Handout 1 Short PDF

Outline
EE 312 Signals and Systems
I. Definition of Signals
Handout #1
II. Classifications of Signals

III. Important CT Signals
Signals: Concepts & Properties
IV. Important DT Signals
Prof. Mohamed Zribi
V. Operations on signals
Updated 7 September 2015
EE312 Signals and Systems
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
What is a Signal?
o A signal is a function of time representing a physical
variable, e.g. voltage, current, spring displacement, share
market prices, number of student asleep in the Lab, cash in
I. Definition of Signals
the bank account.
o Typically we will use a mathematical function such as f(t),

u(t) or y(t) to describe a signal which is a continuous
function of time.
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
Remarks about Signals

o Usually, a signal is a function of an independent variable
o
Example 1: Daily high temperature measured over a month

Continuous-time signals are functions of a real argument
x(t) where t can take any real value
x(t) may be 0 for a given range of values of t
Discrete-time signals are functions of an argument that takes
values from a discrete set
x[n] where n {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3...}
Often, we use index instead of time for discrete-time
signals
II. Classification of Signals
o Values for x may be real or complex

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1. One-dimensional and Multi-dimensional Signals

2. Continuous-time and discrete-time Signals
3. Analog and digital Signals
4. Deterministic and Random Signals
5. Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
6. Causal and Anti-causal vs. Non-causal Signals
7. Even and Odd Signals
8. Finite and Infinite Length Signals
9. Energy of a Signal
10. Power of a Signal
11. Energy signals and power signals
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1.One-dimensional vs.
Multi-dimensional
Classification of Signals
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A signal can be a function of a single variable or a

function of multiple variables.
Example 2:
Speech varies as a function of time one-dimensional
Image intensity varies as a function of (x , y) coordinates

multi-dimensional
In this course, we will focus on one-dimensional

signals.
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Continuous-Time (CT) Signals
2. Continuous-time vs. Discrete-time
A signal is continuous time if it is defined for all
Most signals in the real world are continuous time.
time, x(t).
x(t)
A signal is discrete time if it is defined only at
E.g. voltage, velocity,
discrete instants of time, x[n].
A discrete time signal can be derived from a
continuous time signal through sampling, i.e.:
xd [n] xc (nTs ), Ts
is
the sampling
A CT signal is denoted by x (t), where the time interval

may be bounded (finite) or infinite
period
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Discrete-Time (DT) Signals
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Continuous-Time vs. Discrete-Time

Graphically,
Some real world and many digital signals are discrete time, as
x[n]
x(t )
x[2] ...
x[1]
x[1] x[0]
... x[3]
x[2]
they are sampled. For example, pixels, daily stock price

(anything that a digital computer processes)
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A DT signal is denoted by x[n], where n is an integer value that
... -3 -2 -1
0 1 2 3 4 ...
varies discretely.
x[n]
not defined.
n
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It is meaningless to say 1.5 sample of a DT signal because it is
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Examples of Signals
Example 3:
Graphical Representation of a DT is shown below:
Continuous time signal
xa(t)
Discrete time signal

(sequence)
x[n]
x[n] = xa(nT )
: sampling period
fs = 1/T : sampling rate
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Example 4:
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Discrete-time Signals
Graphical Representation of a DT is shown below:
A discrete-time signal is usually (not always) obtained from sampling a

continuous signal at a regular time period known as the sampling period,
which we will represent by the parameter T.
Thus the discrete-time signal is equal in amplitude to the continuous

signal at the sampling instants.
f k f kT
d
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A discrete-time signal is essentially a sequence of numbers (0,1,2, ...)

where each of those numbers represents the amplitude of a continuoustime signal at a time equal to kT.
Note that often we neglect to put in the sampling period and write the
signal simple as a function of the sample number k.
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Discrete-time Signals
Example 5:
Converting between a continuous and discrete signal.
Sampling of an analog signal is shown below:
Consider the continuous-time signal such as:
xc t e t
The sampling interval T = 0.1 seconds. Start sampling at t = 0

xd [0] e0 1.0000
xd [1] e 1*T 0.9048
xd [2] e 2*T 0.8187
xd [3] e 3*T 0.7408
xd [k ] e k *T e
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0.1*k
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Continuous-Time vs. Discrete Time

