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Frequency
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude modulation (AM) is
defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) is varied about
a mean value, linearly with the baseband signal m(t).
Let, a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) defined by
c(t)=Accos(2fct)
(3.1)
s(t)=Ac[1+Kam(t)]cos(2fct) (3.2)
where, Ka is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity.
The carrier amplitude Ac and the message signal measured in volts,
which case the amplitude sensitivity Ka is measured in volt-1.
m(t )
kam(t ) <1
kam(t ) >1
2. The carrier frequency fc is much greater than the highest frequency component
W of the message signal m(t), that is
fc>>W
(3.4)
where, W is the message bandwidth.
If the condition (3.4) is not satisfied, an envelope cannot be visualized
satisfactorily.
From Eq. (3.2), we find that the Fourier transform of the AM wave s(t) is given by
A
k A
S ( f ) = c [ ( f f c ) + ( f + f c )] + a c [M ( f f c ) + M ( f + f c )]
2
2
Fig. 3.2 shows the spectrum of baseband signal M(f), which is band-limited to
the interval W f W , and amplitude modulated signal S(f).
Fig. 3.2 (a) Spectrum of baseband signal, and (b) Spectrum of AM.
This spectrum consists of two delta functions weighted by the factor Ac/2 and
occurring at fc, and two versions of the baseband spectrum translated in frequency
by fc and scaled in amplitude by kaAc/2.
From the spectrum of Fig. 3.2, we note the following:
1. T spectrum of the message signal m(t) for negative frequencies
extending from W to 0 becomes completely visible for positive (i. e., measurable)
frequencies, provided that the carrier frequency satisfies the conditions fc>W.
2. For positive frequencies, the portion of the spectrum of an AM
wave lying above the carrier frequency fc is referred to as upper sideband, whereas
the symmetric portion below fc is referred as the lower sideband.
For negative frequencies , the upper sideband is represented by the portion
of the spectrum below - fc and the lower sideband by the portion above fc.
Single-Tone Modulation
Single Tone Signal: The signal which has only one frequency is called single tone
signal.
Consider a modulating wave m(t) that consists of a single tone or frequency
component and a carrier wave c(t) can be written as follows:
m(t)=Amcos(2fmt)
c(t)=Accos(2fct)
where, Am and Ac are the amplitude of modulating wave and carrier wave, and fm
and fc are the frequency of modulating wave and carrier wave.
The corresponding AM wave is therefore given by:
s(t)= Ac[1+Ka Amcos(2fmt)]cos(2fct)=Ac[1+cos(2fmt)]cos(2fct)
(3.7)
Where, modulation factor, =Ka Am
To avoid envelope distortion due to overmodulation, the modulation
factor must be kept below unity (i.e. <1).
Fig. 3.3 illustrate the time-domain (left-side) and frequency-domain (rightside) characteristics of standard amplitude modulation produced by a single-tone (a)
Modulating wave, (b) Carrier wave, and (c) AM wave. [where, <1]
Amax A
min
=
Amax + A
min
Expressing the product of the two cosines in Eq. (3.7) as the sum of two sinusoidal
waves, one having frequency fc+fm and the other having frequency fc-fm, we get
s(t ) = Ac cos(2f ct ) + 1 Ac cos[2 ( f c + f m )t ] + 1 Ac cos[2 ( f c f m )t ]
2
2
It is seen from above equation that the first term is identical of carrier wave
and the two additional terms are produced two sideband outlined. The frequency of
the LSB is fc-fm and the frequency of the USB is fc+fm.
The Fourier transform of s(t) is therefore
S ( f ) = 1 Ac[ ( f f c ) + ( f + f c )]
2
+ 1 Ac[ ( f f c f m ) + ( f + f c + f m )]
4
+ 1 Ac[ ( f f c + f m ) + ( f + f c f m )]
4
2
2
Ac2 2 2 Ac2 Ac2
Total Power, Pt = Pc + P
+P
=
+
= (1+ ) = Pc (1+ )
USB LSB 2
8
2
2
2
The ratio of the total sideband power to the total power in the modulated
wave is equal to
2
Pt
= 1+
Pc
2
which depends only on the modulation factor .
0
.
6
) = 2.36 kW
(d) Total Power, Pt = Pc (1+ ) = 200 (1+
2
2
Example: A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 kW when the modulation
percentage is 60. How much of this is carrier power?
Solution: Given, Pt=10 kW and =0.6, We have to find out, Pc=?
