preachers
in the face of iconophobic Protestants.
% In sumptuous poetic prose, Marino associates the theologems devised befo re him by the doctors and preachers of the
Roman Church (Baronius, Richeome, Paleotti, Panigarola,
Aresi) with his own experiences as a lay aficionado of painting. Forty years after the Council of Trent's De imaginibus
decree, he underscored the debt that all artists and art-Iovers
owed to the Catholic doctrine of "holy images." And he lent
his expertise in the Catholic visual arts in general- whether
sacred or profane-to the service of the reading of the Holy
Shroud: the sacred origin of aH holy images.
% Anticipating Hegel, for whom painting is the quintessential Christian art form, Marino began by stating in principie
that "God wished to manifest himself as more of a painter
than a sculptor." In Marino 's words, sculpture-according to
ancient Christian belief-would thus be an art form inherited
more from paganism and its idols. In spite of the legend of
the sculpture of Christ cast during his lifetime or of the Cross
sculpted by Saint Thomas (that Baronius mentions without
undue emphasis), it is aboye all the self-portraits "painted"
by Christ himself during his earthly incarnation-sacrificial
images of the Self-Portrait of the Father that Christ betokens
in the Holy Trinity-that serve as the true archetypes of
Christian art and as proof of painting's essential Christian
quality. Marino is not however an iconodast of statuary, and
the fact that he devoted an entire section to sculptors in his
Galleria. of 1620 is evidence enough of this. But in his eyes,
painting is the loftiest of aH art forms and has an essential
precedence over sculpture. The "pictorial" character that this
art form acquired among its foremost representatives at the
time-Bernini and Algardi- attests to the power of the then
widely shared conviction of a theological origino
% This hierarchy was inverted in pagan antiquity, where the
representation of gods worshipped as idols was the sacred
privilege of sculptors, while painting remained a profane arto
For Marino, the inversion that these two art forms experienced
between pagan antiquity and Christian modemity in terms of
their value can be explained by comparing their origins. The
origin of ancient painting lies in the profane love of a young
woman who draws her lover's shadow in order to remember
him while he is absent. The origin of Christian painting lies in
the infinite love of the tripartite God who offers the self-portrait of his Son to men so they may recaH the infinite sacrifice
to which he consented for them, and so they might discover
in thls visual recollection the perpetuation of this sacrifice and
fue road to their own redemption.
% According to Marino, the history of Christian painting and
the history of salvation are one and the same. God made his
91
'fhe Spil'itu a.1Exel'cises by8wint Ignatius or Layo/a . .4n /werp'. 1689. Fransco Xa.vier C/avigero Libm.ry. Universla.d Iberomnericana, Me:tico City.
.92
A WAY IO PROCEED
thing of it is revealed, in the words of Pierre Favre's Memorial. There is an otherness of the will regarding that which
originates in it.
fv This theological conception of time refers to "will" as it
does to the unknowable "principIe and foundation " of al! that
can be known. The same applies to mano Ignatius of Loyola's
"movements" are precisely the irruptions of this wanting that
remains an other with regard to the manifested order. In man,
something unexpected speaks out, something born of the
unknowable ripples the surface of the known and disturbs it.
That will be the origin of a new "life organization" ("To
Amend and Reform one's own Life and State," SE 189). Any
institution of an order begins with the "will."
fv By way of the process that erases al! the idiosyncrasi es of
Christian life and takes us back to its ultimate cause-that is,
to God the Creator, to the other in the order-the Foundation
makes explicit the real principie of what a retreatant who
has come to put his life back in order actually seeks.
Exhuming desire is the condition of an order.
fv The beginning lies in uprooting the "will." That was a new
concept in the sixteenth century. Ignatius ofLoyola's, Pierre
Favre's and Francis Xavier's first interlocutors and retreatants
were surprised by what they called theologia alfectus, a theology of the heart. Far from being a set of discourses that
had to be "translated" in life, so that affectivity and practice
became the consequences and dependencies of certain
knowledge, the "principie" of this theology was the alfectus.
The logos (the discursive arrangement) was built on a fundamental will that strengthened and supported the task of reorganizing one's life. The rules and "compositions of place" designed to clarifY this revision in terms of possible life conditions or practices act according to a "foundation " that is
removed from them, the unknown aspect of "will." The methods or "exercises" are "spiritual" inasmuch as they are articulated on an ab-solutely different principie.