We can also write:
xd k e
k *T
To distinguish CT and DT signals, t is used to denote CT and the
eT 0.9048k
k
independent variable in (.). Also, n is used to denote DT
Either method gives
xd k 1.0000,
independent variable in [.]
0.9048, 0.8187, 0.7408,
i.e. a sequence of number, known as the discrete-time signal.
Continuous x(t), t is real
Note that the values of this sequence depend on the sampling period.
Discrete x[n], n is integer

Signals can be represented in mathematical form. For example,
If the sampling interval T were doubled then :
x(t) = et, x[n] = n/2
xd k 1.0000, 0.8187,
0
y (t ) 2
t
Thus a single continuous function can yield an infinite number of

sampled sequences, depending on the value chosen for T.
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,t 5
,t 5
Discrete signals can also be represented as sequences:

{y[n]} = {,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,}
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3. Analog vs. Digital Signals
Analog vs. Digital Signals
The difference between analog and
A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a

continuous range is an analog signal.
digital signals is with respect to the

value of the function (y-axis).
A digital signal is one whose amplitude can take on only a
An analog signal corresponds to a
finite number of values. For example, Binary signals are
continuous y-axis, while a digital
digital signals.
signal corresponds to a discrete yaxis.
An analog signal can be converted into a digital signal

through quantization.
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Analog vs. Digital Signals

Digital vs. Analog Signals
The amplitude of an analog signal can take any real or

complex value at each time/sample
Analog
The amplitude of a digital signal takes values from a discrete

set
Digital
-1
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Examples of analog technology
photocopiers
telephones
audio tapes
televisions (intensity and color info per scan line)
VCRs (same as TV)
Examples of digital technology
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Digital computers!
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4. Deterministic vs. Random Signals
Analog and Digital Signals
Deterministic signal is a signal in which each value of the

signal is fixed and can be determined by a mathematical
expression, rule, or table. Because of this the future values of the
signal can be calculated from past values with complete
confidence.
Random signal has a lot of uncertainty about its behavior. The

future values of a random signal cannot be accurately predicted
and can usually only be guessed based on the averages of sets of
signals
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In other words,
Example 6: Deterministic vs. Random Signals
A deterministic signal is known for all time and can be

predicted in advance exactly, e.g. a sine-wave with known
phase.
Deterministic
A random signal cannot be predicted exactly, e.g. weather

temperatures.
Random signals are usually dealt with by statistical rather than
analytical techniques.
Random
Noise is simply a signal we don't want. Sometime it is

completely random, but on occasions it can be someone else's
signal, such as cross-talk on a telephone line. So, since we don't
want it we call it noise.
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Examples of Signals
Example 7: Deterministic vs. Random Signals

Deterministic signal
(An example is sin wave, square wave)
Deterministic
Signal
.
.
.
.
Random
Signal
Stochastic signal (An example is noise signal or human voice)
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Examples of Signals
5. Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Signal
with noise
A periodic signal x(t) is a function of time that satisfies

x(t ) x(t T )
t , T 0
The smallest T, that satisfies this relationship is called the

fundamental period.
Deterministic
Signal
Signal
with noise
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1
T
is called the frequency of the signal (Hz).

2
T
Angular frequency,
A signal is either periodic or aperiodic.
A periodic signal must continue forever.
A non-periodic signal is called aperiodic.
2 f
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Example 9: Periodic and Aperiodic signals
Example 8: The voltage at an AC power source is

periodic.
Remark:
(radians/sec).
Periodic
a T 0
b T 0
v (t )dt v (t )dt v (t )dt
T0
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Aperiodic
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Example 10: Periodic and Aperiodic signals
Example 11:
An example of a CT periodic signal is:

x (t )
Periodic
Periodic
2T
Periodic
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If x(t) is periodic with T then
Thus, x(t) is also periodic with 2T, 3T, 4T, ...
The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the smallest value of T for which holds.
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Example 12: Periodic signals
2T
x(t ) x(t nT ) for n Z
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Example 13: Periodic signals
cos (t +2) = cos (t)
x ( t ) je
j5t
j cos 5 t sin 5 t
sin (t +2) = sin (t)
This is periodic if there exists T > 0 such that:
These two signals are both periodic with period 2
x (t ) x (t T )
j cos 5 ( t T ) sin 5 ( t T )
This is true for sinusoidal signals:
5T 2 k
k ..., 2 , 1 , 1 , 2 ,....
T 2 / 5
Periodic
Signal is periodic and fundamental period is

