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Process Costing With Special Reference To

Interprocess Profits & Equivalent Production


A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR M.COM
SEMESTER 1
IN SUBJECT OF ADVANCE COST ACCOUNTING
BY

NAME OF THE STUDENT: SAGAR MADAN PATIL

ROLL NO: 15-9533


COLLEGE NAME: K.V.PENDHARKAR COLLEGE
BATCH : 2015-2016

DECLARATION BY STUDENT
I SAGAR MADAN PATIL, ROLL NO.15-9533, The student of M.Com

(Accountancy) Semester1(2015), K.V.PNDHARKAR COLLEGE,


Affiliated to University of Mumbai, hereby declare that the project
for the
Subject of ADVANCE COST ACCOUNTING

Process Costing With Special Reference To


Interprocess Profits & Equivalent Production

Submitted by me to University of Mumbai, for Semester - I


examination is based on actual work carried by me.
I further state that this work is original and not submitted anywhere
else for any examination.
Place : Dombivli
Student
Date :
Roll No : 15-9533

Signature Of The

Name: Sagar Madan


Patil

ACKNOWLEDEMENT
AT BEGINNING I WOULD LIKE TO THANK GOD FOR HIS
BLESSING. I AM VERY MUCH THANKFUL TO MY PROF. Mr.
PRASHANT NAIK, PROF. DR. JANARDAN HOTKAR

MY

PRINCIPAL DR. A. K. RANADE & CO-ORDINATOR CA.


PRASAD

LIMAYE

FOR THEIR GUIDANCE, SUPPORT &

ENCOURAGEMENT.
I ALSO LIKE TO THANK MY FAMILY MEMBERS AND
FRIENDS FOR THEIR CO-OPERATION & HELP AND ALSO
WOULD EXPRESS MY GRAITUDE TO ALL THOSE WHO
HELPED ME DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY TO COMPLETE MY
PROJECT.
I ALSO TAKE THE OPPORTUNITY TO SHOW MY SINCERE
GRATITUDE TO MY PARENTS.

SAGAR MADAN PATIL

INDEX
SR NO.

TITLE

1.

CHAPTER- I
INTRODUCTION.
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY.
REASEARCH METHDOLOGY.
LIMITATIONS.
SIGNIFICANCE.

2.

CHAPTER- II
TYPES OF PROCESS COSTING.
COSTING PROCEDURE.
INTER-PROCESS PROFIT.
EQUVALENT PRODUCTION.

3.

CHAPTER- III
REVIEW OF LITERATURE.
OBSERVATION.

4.

CHAPTER- IV
FINDINGS & SUGGESTIONS.
CONCLUSION.
WEBLIOGRAPHY & BIBLIPGRAPHY.

CHAPTER : I - INTRODUCTION

MEANING

OF

COST ACCOUNTING
Cost accounting is a process of collecting, analyzing, summarizing
and evaluating various alternative courses of action. Its goal is to advise
the management on the most appropriate course of action based on the
cost efficiency and capability. Cost accounting provides the detailed cost
information that management needs to control current operations and
plan for the future.
Since managers are making decisions only for their own organization,
there is no need for the information to be comparable to similar
information from other organizations. Instead, information must be
relevant for a particular environment. Cost accounting information is
commonly used in financial accounting information, but its primary
function is for use by managers to facilitate making decisions.
Unlike the accounting systems that help in the preparation of financial
reports periodically, the cost accounting systems and reports are not
subject to rules and standards like the Generally Accepted Accounting
Principles. As a result, there is wide variety in the cost accounting
systems of the different companies and sometimes even in different parts
of the same company or organization.