THE BREAK AND THE CONFESSION OF DESlRE
The Foundation introduces a break in the sequence of arguments or practices. It creates a dissuasive effect, interrupting
the path leading a retreatant from an unsatisfactory way of
life to the need for a better life, or from his disorganized existence to the religious utopia of a unifYing place. The Foundation first breaks that discourse that develops its own logic,
placing an obstruction that blocks the direct route from one
situation to the next. Between the two, between the route the
retreatant abandons and the one his retreat allows him to
choose, there is a vanishing point. This empty space available
to desire is the equivalent of a celebration: a transit to the limit
and moment of emptiness. From one step to the next, there
is a moment of unbalance. Unsurprisingly, that moment is a
threshold. In the text, the Foundation is a frontier zone, different from the place one leaves to join the retreat, and yet
independent of the law that organizes the place and the time
of the retreat into four Weeks. It is a boundary, an interval.
fv No doubt this is the reason why a certain confession is
made there that is not uttered within the regularity of organized places and can only be told in transit, when passing the
limit. We know that in daily conversation Uust as in psycho-
WILl
94
In any case, the Foundation is not the statement of a universal truth. It is not a general discourse from which one might
then draw specific conelusions. It is the framework of a movement or, if you like, a detachment. It carnes out a detachment
from the adhesions that identify desire with an object, an
ideal, a state of life or a religious language. With regard to all
95
Tbe Spirit ual Exercises, by Saint Ignatius o{ Loyola. F(!l/er Nadal ~ versiol1. 1746. Francisco X(wier Clavigero Library, Universidad lberomneriwna, Mexico City.
comes into play especially near the end of the Exercises, in the
"Rules for the Same Effect with Greater Discernment of Spirits"
(SE 333, 334, 336. In its other uses-nos. 19 and 243-it also designates a course to follow, the order of a development). It designates a series and a development: on the one hand a relationship between the moments of experience ("consolations"
and "desoIations") or between the pIaces to be traveIed (the
points on which to meditate), and on the other hand, the series' sense or orientation. As such, the "consoIation" or the
"desolation" cannot be considered in and of itself. It is impossible to assign a sense to one or the other when taken individually, as if one denoted God's approval and the other his dispIeasure. The sense is the result of their relationship and of the
direction that relationship indicates. Only a development is a
sign (SE 331, 333).
% Taken on its own, no moment is of value; no place is true
or false; no objectivity is therefore sacred; no Ianguage is
invulnerable. They only make sense when part of a dynamic relationship, according to the retreatant's journeys.
% Along with the analysis of the manner in which the sense
is manifested there is a technicaI production: the text artificially multiplies the protocols designed to make series appear
due to a play of repetitions, variations, arbitrary hypotheses
and counter-measures (cf Roland Barthes' book referred to
earlier, in which he states, "A paradigm oftwo terms is given;
one of the terms is marked against the other"). The objective
is not to exhaust all the resources of a truth but to construct
a discourse that, by discarding a series of options, organizes
the manifestation of desire in the effectiveness of a situation:
that will be the "election" or the choice. In summary, a calculation allows the production of sense.
% At every stage, the system sets out a neatly excised place
then makes it the means of creating a place for another, and so
on. Those pIaces are then separated by a break that no explanation or ideology can surmount and which finally refers to
the retreatant's joumey: in the text, the break between the
places is the mark of the other to whom it is addressed. In this
way, the composition of places already allows the deployment
of diversified moves, without substituting them. And thus, it
gives way to the experience which it makes explicit. But it
do es not describe the experience. No account is allowed, and
is is marked only in those interstices that indicate the other's
place, outside the text.
% Throughout the exercises programmed for the four Weeks
as well as in the PrincipIe and Foundation, everything presupposes the desire (or the "wiU") that comes from somewhere else, circulates, puts itself to the test, and manifests
itself in a series of relationships to the objects presented by
the libretto. As such, the text itself functions as an expectation of the other, a space ordered by desire. It is the garden
96
';;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~;:;;;;-T~1Q-"'~""'""'-"'"
DEL
~
EXAMEN GENERAL
quocidil).O de la con
.
ciencia.
E
,
"
TheSermon, UeSUitArt
PCf9' ti pocoy po,. partes: fI siempre
1~ 1Jetlcerlas I.odas.de una vez.
The bull issued by Pope Paul ID on September 27, 1540, Regimini militantis Eeclesiae, referring to the foundation of the
Society of Jesus, indicates the general and specific purposes of
the new order: "The well-being of souls in life and in doctrine,
and the propagation of the Catholic faith through preaching,
spiritual exercises and charitable deeds, especially the teaching of the doctrine to uneducated people and children."
% Ignatius of Loyola happened to live in this environment of
spiritual revival. He reaffirmed the Society's different forms
of ministry by instructing the Jesuits to participate in the sessions of the Council ofTrent: "To the greater glory of God [...]
our principIe intention on this day in Trent, as we try to be
together in sorne honest way, is to preach, confess and read,
to teach young people, to give exerciss, to visit hospitals and
exhort our fellow men [...] to confess, take Communion and
regularly engage in Spiritual Exercises and pious deeds, as we
urge them to pray for the council."
% So we see how from the very beginning, the Jesuits determined to carry out their mission in the secular world, a major
challenge for the religious reconquest of Catholicism. Consequently, the target of their preaching would consist of what
were originally separate groups, which would beco me increasingly diversified due to the social changes already beginning
with the emergence ofmodernity. Their audience included both
common people and the urban aristocracy of the court, peasants in the rural missions, and even heretics from overseas. The
difficulties they encountered in making themselves heard
would grow even more whenever such a varied public gathered in a single church for any of the magnificent baroque
liturgical celebrations where the Jesuits frequently preached.