T = 2 / 5
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Sum of Periodic Signals
Example 15:
Sum of periodic Signals
x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t)
x1(t) = cos(3.5t)
x(t+T) = x1(t+n1T1) + x2(t+n2T2)
x2(t) = sin(2t)
n1T1=n2T2 = To =Fundamental period
x3(t) = 2cos(7t/6)
Is v(t) = x1 (t) + x2(t) + x3(t) periodic?
What is the fundamental period of v(t)?
Example 14:
cos(t/3)+sin(t/4)
T1=(2)/(/3)=6; T2 =(2)/(/4)=8;
T1/T2=6/8 =
n1T1=n2T2 = 6*4 = 3*8 = 24 = To

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Example 16: Sum of periodic Signals may

not always be periodic!
x1(t) = cos(3.5t)
f1 = 3.5/2
x2(t) = sin(2t)
f2 = 2/2
x3(t) = 2cos(t7/6) f3 = (7/6)/2
T1/T2 = 4/7 Ratio or two integers
T1/T3 = 1/3 Ratio or two integers
Summation is periodic
T1 = 2 /3.5
T2 = 2 /2
T3 = 2 /(7/6)
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t ) cos t sin 2t
x(t) is aperiodic
n1T1 = n2T2 = n3T3 = To ; Hence we find To

The question is how to choose m1, m2, m3 such that the above
relationship holds
We know: 7(T1) = 4(T2) and 3(T1) = 1(T3) ;
Hence:
21(T1) = 12(T2)= 7(T3);
Thus, fundamental period: To = 21(T1) = 21(2 /3.5)=12(T2)=12
T1=2/= 2;
T2 =2/ 2
T1/T2= 2
Note: T1/T2 =
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is an irrational number
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Product of Periodic Signals
Example 17: Sum of periodic Signals may

not always be periodic!
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t ) cos t sin 2 t
T1=2/= 2;
T2 = 1
There is no common factor between T1 and T2
x(t) is aperiodic
x(t) = xa(t) * xb(t)
If x(t ) 2sin(
t ) cos( t )
24
24
It can be checked that
since 2sin(a ) cos(b) sin(a b) sin(a b)

x(t) = sin(t/3)+sin(t/4)
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Thus, To=24.
Discrete Time Periodic Signals
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Periodic Signals for DT Signals
Definition:
A discrete time signal x[n] is periodic with period N if and only

if
x[n] x[n N ]
For DT we must have
Period must be
integer!
x[n N ] x[n] n, N 0
for all n .
Here the smallest N can be 1
Meaning: a periodic signal keeps repeating itself forever!

x[n]
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The smallest positive value of N is N0 which is called the

fundamental period
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Periodic Signals for DT Signals
Example 18:
Consider the Sinusoid:
A signal is periodic if repeats after T values:
x[n] 2 cos 0.2 n 0.9
x [n] = x [n+ N0] = x [n+2 N0] = x [n+3 N0] =

N0 is the period of the signal
It is periodic with period N 10 since
x[n 10] 2 cos0.2 (n 10) 0.9

2 cos0.2 n 0.9 2 x[n]
for all n.
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General Periodic Sinusoid
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Example 19:
Consider a Sinusoid of the form:
Consider the sinusoid:
x[n] A cos 2 n
N
x[n] 5 cos0.3 n 0.1
with k, N integers.
We can write it as:
x[n] 5 cos 2
n 0.1
20
It is periodic with period N since
It is periodic with period N 20
x[n N ] A cos 2 (n N )
N
A cos 2 n k 2 x[n]
N
since
x[n 20] 5 cos0.3 (n 20) 0.1
5 cos0.3 n 0.1 3 2 x[n]

for all n.
for all n.
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Periodic Complex Exponentials
Example 20:
Consider a Complex Exponential of the form:
x[n] Ae
2
j k
N
Consider the Complex Exponential:
x[n] (1 2 j )e j 0.1 n
We can write it as
It is periodic with period N since
x[n N ] Ae
Ae
x[n] (1 2 j )e
2
j k
( n N )
N
2
j k
N
j 2 n
20
and it is periodic with period N = 20.
e jk 2 x[n]
for all n.
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Periodicity Properties of DT Signals
Example 21: Periodic Signals