Origins

All types of businesses, whether service, manufacturing or trading,


require cost accounting to track their activities. [1] Cost accounting has
long been used to help managers understand the costs of running a
business. Modern cost accounting originated during the industrial
revolution, when the complexities of running a large scale business
led to the development of systems for recording and tracking costs to
help business owners and managers make decisions.
In the early industrial age, most of the costs incurred by a business
were what modern accountants call "variable costs" because they
varied directly with the amount of production. Money was spent on
labor, raw materials, power to run a factory, etc. in direct proportion
to production. Managers could simply total the variable costs for a
product and use this as a rough guide for decision-making processes.
Some costs tend to remain the same even during busy periods, unlike
variable costs, which rise and fall with volume of work. Over time,
these "fixed costs" have become more important to managers.
Examples of fixed costs include the depreciation of plant and
equipment, and the cost of departments such as maintenance, tooling,
production control, purchasing, quality control, storage and handling,
plant supervision and engineering. In the early nineteenth century,
these costs were of little importance to most businesses. However,
with the growth of railroads, steel and large scale manufacturing, by
the late nineteenth century these costs were often more important than
the variable cost of a product, and allocating them to a broad range of
products lead to bad decision making. Managers must understand
fixed costs in order to make decisions about products and pricing.
For example: A company produced railway coaches and had only
one product. To make each coach, the company needed to purchase
$60 of raw materials and components, and pay 6 laborers $40 each.
Therefore, total variable cost for each coach was $300. Knowing that

making a coach required spending $300, managers knew they couldn't


sell below that price without losing money on each coach. Any price
above $300 became a contribution to the fixed costs of the company.
If the fixed costs were, say, $1000 per month for rent, insurance and
owner's salary, the company could therefore sell 5 coaches per month
for a total of $3000 (priced at $600 each), or 10 coaches for a total of
$4500 (priced at $450 each), and make a profit of $500 in both cases.

Cost Accounting vs Financial Accounting


Financial accounting aims at finding out results of accounting
year in the form of Profit and Loss Account and Balance Sheet.
Cost Accounting aims at computing cost of production/service in
a scientific manner and facilitate cost control and cost reduction.
Financial accounting reports the results and position of business to
government, creditors, investors, and external parties.
Cost Accounting is an internal reporting system for an
organizations own management for decision making.
In financial accounting, cost classification based on type of
transactions, e.g. salaries, repairs, insurance, stores etc.
In cost accounting, classification is basically on the basis of
functions, activities, products, process and on internal planning and
control and information needs of the organization.
Financial accounting aims at presenting true and fair view of
transactions, profit and loss for a period and Statement of financial
position (Balance Sheet) on a given date. It aims at computing true
and fair view of the cost of production/services offered by the firm.

INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS COSTING


Process costing is a form of operations costing which is used
where standardized homogeneous goods are produced. This
costing method is used in industries like chemicals, textiles, steel,
rubber, sugar, shoes, petrol etc. Process costing is also used in the
assembly type of industries also. It is assumed in process costing
that the average cost presents the cost per unit. Cost of production
during a particular period is divided by the number of units
produced during that period to arrive at the cost per unit.
Process costing is a method of costing under which all costs
are accumulated for each stage of production or process, and the
cost per unit of product is ascertained at each stage of production
by dividing the cost of each process by the normal output of that
process.
Definition:
CIMA London defines process costing as that form of
operation costing which applies where standardize goods are
produced
Features of Process Costing:
(a) The production is continuous
(b) The product is homogeneous
(c) The process is standardized
(d) Output of one process become raw material of another process
(e) The output of the last process is transferred to finished stock

(f) Costs are collected process-wise


(g) Both direct and indirect costs are accumulated in each process
(h) If there is a stock of semi-finished goods, it is expressed in
terms of equalent units
(i) The total cost of each process is divided by the normal output of
that process to find out cost per unit of that process.
Advantages of process costing:
1. Costs are be computed periodically at the end of a particular
period
2. It is simple and involves less clerical work that job costing
3. It is easy to allocate the expenses to processes in order to have
accurate costs.
4. Use of standard costing systems in very effective in process
costing situations.
5. Process costing helps in preparation of tender, quotations
6. Since cost data is available for each process, operation and
department, good managerial control is possible

Reasons for use:


Companies need to allocate total product costs to units of product for the
following reasons:
A company may manufacture thousands or millions of units of
product in a given period of time.

Products are manufactured in large quantities, but products may be


sold in small quantities, sometimes one at a time (automobiles,
loaves of bread), a dozen or two at a time (eggs, cookies), etc.
Product costs must be transferred from Finished Goods to Cost of
Goods Sold as sales are made. This requires a correct and accurate
accounting of product costs per unit, to have a proper matching of
product costs against related sales revenue.
Managers
need
to
maintain
cost
control
over
the manufacturing process. Process costing provides managers
with feedback that can be used to compare similar product costs
from one month to the next, keeping costs in line with projected
manufacturing budgets.
A fraction-of-a-cent cost change can represent a large dollar
change in overall profitability, when selling millions of units of
product a month. Managers must carefully watch per unit costs on
a daily basis through the production process, while at the same
time dealing with materials and output in huge quantities.