% The members of the Society of Jesus lived up to this challenge posed by the post-Tridentine Church masterfully. How
did they manage to do that? Specifically, it was because the
order's characteristic preaehing 01 passions made them the
most representative preachers of the sacred eloquence of the
baroque era.
PREACHING OF PASSIONS
Bitter debates sprang up about post-Tridentine preaching, particularly between those in favor of an "evangelical sermon" and
those who preferred a "sacred oratory"-in other words, a plain
sermon or a rhetorical one. The Jesuits, following the guidelines of The Spiritual Exercises, made their sermons a complex
and revealing demonstration of how they confronted these two
visions. It was not a question of whether to adhere to the rhetoric in terms ofthe pure act ofpreaching. Behind every sermon
layan intricate vision of the world, of different structures of
intelligibility that subtly denoted the shi.ft from a rural, oral
culture to an urban, writing-oriented culture. The members of
the Society constructed a sacred discourse that for a while was
ILLUMINATION
OF
INTELL I GEN C E
Elisabetla Corsi
IMAGES
Marc Fumaroli has described the rhetorical Jesuit as a "technicien des images," emphasizing the close ties that exist between
preaching, the teaching of rhetoric and the emblematic tradition in the intellectual apostolate of the Society of Jesus.
% In his 1992 study of Saint Ignatius of Loyola's Spiritual
Exercises, and based on the Ignatian compositio loci, PierreAntoine Favre defines the important role played by the mental image-as determined by the imaginative powers of the
subject in question-in the construction of atheology of the
image (an exquisitely Jesuit aesthetics) at the same time as it
contributes to the formation of an economy of melancholy
typical to the contemplative act itself.
% It might be worth recalling that The Spiritual Exercises
(Versio Vulgata, 1548) propose a journey by means of which
an individual might achieve a conversion process that
allows him, in Saint Ignatius' words, "to seek and find the
Divine Will as to the management of one's life" (SE 1).
% In the first preamble to the first exercise (SE 47), Ignatius
offers a definition of "composition seeing the place:" "Here it
is to be noted that, in a visible contemplation or meditationas, for instan ce, when one contemplates Christ our Lord, Who
is visible-the composition will be to see with the sight of the
imagination the corporeal place where the thing is found
which I want to contemplate. [... ] I say the corporeal place, as
for instance, a Temple or Mountain where Jesus Christ or Our
Lady is found, according to what I want to contemplate. In
an invisible contemplation or meditation-as here on the
Sins-the composition will be to see with the sight of the
imagination and consider that my soul is imprisoned in this
corruptible body, and aH the compound in this vaHey, as
exiled among brute beasts: I say all the compound of soul
and body."
% In this definition, Saint Ignatius distinguishes between two
kinds of meditation, one visible and the other invisible.
Nevertheless, both are the product of the same interna! sensory organ, in other words, the sight oJ the imagination. It is
clear that to fully understand the "visibility of Christ" in the
first level of contemplation, it is necessary to submerge oneself entirely in the Eucharistic mystery of Jesus Christ's tangible presence.
% This book was written for those who give the exercises, and
for precisely that reason, it purposely leaves "open" the possibility of working through and explaining the meaning of each
exercise and adapting it to the retreatant. This accounts for the
work's eminently figurative and visual nature: the exercises
are there to be meditated on because they only make allusions
orsuggestions. It is the person giving the exercises who is left
with the task of "giving in another way and order," while taking care to keep his statements "brief and to the point," given
98
----_.
__ .
".-----------,-----------~
. :" "When the mind considers itself, through itself, like in a mirror, it is elevated toward contemplation and the blessed Trinity,
ofthe Word and ofLove." These two moments-hearing and
seeing-are even more closely linked in liturgy, which clearIy demonstrates the memory of the history of salvation.
% The manner in which these two moments are articulated has
a long history, from the muta praedicatio of monastery frescoes to the sermones idiotarum, biblical sermons in a vernacular tongue for the uneducated public, and finally, to the sacre
teatralitti of sixteenth-century missionary preaching.
)..,'r The sacre teatralitti-or "sacred exaggerations"-are models
of post-Tridentine religious oratory, of which we still know
very little. Sorne emphasis has been placed on the monumental nature of religious oratory, especially during Lent and
Advent, with its strong theatrical sense of pathos based on
crowns of thorns, whips, skulls, sacred images and relics. On
a verbal level, the quest for "preachable concepts"-which
began with the principIe of consonance between a sacred argument and a given aspect of reality, whether that be historical
or phenomenal-Ied to the adoption of a highly elaborate
metaphorical language, visually sustained by complex allegories, or "images made to mean something other than what
the eye perceives."