x[n] e j 7 n
cos(7 n) j sin(7 n)
j0 N
Periodicity condition : e j0(n N) e j0 n e
(*)
must be unity
This is periodic if there exists N>0 such that :
x[n] x[n N]
This holds if 0 N is an integer multiple of 2 . (**)
cos7 (n N) j sin7 (n N)
In other word s, for some integer m we must have 0 N 2 m
This is true for sinusoidal signals:
7 N 2k
N 2k / 7
N 2
Or equivalent ly
k ...,2,1,1,2,....
k 7
We have the conditions from (*) and (**) that m and N must be integers.
So DT exp is periodic when
Signal is periodic and

fundamental period is N=2
0 m
(* * *)
2 N
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0 m
is a rational number, not periodic otherwise! !!
2 N
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Periodicity Properties of DT Signals
Example 22: Periodic Signals
Take the common factor out

The fundamenta l frequency is then
If x[n] cos(
2 0
N
m
2
The fundamental period is then N m
0
2 n
)
12
x[n] cos( 2 n
If x[n] cos(
0
as in (* * *)
2
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) cos(0 n) 0
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0 1
no factors in common,
2 12
4
12
2
1
,
12
6
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Comparison of Periodicity of CT and

DT Signals
Consider x(t) and x[n]

2t
)
12
12
then using (****) , N 1 6 is periodic with fundamental period 6.
2
Comparison of Periodicity of CT and DT

Signals
x(t) cos (
2
12
4 n
)
12
x[n] cos( 4 n
(The same development is also valid for DT sinusoidal signals.)!!
) cos(0 n) 0
12
so by using (****) , N 1 12 periodic with fund period 12.
1
(* * **)
Therefore to find the fund. freq. of a complex exp. we need to express
12
if
x(t ) cos
8 t
and
31
x[n] cos
8 n
31
x(t) is periodic with 31/4.
x[n] cos (
2n
)
12
1
6
If x(t ) cos( t )
x[n] is periodic with N=12.
and
1
x[n] cos( n)
6
x(t) is periodic with 12, but x[n] is not periodic, because

to express it as in (***)
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0
4
2
31
then N=31.
x(t) is periodic with T=12,
In DT, we cant have fractional periods. Thus for x[n] we have
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0
1
2 12
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there is no way
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6. Causal vs. Anti-causal vs. Non-causal
In other words:
Causal signals are signals that are zero for all negative time,
A signal that does not start before t=0 is a causal signal.

x(t)=0, t < 0
Anticausal are signals that are zero for all positive time.
Noncausal signals are signals that have nonzero values in both
A signal that starts before t=0 is a noncausal signal.
A signal that is zero for t > 0 is called an anticausal signal.
positive and negative time
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Example 23: Causal vs. Anti-causal vs. Non-causal

Example 24:
causal signal
0
Anti-causal signal
Non-causal signal
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Even and Odd Signals
7. Even and Odd Signals
If
x(t ) x(t ) or x[n] x[n]
even signal (symmetric wrt y-axis)
If
x(t ) x(t ) or x[n] x[n]
odd signal (symmetric wrt origin)
x(t)
x(t)
even
t
An even signal is identical to its time reversed signal, i.e. it can

be reflected in the origin and is equal to the original:
x(t ) x(t )
Example 25:
odd
x(t) = cos(t)
x(t) = c
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Even and Odd Signals
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Example 27: Even and Odd Signals
An odd signal is identical to its negated, time reversed signal, i.e. it is

equal to the negative reflected signal
x(t ) x(t )
even
Example 26:
x(t) = sin(t)
odd
x(t) = t
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Even and Odd CT Functions
Example 28: Even and Odd Signals
Even Functions
Odd Functions
gt gt
gt gt
xe(t) = xe(-t) and xo(t) = - xo(-t)
even
odd
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Even and Odd DT Functions

g n g n
g n g n
g n g n
go n
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Combination of Even and Odd

Functions
Function type Sum
Difference
Product
Quotient
Both even
Even
Even
Even
Even
Both odd
Odd
Odd
Even
Even
Neither
Odd
Odd
Even and odd Neither
ge n
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g n g n
2
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Even vs. Odd Signals

Prove that product of two
even signals is an even
signal.
Prove that product of two
odd signals is an even signal.
Example 29: Products of Even and Odd Functions
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t )
Two Even Functions
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t )
x1 (t ) x2 (t ) x(t )
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t )
x(t ) x1 (t ) x2 (t )
x1 (t ) x2 (t )
x(t ) x(t ) Even
What is the product of an

even signal and an odd
signal?
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An Even Function and an Odd Function

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Two Odd Functions
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Two Even Functions
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Two Odd Functions
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Function type and the types of
Integrals of Even and Odd Functions
derivatives and integrals

Function type
Derivative
Integral
Even
Odd
Odd + constant
Odd
Even
Even
a
g t dt 2 g t dt
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g t dt 0
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Decomposition of signals to Even

and Odd Signals
Accumulation of Even and Odd

Functions
A signal can be even, odd or neither.