OBJECTIVES:

To study the meaning of Process Costing and its importance.

To study the Types of Process Costing.

To study the accounting procedure of process costing including


Normal Loss, Abnormal Loss or Gain.

To study the treatment of Normal Loss, Abnormal Loss or


Gain with the help of formulas.

To study What is Inter Process profits and Equivalent


Production?

Understand how Process costing operates.

REASEARCH & METHDOLOGY:

THE PROJECT DATA IS COLLECTED AND BASED


ON SECONDARY DATA I.E.

IT IS COLLECTED

THROUGH PUBLISH DATA VARIOUS REFERENCE


BOOKS,

JOURNALS,

MAGAZINES,

BULLETIN,

WEEKLINGS, PAPERS, ARTICLES AND INTERNET ARE


REFERRED.

LIMITATION:

I HAVE COLLECTED DATA THROUGH SECONDARY


SOURCES

DUE

TO

LACK

OF

TIME

FACTOR

AND

SUGGESTIONS WHICH I HAVE MADE IS BEST OF MY


KNOWLEDGE AS I AM STUDENT AND NOT ANY EXPERT IN
THIS PARTICULAR FIELD.

SIGNIFICANCE:
The project is based and prepared on subject namely
Process Costing with Special Reference to Interprocess
profits & Equivalent Production. This project is simple and
easy to understand.
I followed a proper structure i.e. Introduction, Defination,
Step, Types etc. with the help of that we can easily come to
know the concept of project.

Project is useful to study and improve theoretical


knowledge regarding the topic or subject.
Data and information of the project is collected from
internet and books, periodicals so that we will get
appropriate and correct information about the project.

CHAPTER- II
TYPES OF PROCESS COSTING:

There are three types of process costing, which are:


1. Weighted average costs. This version assumes that all costs,
whether from a preceding period or the current one, are lumped
together and assigned to produce units. It is the simplest version to
calculate.
2. Standard costs. This version is based on standard costs. Its
calculation is similar to weighted average costing, but standard
costs are assigned to production units, rather than actual costs;
after total costs are accumulated based on standard costs, these
totals are compared to actual accumulated costs, and the difference
is charged to a variance account.
3. First-in first-out costing (FIFO). FIFO is a more complex
calculation that creates layers of costs, one for any units of
production that were started in the previous production period but
not completed, and another layer for any production that is started
in the current period.
There is no last in, first out (LIFO) costing method used in process
costing, since the underlying assumption of process costing is that the
first unit produced is, in fact, the first unit used, which is the FIFO
concept.

Why have three different cost calculation methods for process costing,
and why use one version instead of another? The different calculations
are required for different cost accounting needs. The weighted average
method is used in situations where there is no standard costing system,
or where the fluctuations in costs from period to period are so slight that
the management team has no need for the slight improvement in costing
accuracy that can be obtained with the FIFO costing method.
Alternatively, process costing that is based on standard costs is required
for costing systems that use standard costs. It is also useful in situations
where companies manufacture such a broad mix of products that they
have difficulty accurately assigning actual costs to each type of product;
under the other process costing methodologies, which both use actual
costs, there is a strong chance that costs for different products will
become mixed together. Finally, FIFO costing is used when there are
ongoing and significant changes in product costs from period to period
to such an extent that the management team needs to know the new
costing levels so that it can re-price products appropriately, determine if
there are internal costing problems requiring resolution, or perhaps to
change manager performance-based compensation. In general, the
simplest costing approach is the weighted average method, with FIFO
costing being the most difficult.
COSTING PROCEDURE:

For each process an individual process account is prepared.


Each process of production is treated as a distinct cost centre.

Items on the Debit side of Process A/c.