~ Allegorical visual apparatuses could take two different forms:
one that was more easily handled, like the undertakings or
symbolic representations of a purpose (something that needs
to be "undertaken"l, which are suitable as the basis for preaching manuals; and another more monumental form, like church
decorations, which are more suited to contemplation.
)..,\ In any case, the effectiveness of both "preachable concepts"
and visual apparatuses depended on a healthy dose of shrewdness or ingenuity. Just as Emanuele Tesauro pointed out in
Cannocchiale arestotlico (1655), in an attempt to mitigate his
excesses, the "new style of sacred prayer" is developed in a
"rushing torrent of eloquence [... ] full of infinite arguments,
both high and low, from doctrines that are frequently di scussed in something other than a subtle manner, of quotations
from profane writing more so than from sacred writing, of
literal interpretations that are plainer or flatter than they are
sharp and jagged."
I!v Just as eloquence serves as sustenance for oratory in order
for the preaching to be effective and for its admonitions to
Le.\ch the hearts of worshippers, the great pictorial cycles
llt,! ~tecorate baroque churches make use of a technical devJ&e ~o that their allegories might penetrate the physical eye
lb, -r.IDlrll the mental eye of whoever contemplates them. This
d~it';e is lineal perspective.
, ult: Jesuits were not only excellent preachers-one has only
10 Lr,aU Giacomo Lubrani and Paolo Segneri, among the most
famous and widely studied theoreticians of the ars predicandi-but also mastE'rs of pE'rspective. However, despite its close
relationship to the practices mentioned aboye, the Jesuit devotion to lineal perspective seems to have warranted little attention from scholars up to now.
BEYOND ELOQUENCE: PERSPECTIVE AS ARS RETHORICA
!Jil
Tit o :-;piri t ual Exe rl' i tic~ hU 8// ,1f (t l/ o/ iu,; /Ir J,II!J0II.I. ~l'll l'IVe")J. 1 689. Fmu c/"co Savier CI" cige,." L ibra r!;. lhi iuersitll.ltl f/eroameriCII'll " . Me.cicII ('ily.
the medieval university curriculum, as music was still considered a science then, and there was no distinction between
optics and perspective. Nadal 's text speaks of perspectiva communis, that is, the science ofvision derived from Greek optics.
Ihis should not be confused with Renaissance lineal perspective. As we have seen, at least until the sixteenth century, perspectiva communis focused mainly on two topics: the dynamics ofvision and the nature and propagation oflight rays. The
textbook Nadal proposed for Jesuit colleges, Witelo's Perspectiva, is one ofthe principal works ofmedieval optics, a compendium of all knowledge in the field up to the twelfth century.
% It is very difficuIt to define the ways in which lineal perspective evolved and also diverged from medieval perspectiva.
However, there is sorne continuity between medieval theoretical speculation on vision and the lineal perspective that was
developed during the Renaissance. At least until the seventeenth century-that is, until Kepler formulated the theory of
retinal image-vision theory remained largely ancho red to
tradition. As pointed out previously, however, Renaissance
lineal perspective underwent an early process of allegorization and moralization, in tune with theological interpretations associated with light, typical to medieval optics.
% Beginning in the seventeenth century, the Society of Jesus
adopted a tradition that had been the exclusive property of
the Franciscans for centuries. Perhaps because of its profound
theological implications, Jesuit colleges continued to study
perspectiva communis. But a series of works written during
the seventeenth century are testimony to the important contribution Jesuits made to the evolution of lineal perspective as
an autonomous discipline. While the boundaries between the
two disciplines-that is, "modem" lineal perspective and medieval optics or perspectiva-still appear fluid in texts such as
Pantographice, sive ars delineandi res quaslibet per parallelogrammum linaere sive cavum, mechanicum, mobile (Rome, 163 1)
whose author, Christopher Scheiner, S.J., is perhaps best known
for his debate with Galileo over sunspots; as well as in La
Perspective pratique (Paris, 1642) by Jean Dubreuil, S.1.; and
most especially in Perspectiva pictorum et architectorum (Rom e,
1693) by the great Jesuit painter and architect, Andrea Pozzo.
PERSPECTIVE IN EVANGELIZATION
100
101
AR DEN T
I LL U MIN A TI O N
ThB'urningBu;;lJ:
...llfunso .-1lf((/'u
ril ell Moses SO id, "[ will Il01V tum aside olld see Iilis grral sigill ,
wily lile busil does 1101 bUril. " EXODU S 3:3
Between the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries, for the first
time in human history, there blossomed a system of signs (verbal, visual, acoustic) capable of entering into contact with all
civilizations. Paradoxically, it was also the last Western language to be truly transversal: its polysemic voices were simultaneously accessible to the different strata of a society, and
could be heard by wise men and simple men, lords and slaves,
city dwellers and natives in remote missionary outposts.