Any signal x(t) can be written as a combination of
an even and odd signals.
1
x (t ) x (t )
2
x (t ) x e (t ) x o (t )
1
x o (t ) x (t ) x (t )
2
x e (t )
n N
g n g 0 2 g n
n 1
g n 0
n N
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Even and Odd Parts of Functions
Example 36:
xe (t )
1
The even part of a signal is x e t x t x t
2
The odd part of a signal is x o t
1
( x(t ) x(t ))
2
xo (t )
1
( x(t ) x(t ))
2
1
x t x t
2
Even part
A signal whose even part is zero is odd and a signal

whose odd part is zero is even.
Odd part
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Example 37: Even-Odd Signals
Symmetric across the vertical axis
Anti-symmetric
across the vertical axis
Given:
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Given x(t) find xe(t) and xo(t)
x(t)
Given x(t) find xe(t) and xo(t)
x(t )
4___
4___
4e-0.5t
5
xo (t )
xe (t )
2___
-5
2___
2___
x (t )
o
2___
-5
-2e+0.5t
2e-0.5t
5
xe (t )
2___
2e+0.5t
2___
5 2e-0.5t
-2___
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The odd part of f(t) is as follows:
The even part of f(t) is as follows:
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8. Finite vs. Infinite Length Signals

x(t) is a finite length signal if it is nonzero over a
finite interval a < t < b
The addition of the even part and the odd part gives f(t)
x(t) is infinite length signal if it is nonzero over all

real numbers.
Remark: Periodic signals are infinite length.

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9. Energy of Signals
In other words,
All physical activity is mediated by a transfer of energy.
f (t) is a finite-length signal if it is nonzero over a finite
No real physical system can respond to an excitation unless it has

energy.
interval t1 < f (t) < t2
Signal energy of a signal is defined as the area under the square

of the magnitude of the signal.
Infinite-length signal, f (t), is defined as nonzero over all
The energy of a signal x is:
real numbers:
E x x t dt
2
and, E x x n
The units of signal energy depends on the unit of the signal.
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If the signal unit is volt (V), the energy of that signal is expressed
in V2.s.
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9a. Energy of Signals
9b. Energy of Signals

(over infinite time intervals)
(over finite time intervals)
For many signals, were interested in examining the energy over
Total energy of a CT signal x(t) over [t1, t2] is:
an infinite time interval (-, ):

t2
E x(t ) dt
2
E limT x(t ) dt x(t ) dt
t1
where |.| denote the magnitude of the (complex) number/signal.
For CT signal
E lim N n N x[n] n x[n]

N
For DT signal
Total energy of a DT signal x[n] over [n1, n2]:
E n2 n x[n]
n
If the sums or integrals do not converge, the signal energy is
infinite.
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Example 41: Energy of Signals
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Example 42: Energy of Signals
x(t ) e 2t u (t )
x(t ) t[u (t ) u (t 1)]
E | x(t ) |2 dt (e 2t u (t )) 2 dt
e dt 1/ 4e 4t
0
4 t
E | x(t ) |2 dt t 2 dt 1/ 3t 3 1/ 3
1/ 4
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Example 43: Determine the energy of this signal?

Example 44: Energy of a Signal
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
102

x[n] (1/ 2) n u[n]

E n | x[n] |2
n ((1/ 2) n u[n]) 2
n 0 (1/ 4) n
1/ (1 1/ 4)
4/3
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Power of Signals
(over infinite time intervals)
10. Power of Signals
The corresponding power is:
By dividing the energy by (t2-t1) and (n2-n1+1), respectively, gives

the average power over finite time intervals,
P lim
t2
1
( t 2 t1 ) t
1
x(t ) dt
1
( n2 n1 1)
n n1
x[n]
x ( t ) dt lim
E
2T
For CT signal
For CT signal
P lim
n2
1
2T
N
1
E
2
x[ n ] lim
N
2 N 1 n N
2N 1
For DT signal
For DT signal
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Example 48: Determine the suitable measure for this signal?
Example 47: Energy and Power of Signals