Each process account is debited with
a) Cost of materials used in that process.
b) Cost of labour incurred in that process.
c) Direct expenses incurred in that process.
d) Overheads charged to that process on some pre determined.
e) Cost of ratification of normal defectives.
f) Cost of abnormal gain (if any arises in that process)

Items on the Credit side:


Each process account is credited with
a) Scrap value of Normal Loss (if any) occurs in that process.
b) Cost of Abnormal Loss (if any occurs in that process)

Cost of Process:
The cost of the output of the process (Total Cost less Sales value
of scrap) is transferred to the next process. The cost of each
process is thus made up to cost brought forward from the previous
process and net cost of material, labour and overhead added in that
process after reducing the sales value of scrap. The net cost of the
finished process is transferred to the finished goods account. The
net cost is divided by the number of units produced to determine
the average cost per unit in that process. Specimen of Process
Account when there are normal loss and abnormal losses.

Dr.
Particulars

Process I A/c
Units

Cr.

Amount Particulars

Units

Amount

To
Basic xx
Material
To Direct Material xx

Xxx

By Normal Loss

Xx

xx

Xx

xx

To Direct Wages

xx

Xx

By
Abnormal Xx
Loss
By Process II A/c Xx

To
Production xx
overhead

Xx

To
Cost
of xx
Rectification
of
Normal Defect
To
Abnormal
Gains

Xx

Xxx

Process Losses:

Xx

Xxx

(Output trf
next process

By Process
stock A/c

xx

to

I Xx

Xxx

xx

xxx

In many process, some loss is inevitable. Certain production


techniques are of such a nature that some loss is inherent to the
production. Wastages of material, evaporation of material is un
avoidable in some process. But sometimes the Losses are also
occurring due to negligence of Labourer, poor quality raw material,
poor technology etc. These are normally called as avoidable
losses. Basically process losses are classified into two categories
(a) Normal Loss (b) Abnormal Loss.

Treatment of Normal Loss in Process Accounts :


Normal losses are those which we can not stop. These are natural
wastage. Normal loss is an unavoidable loss which occurs due to the
inherent nature of the materials and production process under
normal conditions. It is normally estimated on the basis of past
experience of the industry. It may be in the form of normal wastage,
normal scrap, normal spoilage, and normal defectiveness. It may
occur at any time of the process.
No of units of normal loss: Input x Expected percentage of
Normal Loss.
The cost of normal loss is a process. If the normal loss units
can be sold as a crap then the sale value is credited with process
account. If some rectification is required before the sale of the
normal loss, then debit that cost in the process account. After
adjusting the normal loss the cost per unit is calculates with the
help of the following formula:
cost of goods unit :

Total cost increased - Sale value of Scrap


Input

- Normal loss Units

For example, if you doing the business of timber on the basis of their
weight. It is sure that after cutting of tree, weight of wood will decrease.
So, this loss is normal loss. In process accounts credit side, we just
show the normal losss units. Now, our total produced units will
decrease. This will decrease our cost of production in any process. For
example: If total cost of process A is Rs. 10,000. When we produce 100
units in A process, we have checked that due to natural reasons, we have
just 90 units. Now, in A Process Account, we will show 100 units in
debit side and 10 units of normal loss in credit side without writing its
amount. Due to this our total cost of Rs. 10,000 will of 90 units. It
means, cost per unit has increased from Rs. 100 per unit to Rs. 111 per
unit.

Treatment of Abnormal Loss in Process Accounts:


All those losses which happen due to abnormal reasons are called
abnormal losses. Following are its main example.
1. If you use bad quality raw material in the production, there is
big risk of wastage in production. So, use of bad quality raw
material
is
the
reason
of
abnormal
loss.
2. Careless is also reason of abnormal loss. For example, due to
the careless of worker, 5 units waste the products during
production. So, loss of 5 units is the abnormal loss.
3. All those losses which are not normal will be the abnormal loss.
For treating the abnormal loss in the process account, we need to
calculate the value of abnormal loss.

Dr.

Abnormal Loss A/c

Cr.

Particulars

Units

Amt Particulars

Units

Amt

To process A/c

Xx

xx

Xx

Xx

By Costing P&L Xx
A/c

Xx

Xxx

xxx

By bank A/c

Xxx

Xxx

a) When there is not any normal loss:


Abnormal loss = Normal cost at normal production / normal
output X units of abnormal loss
b) When there is normal loss:
Abnormal loss = {Normal cost at normal production / (Total
output normal loss units)} X Units of abnormal loss.
Example : In process A 100 units of raw materials were introduced at
a cost of Rs. 1000. The other expenditure incurred by the process was
Rs. 602 of the units introduced 10% are normally lost in the course of
manufacture and they possess a scrap value of Rs. 3 each. The output
of process A was only 75 units. Prepare process A account.