;,~ In compensation for its rapid conceptual refinement it possessed an exuberant emotive intensity: at one and the same
time it appealed to the most exacting analytical reasoning and
to gut emotion. It stimulated the pleasure of the senses but
made continuous reference to the need to control them, and
stressed the benefits of using them as tools for evocation,
stepping-stones to loftier experiences,
.1,\ Its verbose forms, which attempted to represent all tangible
and imaginable realities, and to assume all the elements of
the universe, were only a vehicle for passing from the visible
to the invisible, from Creation to the Creator. This art of profusion and variegation was constructed around vanishing
points that converged in a white, featureless space: the blinding Iight of Jesus' name in an inexistent cupola, the fragUe
substance of the host that also played tricks on the eyes.
>,' The emergen ce of this universe of forms, of this unprecedented transcultural flow of communication, took place during a lapse of time that Westem memory has not been able
to determine precisely nor na me adequately.
% Two centuries separate the end of the Renaissance and the
beginning ofthe Enlightenment, and it was during that time
that a great symbolic and political rupture occurred in Western
civilization, Those were the years of the Protestant Reform
and its Catholic counterpart, of the strengthening of nations,
the consolidation of the States, the emergence of our science,
the beginnings of globalization. In terms of a history of forms,
that era corresponds to the mannerist and baroque periods.
% It is c1ear that a nomenclature based on stylistic elements is
insufficient to cover the entire wealth and complexity of those
generations, because the aesthetic languages that emerged at
that time were only part of a system that included institutions,
networks, directions of flow, vaIues, perceptions.
% The history of our civilization has not been able to find a
satisfactory terminology that takes all those processes into
account due to the ruptures that occurred within them at the
time. Between the world described by Vasari (the Renaissance)
and the one where Goethe is the emblematic figure (the Enlightenment) there is a universe of fragmentary memories (national,
confessionaI) that are ofien depicted in black and white, and
in broad strokes.
Those were brilliant and terrible years that Western memory recalls only as the colophon of something, or, on the
contrary, as the prelude to something else. We scrutinize their
features considered to be either traditional (also branded as
archaic) or vanguardist (praised for their modemity), but rarely
are they studied as elements of an autonomous system endowed with an original model and capable of formulating
their own proposa!. Throughout much of continental Europe,
in the territories relegated to Catholicism (whose cultural ramifications extended around the globe), societies attempted to
give rise to a specific civilizing formation that would restore
the limits of a totalizing symbolic space such as that known
by medieval Christianity.
J,\ That period and that process coincide exactly with the first
life cycle of the Society of Jesus: from Ignatius of Loyola's
conversion to the suppression of his order.
~ Having emerged at the same time and having been cut
down simultaneously (and by the same scythe), the era and the
institution had a lot in common. Their fates beca me intertwined and influenced each other mutually. Perhaps one day
we will find a name that will do justice to a culture that attempted to establish an equilibrium between the strengthening
of the territories of the individual conscience and the imperatives of membership in a community, and a science that aspired
to be the perfect reconciliaton between rational and sensible
knowledge, between intelligence and revelation. For now, all
we have are its signs, muddied by pejorative terms-the signs
used by the Jesuits who played such a key role in the history
of the languages that were founded along with their order.
J,'r The Jesuits did not invent the aesthetic models which have
reached us weighed down by all those different denominations (baroque ... ), nor were they entirely dependent on them
when expressing themselves. There is a very sober, austere art
that is Iinked to the Society of Jesus-after the fashion of Juan
Bautista de Herrera, or Trentine art from the early years-and
another that was realized by the members of the order, or at
least under their influence, with a program corresponding to
the c1assicist ideals that dominate French culture. But there
al so exists an unusual alliance between the Jesuits and the
intellectual and emotive, vehement and sensual art that characterized the culture irradiated from papal Rome beginning in
the latter decades of the sixteenth century.
% It is true that there is no such thing as a distinct and uniform "Jesuit Art." Butjust as we cannot understand Cistercian
aesthetics without making reference to Saint Bemard, nor
cathedral Gothic without taking the Mendicant orders and
Episcopal chapters into account, it would also be very difficult
to understand the formal languages and the culture that pre,',f
lO:!
Jo, de.-llcbaJ: Sa n Francisco Ja\"icr. Dil 01/ cal/ras. 61.5 .c .J.J.5 CIII lJu,eo S ociol/al de.-J rle. .1/e.rico Cily.
vailed in Catholic Europe (and its Asian and American extensions) after the Council of Trent if we do not reflect on the
Society's institutional reality and its spirituality, which was
the foundation of a particular world view.
% What was the nature of that link and that interdependence?
What role did Loyola's legacy and the spirituality of the Exercises play in the emergence and consolidation of the first aesthetic language with a universal scope?