2
We know that, Total Power, Pt = Pc (1+ )
2
P
10 kW
= 8.47 kW
Pc = t =
2
2
1+ (0.6)
1+
2
2
Current Calculation
Let Ic be the unmodulated current and It the total or modulated current pf an AM
transmitter, both beings rms values. If RL is the resistance in which these currents
flow then
2
P It R
t=
L = 1+ 2
2
Pc I 2 R
c L
It = Ic 1+
2
2
t = 1+
Ic
2
I
I
2 t
I
c
t = 1+
Solution: we know that,
2
Ic
Ic =
1+ ( 2 / 2)
11
1+ (0.42 / 2)
=10.58 A
I
2 t
I
c
2
12
2
1
10.58
= 0.757
Generation of AM waves
The AM waves can be generated by using
two devices namely (a) the square-law modulator,
and (b) the switching modulator.
To implement these two modulator, a
nonlinear element is required. And these two
devices are well-suited for low power modulation
purpose.
Square-Law Modulator
A square-law modulator requires three features:
(a)
products.
These features of the modulator are illustrated in Fig. 3.5.
Nonlinear Devices: Semiconductor diodes and transistors are the most common
nonlinear devices used for implementing square-law modulators.
When a nonlinear element such as a diode is suitably biased and
operated in a restricted portion of its characteristic curve, that is, the signal
applied to the diode is relatively weak, we find that the transfer characteristic of
the diode-load resistor combination can be represented closely by a square law:
v (t ) = a v (t ) + a v2(t )
(3.13)
where a1 and a2 are constant.
2
11
21
The input voltage v1(t) consists of the carrier wave plus the modulating
wave, that is
v (t ) = Ac cos(2f ct ) + m(t )
(3.14)
1
Substituting Eq. (3.14) in (3.13), the resulting voltage developed across the
primary winding of the transformer is given by:
v (t ) = a [ Ac cos(2f ct ) + m(t )] + a [ Ac cos(2f ct ) + m(t )]2
2
1
2
(3.15)
(3.16)
Comparing Eq. (3.15) with the AM wave as Eq. (3.16), it is seen that he first term
in Eq. (3.15) is the desired AM wave with Ka=(2a2/a1).
2a
First term : a Ac[1+ 2 m(t )]cos(2f ct ) (3.15)
a
1
1
The remaining three terms are unwanted terms that must be removed by filtering.
Other terms : a m(t ) + a m2 (t ) + a Ac2 cos2 (2f ct )
1
2
2
The unwanted terms may be removed from v2(t) by designing the
tuned filter at the modulator output of Fig. 3.5 to have a mid-band fc and
band-width 2W which is satisfy the requirement fc>2W.
Switching Modulator
Details of the switch modulator are
shown in the following Fig. 3.5 (a),
where it is assumed that the carrier
wave c(t) applied to the diode is large
in amplitude, so that it swings right
across the characteristic curve of the
diode.
(3.18)
(1)n1
1
2
cos[2f ct (2n 1)] (3.21)
g p (t ) = +
2 n=1 2n 1
Therefore, substituting Eq. (3.21) in (3.20), we find that the load voltage
v2(t) consists of the sum of two components:
1. The components
Ac
[1+ 4 m(t )]cos(2f ct )
2
Ac
Envelope-Detector
The process of demodulation is used to recover the original
modulating wave from the incoming modulated wave; in effect,
demodulation is the reverse of the modulation process.
The demodulation of an AM wave can be accomplished
using various devices; here, we describe a simple and yet highly
effective device known as the envelop-detector.
An envelop detector of the series type is shown in Fig. 3.7,
which consists of a diode and a resistor-capacitor (RC) filter. The
operation of this envelope detector is as follows.
On a positive half-cycle of
the input signal, the diode is forwardbiased and the capacitor C charges up
rapidly to the peak value of the input
signal.
When the input signal falls
below this value, the diode becomes
reverse-biased and the capacitor C
discharges slowly through the load
resistor Rl.
The discharging process
continues until the next positive halfcycle. When the input signal becomes
greater than the voltage across the
capacitor, the diode conducts again
and the process is repeated.
So that the capacitor C charges rapidly and thereby follows the applied voltage up to
the positive peak when the diode is conducting.
The discharging time constant RlC must be long enough to ensure that
the capacitor discharges slowly through the load resistor Rl between positive
peaks of the carrier wave, but not so long that the capacitor will not discharge at
the maximum rate of change of the modulating wave, that is
Where, W is the message bandwidth.
The result is that the capacitor voltage or detector output is very nearly the
same as the envelop of the AM wave, as illustrated in Fig. 3.7 c. The detector output
usually has a small ripple (not shown in Fig. 3.7c) at the carrier frequency; this ripple
is easily removed by filtering.