Process A Account
Amount in
Credit Side
Units
Rs.
Raw material
100
1000
Normal Loss
10
Sale of Scrap of
Other Expenses 602
normal wastage 10 units X Rs. 3 each
*Abnormal Loss
15
Process B ( Output )
75
- balancing figure
100
1602
100
Debit Side

Units

Amount in
Rs.
30
262
1310

* Calculation of Abnormal loss in units and in value:


Total input========== 100 units
Less normal loss in units== 10 units
-------------------------------------Normal Output ======== 90 units
actual output of A process = 75 units
-------------------------------------Abnormal loss in units ==== 15 units
==========================
Value of Abnormal Loss
= Cost of Total Output - scrap sale of normal loss/ Normal Output X
Units of Abnormal loss
= 1602 - 30 / 90 X 15 = Rs. 262

1602

Treatment of Abnormal Gains in Process Accounts:


The margin allowed for normal loss is an estimate (i.e. on
the basis of expectation in process industries in normal conditions)
and slight differences are bound to occur between the actual output
of a process and that anticipates. This difference may be positive or
negative. If it is negative it is called ad abnormal Loss and if it is
positive it is Abnormal gain i.e. if the actual loss is less than the
normal loss then it is called as abnormal gain. The value of the
abnormal gain calculated in the similar manner of abnormal loss.
The formula used for abnormal gain is:
Abnormal Gain:
Total Cost incurred Scrap Value of Normal Loss x Abnormal gain
units
Input units Normal Loss Units
The sales values of abnormal gain units are transferred to
Normal Loss Account since it arrive out of the savings of Normal
Loss. The difference is transferred to Costing P & L A/c. as a Real
Gain.

Dr.

Abnormal Gain A/C


Particulars

To Normal loss
A/c

Units

Rs.

Particulars
By Process A/c

Cr.
Units

Rs.

XXX XXX

XXX XXX

To Costing P/L A/c


XXX XXX

XXX XXX

XXX XXX

INTERPROCESS PROFITS:
Normally the output of one process is transferred to another
process at cost but sometimes at a price showing a profit to the
transfer process. The transfer price may be made at a price
corresponding to current wholesale market price or at cost plus an
agreed percentage. The advantage of the method is to find out
whether the particular process is making profit (or) loss. This will
help the management whether to process the product or to buy the
product from the market. If the transfer price is higher than the cost
price then the process account will show a profit. The complexity
brought into the accounting arises from the fact that the inter
process profits introduced remain a part of the prices of process
stocks, finished stocks and work-in-progress. The balance cannot
show the stock with profit. To avoid the complication a provision
must be created to reduce the stock at actual cost prices. This
problem arises only in respect of stock on hand at the end of the
period because goods sold must have realized the internal profits.
The unrealized profit in the closing stock is eliminated by creating a
stock reserve. The amount of stock reserve is calculated by the
following formula.
Stock Reserve = Transfer Value of stock x Profit included in transfer
Price
Transfer Price

WHAT ARE EQUIVALENT UNITS

OF PRODUCTION?
Equivalent units of production are a term applied to the work-inprocess inventory at the end of an accounting period. It is the number of
completed units of an item that a company could theoretically have
produced, given the amount of direct materials, direct labor, and
manufacturing costs incurred during that period for the items not yet
completed. In short, if 100 units are in process but you have only
expended 40% of the processing costs on them, then you are considered
to have 40 equivalent units of production.
Equivalent units are a cost accounting concept that is used in process
costing for cost calculations. It has no relevance from an operational
perspective, nor is it useful for any other type of cost derivation other
than process costing.
Equivalent units of production are usually stated separately for direct
materials and all other manufacturing expenses, because direct materials
are typically added at the beginning of the production process; while all
other costs are incurred as the materials gradually work their way
through the production process. Thus, the equivalent units for direct
materials are generally higher than for other manufacturing expenses.
When you assign a cost to equivalent units of production, you typically
assign either the weighted of the beginning inventory plus new

purchases to the direct materials, or the cost of the oldest inventory in


stock (known as the first in, first out, or FIFO, method). The simpler of
the two methods is the weighted average method. The FIFO method is
more accurate, but the additional calculations do not represent a good
cost-benefit trade off. Only consider using the FIFO method when costs
vary substantially from period to period, so that management can see the
trends in costs.