% Because of its very youth, the Society of Jesus tended to be
open to the contemporary art of the time: the order was
obliged to come up with new spaces and channels for expression. Abbeys, monasteries and lay brothers' residences could
not be its habitat, only temporary havens for the members of
a highly mobile team: the professed brothers. Its educational
institutions were neither university campuses nor monastic
eloisters : Jesuit colleges were very different from medieval
colleges. The need to adapt to unfamiliar surroundings required
flexibility-the ability to assimilate new techniques and materials and strange traditions. Its transcontinental network of
projects and individuals transported the influences of all cultures through the order's centralized command structure. Its
system of govemment, which did not inelude elected priors,
meant that all building projects had to be presented to the administrative center in Rome.
% It was only natural for a newly founded institution to have
recourse to the aesthetic standards that were barely emerging
at the time: the elassical references, the human scale (but of
heroic dimensions), the concem for the formal quest as a
mode of expression, the exaltation ofwill (capable ofperforming feats of prowess), the interest in technique (linked to the
fascination with scientific research and expressed through virtuosity), the desire for freedom. For the artists of those generations, the elassical canons were an obligatory point of reference but they were not meant to be followed to the letter. It
was possible and even desirable to take all the liberties with
them that could be found in creative innovation, and to utilize materials and forms as tools for exploring a tangible truth
that knew itself to be opaque.
% The order's founding mission did not inelude any precise
artistic program, nor did the Society ever formulate any kind
of aesthetic framework su eh as the one it elaborated over
time to organize its educational system. The institution never
ceased to emphasize the instrumental nature that all aesthetic manifestations had in its eyes. In that case, how is it possible that Jesuit art avoided being suffocated by the utilitarian design it was submitted to? Howdid the Jesuits manage
to achieve that autonomy of forms that was able to transcend
the ideological constraints or political instrumentations that
ality present in the consecrated bread and wine), the semantic weight of the image lost sorne of its intensity. (Artistic production designed to enhance Eucharistic worship carne to be
a priority for the Jesuits.) Something similar occurred with the
worship of relics, which was stimulated by post-Tridentine
religiosity (and something the Jesuits were very attached to):
these relics also contributed to the slow but progressive autonomy of figurative images, easing their burden of importance
as instruments of the manifestation of transcendence.
% The life of forms followed its own paths: artists continued to
experiment, spurred on by technical and stylistic innovation,
the energy ofthe artists' studios, travel, commissions and emulation, but the movement was in need of a theoretical foundation that would also provide its justification and spirit. The
ultimate patronage in the capital of papacy carne from the
Church, but in the wake of Protestant Reform, the Sack of
Rome and the Council of Trent, cardinals and pontiffs could
no longer pro mote an artistic policy based solely on standards
of Renaissance humanism as had Julius TI, Leon X or Clement
VII: artistic production had to form part of the renewed evangelizing drive demanded by Tridentine reformo
% The Society of Jesus played a fundamental role in the process
by which artists' formal proposals could be structured around
a coherent project with theological bases of support and an
innovative spirit.
% Gn the pages of this issue, Marc Fumaroli reveals an essential key to understanding the phenomenon. He analyses a text
by Father Louis Richeome, an author whose fame has not
reached the same level as that of the great Jesuit writers
(Surez, Bellarmine, Canice ... ) but whose work, nevertheless,
may be seen as one ofthose decisive links that has contributed
to providing the art of the baroque centuries with the conceptual scheme and the spirit that would make it one of the high
points of human creativity.
% In a book that may seem difficult to reconcile with the
academic rigor we have become accustomed to in recent historiography, Richome takes the theoretical bases of Byzantine medieval iconodulia and alters them to fit the contributions of his contemporaries. In doing so, he allows the living
art of his time to be connected to what aspired to becoming
a civilizing project. By laying the foundation for a theology
of sacred images that was aligned with the aesthetic program formulated by artists, he gave meaning to their work
and provided them with the opportunity to include their efforts in a greater design: that of a new Rome with aspirations
of changing the world. From an ecclesiastic point of view,
however, such a theoretical justification helped the baroque
aesthetic pave its way to becoming the unofficial language
of the Catholicism of the era.
% As such, the seventeenth-century figurative arts which,
thanks to Renaissance anthropocentrism, had been endowed
with blood and skin, passions and affections, could reassume
their function as a vehicle for transcendence. Due to the double transformation of the European conscience (the classical
heritage in the Italian South, the spirituality of an inner life
in the Flemish North), artistic representation at the time was
already an expressive outlet for the emotions and the senses.
Thanks to the orientation provided by this iconophilic theol-
104
himselt) was a decisive element. The grand project for evangelization on a planetruy scale finally had sufficient means
available to achieve its end. The message could be heard in
sorne of the boldest and most forceful voices of the time. Hand
in hand with missionary expansion, the Catholic baroque was
moving beyond its condition of stylistic tendency to become
the vehicle for a worldwide communications system.
% The possibility of giving tools of such magnitude to the Jesuit
evangelization project (subsumed in the grand design of
strengthening and expanding Catholicism, which the papacy
and the imperial monarchies championed) was not accidental: the order had maintained its position at the forefront of
science, literature and philosophy.
% Owing to its organic connection to these artists, the Society
was able to propose certain models of excellence for its apostolic labors, and spread a message whose formal quality was
doubtless one of the characteristics that made it audible
despite the countless cultural filters it had to pass through in
its transit from one continent to the other.
% One might say that aH these apparently circumstantial elements were unconnected, and this way it might appear that
it was simply a lucky sequence of fortuitous events or situations: the General Curia's location in Rome (Ego vobis Romae
propitius ero) and the centralized nature of the Society's govemment, the insisten ce of innovative patrons, the aristocratic refinement of certain general prelates (Saint Francis Borgia
had been a duke and Father Oliva, the Genovese patrician,
was a personal friend of Bernini's), the French Jesuit's reflections on nature and the functions of the sacred image.. .. Nevertheless, aH those circumstances exhibit an underIying coherence. As we have already pointed out, their convergence did
not obey a premeditated plan or a unique strategic vision, but
rather a more powerful and essential logic, independent of
any calculation: the deep affinity between certain features of
the aesthetic language that was beginning to take shape independently, guided by the autonomous life of forms, and becoming one of the brightest facets of Jesuit spirituality.
% The Catholic world at that time discovered in the union of
those two elements (an art and a spirituality) a nascent coherence able to be transformed into the symbolic image of itself,
and to provide structure and a plan to the disturbing chaos of
the times.
% lf certain Jesuits had reacted in the way they did to the art
being produced then-reconciling themselves with it, providing it with a theoretical justification, inspiring it, propagating
it, forming strategic alliances with its key figures, converting
it into an essential part of the order's apostolic activity-it was
beca use in its foundational baggage, the Society carried the
elements that encouraged its members to do so. A primruy
vector of the Jesuit project existed in natural harmony with
certain elements of the cultural tendencies of the time: without ever acting in concert, the Jesuits simply indicated a direction and provided the art and culture of their time with a new
source of vital energy.
% What was the basis for the affinity between the Ignatian
institute and the aesthetic project developed by that generation of artists? The order had emerged from a conversion and
a mystical experience, not from a strate!!ic olan or a grand
Pagcs 107-108: The Spil'ituaJ EXe!"eises by Sf/in llgll ati1~; of Loyola. A1{werp, 1689. Fmncisco XaI',;er Clrwigero Library. Unil'ersidad /l1l'/"Uall/l'ri,(/I/(I . .1/".,-i,." ( 'Iy.
columns stretching into infinity, contorting themselves, narrowing until they were sheared off, those were the voice of
that world that was beginning to abandon the safety of the
circle (the certainties ofthe Ptolomaic system) and did not yet
dare to accept the discontinuous line of chaos. Its references
were the complexity of the off-center ellipse, and the spiral,
which seeks an answer around a single nucleus that seems
farther away and higher up all the time.
% Moreover, the fruition of the material whose every nook and
cranny has been explored by artists-profuse!y represented in
al! its forms thanks to an ornamental scheme based on accumulation-is also associated with the postulate of Ignatian
spirituality, according to which the elements of visible Creation are capable of guiding the soul to the plenitude offered
by a meeting with its Maker.
!-..'r By unanimous consent, Brother Pozzo has been identified
as the most important Jesuit artist of all time. Perhaps his figure may serve to represent the culmination of this alliance
between the Society of Jesus and baroque arto In his analysis
of the process that led from Rubens' work to that of Pozzo,
Father Pfeiffer has demonstrated that the Jesuit's aesthetic
scheme was designed to try to give viewers an experience of
nature similar to that undergone by those saints endowed
with the gift of ecstasy. True, Jesuits were not indispensable
in the creation of an art tending toward the representation of
mystical rapture. Indeed, such art could flourish in spaces
outside Jesuit influence. But the cases we have examined here
demonstrate a favorable connection that the order never established with any other aesthetic or cultural tendency (moreover, in cases such as Pozzo's, the idea was not so much to
represent the state of rapture as to attempt to stimulate a similar experience though to a different degree).
% The territory of mysticism is that of experience, not of
reflection. It belongs to passion, not analysis. Michel de Certeau mentions a very significant fact in this respect: in Catholicism, the experience of inner illumination never managed to demarcate a specific territory (a distinctive spiritual theology), nor to earn a name of its own (mysticism) until
the very period that concerns us here, straddling two eras and
marked by a burst of baroque creative energy.
% It is perhaps no accident that the two discourses- the poetic
discourse of the mystics and the artists' visual discourseemerged simultaneously like two voices from amidst the
polyphony, like a single clamor raised against the rest of
humanity and against a universe that became larger and more
desolate al! the time (with fewer audible ange!s and fewer
demons lying in wait, and with a nature that was less favorable to miracles).