Equivalent Units of Production


After materials, labor, and overhead costs have been accumulated in a
department, the departments output must be determined so that unit
product costs can be computed. The difficulty is that a department
usually has some partially completed units in its ending inventory. It
does not seem reasonable to count these partially completed units as
equivalent to fully completed units when counting the departments
output. Therefore, these partially completed units are translated into
an equivalent number of fully completed units. In process costing, this
translation is done using the following formula:
As the formula states, equivalent units are the product of the number of
partially completed units and the percentage completion of those units
with respect to the processing in the department. Roughly speaking, the

equivalent units are the number of complete units that could have been
obtained from the materials and effort that went into the partially
complete units.

Weighted-Average Method

Under the weighted-average method, a departments equivalent units are


computed as follows:
Note that the computation of the equivalent units of production involves
adding the number of units transferred out of the department to the
equivalent units in the departments ending inventory. There is no need
to compute the equivalent units for the units transferred out of the
departmentthey are 100% complete with respect to the work done in
that department or they would not be transferred out. In other words,
each unit transferred out of the department is counted as one equivalent
unit.

Computation of Equivalent Production & Cost per equivalent


unit and evaluate the output.

particular

input

Particulars

units

Output

% Work Equivalent

units

Done

units

Op. WIP

1000

Op. WIP

1000

40

400

Units intro

10000

Completed

8000

100

8000

Normal loss

1100

Cl. WIP

800

75

600

Abnormal
loss(bal. fig)

100

100

100

1100

11000

CHAPTER- III

9100

REVIEW OF LITERATURE:

Process costing is a form of operations costing which is


used where standardized homogeneous goods are produced.
This costing method is used in industries like chemicals,
textiles, steel, rubber, sugar, shoes, petrol etc. Process costing is
also used in the assembly type of industries also. It is assumed
in process costing that the average cost presents the cost per
unit. Cost of production during a particular period is divided
by the number of units produced during that period to arrive
at the cost per unit.
Process costing is a method of costing under which all
costs are accumulated for each stage of production or process,
and the cost per unit of product is ascertained at each stage of
production by dividing the cost of each process by the normal
output of that process.

OBSERVATION:

I have studied and analyzed the project namely, Process


Costing with Special Reference to Inter-process Profits &
Equivalent Production. In that project I followed a proper
structure

of

project

i.e.

introduction,

meaning,

definition,

significance, objectives, limitations, etc. so with the help of that data


we can easily understand the project.
I observed that the cost accounting is a process of collecting,
analyzing, summarizing and evaluating various alternatives courses
of actions. Process costing is a form of operations costing which is
used where standardized homogeneous goods are produced. In
process costing we have to calculate or determine the cost which is
incurred to manufactured a particular product.
Process Costing is beneficial to the manufacturing companies as
well as assembling type of industries. It is very useful. It has its
advantages, and significance but it also has its own limitations and
disadvantages that I have mentioned in the project. There should be
a need to made some changes or upgrade this topic according to
changing market and technology.

CHAPTER- IV

FINDINGS & SUGGESTION:

Production is contentious.
Product is homogeneous and standardized.
Suitable where goods are made for stock
Cost is calculated at the end of the period.
The output of one process transferred to another process as
input.
Suggestion: The computation of average cost is more difficult
in those cases where more than one type of products is
manufactured so, it is suggested that there should be need to
change or upgrade process costing to overcome and solved that
kind of limitations.

CONCLUSION:

I have studied and analyzed the Process Costing in regarding of


their Objectives, Use, Importance, Features, Types, etc. Process
Costing with Special Reference to Interprocess Profit & Equivalent
Production. The Cost is very much important in the Cost making
of any product and hence it should be accurate. The process costing
undergoes through various processes and finally gets converted into
finished goods. In Between this the company earns profit internally
through bulk purchases and equivalent production helps to achieve
a good profit and earning.

WEBILIOGRAPHY & BIBLIOGRAPHY:


WWW.GOOGLE.COM
WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM
BOOK: MUMBAI UNIVERSITY MODULE.

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