% The art produced in those centuries was eclectic in the
extreme, capable of assimilating anything and everything, the
old and the new, the familiar and the foreign, because it had
an inner structure where everything fit (contemplating Creation as a whole can awaken love for God). It-valued the restlessness that can lead to the rupture of established categories,
like those trompe-Z'oeils that aspire to unite painting and
architecture. (The senses are witness to reality, but only partially. The truth belongs to another order of things : "The eye
did not see, nor did the ear hear, nor can the heart of aman
hold what God has prepared for those who serve him and
love him," "Now we see in mirror and in enigma .. ..") A key
resource of the baroque-perplexity-is a tool that al!ows us
to always keep in mind the difference between verisimilitude
and truth, between apparent reality (the bread) and ontological reality (the body of Christ).
% Miche! de Certeau has also emphasized the important role of
the rhetorical figure of the oxymoron in mystical discourse.
We might see it as a contrast produced by the union of elements that are not only contrary but also unequal, allowing for
the construction of formal structures with an asymmetric assembly through which the outcry over an absence manages to
escape and what could perhaps be an echo (desolation) or the
certainty of an answer (consolation) is al!owed to filter back in.
% If the intellectualliberty of individuals is not exempt from risk
for a doctrinally homogeneous group (heresy), affective activity also presents challenges for a family of believers (like the
Church), and even more so for an institution that by nature
functions as a community (like the Society of Jesus). Not to
mention the risks run by the subject himself or his vital equilibrium ifhe is in an aggravated, uncontrolled emotional state.
% For that reason, the Catholic Church habitual!y supervised
all kinds of experiences that might seem extreme, even when
they were guided by good faith and a desire for perfection. In
the era that concerns us here, the repression of the Illuminati
(like that of the Quietists later on) affected certain personaJities that would later merit a prominent position within the
space of rigorous orthodoxy, and would even be put forward
as Jife models like the saints Teresa de Avila, John of the
CrosS ... and Ignatius of Loyola himself.
% The Society of Jesus was subject to the same imperative. In
order to endure as an institution, it was necessary to mark out
the bounds within which the inner life could thrive. The spirituality of the Exercises stimulated the intensity of affective
and sensorial experiences. How might they be regulated to
prevent their loss of control? The lines of defense were multipIe. The first one was intrinsic to the Ignatian method itse!f,
which defined the times for prayer and regulated the handling
of internal experiences. The institution, which tended toward
apostolic activity structured around obedience, also carried
out the functions of a control mechanism.
% The Society was always very strict in its prohibition of
excessive penitence and of any individual effort to single oneself out through prayer practices, and discouraged the development of personal agendas seeking a purely contemplative life (in these cases, the founder left the doors open ... but
to the Carthusian order). Moreover, despite the fact that
among Jesuit saints there have been a few whose inner life
might be motive enough to inelude them among the mystics
(Francis Xavier, Canice, the coadjutor brother Alonso Rodrguez...), the order tends to hold them up as a paradigm of
virtue for other reasons (charity, apostolic commitment, humbleness). The only Jesuit to have been openly acknowledged
as a mystic is the founder himse!f, though that aspect of his
personality is always played down when speaking of him as
an example to be followed.
% The challenges presented to the order by the loss of control in
inner life experiences have been subtly and profoundly ana-
} O!;
lyzed in Michel de Certeau's research (Surin, the saints of Aquitania ... ). The most interesting cases in Spain have been those
of the fathers Baltasar lvarez and Antonio Cordeses.
% For the most part, the general prelates took a very hard
line in this sense (Borgia, Mercurian, Oliva, Vitelleschi...).
Antonio Queralt has stressed the restrictive nature imposed
by Father Acquaviva's interpretation of the contemplation
of the interior sense in the Exercises.
% An efficient way of providing an exuberant emotional activity with the balance necessary for mental health as well as the
so lid foundation needed to keep such experiences credible is
most frequently a strict intellectual discipline. Even Loyola,
whose mystical illumination started even before he began his
schooling (and during the period when the Illuminati movement was developing), understood that he needed to provide
himself with a consistent intellectual baggage, which was
what inspired him to go to the Sorbonne. Even during his student years, he would renounce all those consolations that kept
him from his studies (which was a sign of the "evil spirit").
% The Society always promoted the development of scientific
vocations, while superiors traditionally greeted artistic aspirations with an only slightly warmer welcome than that given
to openly mystical tendencies among their subordinates. The
order's specific spirituaIity had many different vectors that
encouraged sensitivity, and the institution was especially
concemed with regulating them. Works of art were frequently commissioned by the order and realized under its influence
and control, but by artists that did not belong to it.
% Another useful device for moderating that effusive frame of
mind that could lead to a spirituality concemed with the
affective dimension of the inner life is that of offsetting it
with a spirituality that is dearly oriented toward alife of austerity, observing rules, community discipline. In other words,
asceticism to contain mysticism, Pachomius and Basilius as
an antidote to Areopagita, and rules to channel impulses.
% A counterpart of Father Richeome's work could be perhaps
that of Father Alonso Rodriguez (the namesake of the porter
at the College of Palma de Mallorca, the brother coadjutor
107
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