x (t ) e 2t u (t )
E | x (t ) |2 dt (e 2t u (t )) 2 dt
e
0
4t
dt 1/ 4e 4t
1/ 4
The signal (b) does not approach 0 as |t| and it is a

periodic wave, therefore use the power equation where g2 is
replaced with t2.
.
T
P limT
1
2T
limT
1
2T
* 14
| x (t ) |2 dt
0
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Example 49: Determine the power
Example 50: Determine the power

g (t) = C1 cos (1t + 1) + C2 cos (2t + 2)
Periodic signal with T0 2 / o

Suitable measure of size is power
C2/2
- First term on the right hand side equals

- Second term is zero integral appearing in this term is area under a sinusoid.
-Area is at most the area of half cycle positive and negative portion cancels
-A sinusoid of amplitude C has a power of C2/2 regardless of angular frequency
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
110
x (t ) 5 10 cos(100t / 3)
The signal is complex and periodic. Therefore, use the power

equation averaged over T0.
|ejt| = 1 so that |Dejt|2 = |D|2 and
This Can be generalized
Example 52: Power of a Signal
g (t) = Dejt
This signal is the sum of two sinusoid signals.

Therefore, use the power equation.
Therefore, Pg = (C12 / 2) + (C22 / 2)
109
Example 51: What is the suitable measure for this signal?
1 2
1
2T
1
2T
P limT
1
2T
limT
limT
T
T
| x (t ) |2 dt
(5 10 cos(100t / 3)) 2 dt
1 1
2
25 100 cos (100t / 3) 100[ cos(200t 2 / 3)] dt
2
2
25 50 75
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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x[n] (1 / 2) n u[n]
x(t ) e jt cos(ot )
E n | x[n] |2
n ((1 / 2) n u[n]) 2
P lim
1
T 2T
lim
1
T 2T
lim
1
T 2T
limT
1
2T
T
T
T
T
| x(t ) | dt
e
j t
cos(ot )e
n 0 (1 / 4) n
j t
cos(ot )dt
1 /(1 1 / 4)
4/3
cos (ot )dt

2
1 1
[ cos(2ot )]dt
2 2
P lim N
1
2 N 1
lim N
1
2 N 1
* 43
N
n N
| x[n] |2
0
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Complex periodic exponential and sinusoidal signals are of

infinite total energy but finite average power
where P is period of the sine wave.
E period
T T0
The period can be taken:

or from t 1 0
Pperiod
to t 2 T
Usually we take the former as it often makes the mathematics

easier.
2
T /2
2 t
1
P
A sin
dt
T / 2 T / 2 T/2
T
A2
2T
A2
4 t
1 cos
dt
2
T
T
T /2
T /2
j 0 t 2
dt
T
4 t
t 4 sin T
T /2
(T T0 ) T T0
As the upper limit of the integrand is increased as E period
Pperiod 1
Finite average power!
2
1
P lim
e j0t dt 1
T 2T
T
A2
2T
T /2
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
1 dt
1
E period 1
(T T0 ) T
However, always
Thus,
T T0
to t 2 T / 2
114
Example 56: Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
2 t
Power in a Sine wave: y t A sin
from t 1 T / 2
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Energy Signals and Power Signals
11. Energy Signals and Power Signals

A signal with finite signal energy (0< E <) is
Energy signals have finite energy. All energy signals

decay to zero as |t| .
called an energy signal.

A signal with infinite signal energy and finite
average signal power (0< P< ) is called a
Power signals have finite and non-zero power. All
power signal.
periodic signals are power signals.
An energy signal has zero power.

A power signal has infinite energy.
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Example 57: Energy signals and power signals

Examples for signals with finite energy (a) and finite power (b):
Periodic signals and random signals are usually

power signals.
Signals that are both deterministic and aperiodic

are usually energy signals.
Finite length and finite amplitude signals are
Remark: The terms energy and power are not used in their
conventional sense as electrical energy or power, but only as a
measure for the signal size.
energy signals.
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Energy signal iff 0<E<, and so P=0
Neither energy nor power, when both E and P are infinite
Example 58:
x(t ) e 2t u (t )
E 0.25 and P 0
Example 60:
x(t ) et u (t )
Power signal iff 0 < P < , and so E=
Example 59:
E limT
x[n] (1) n
E lim N n N x[n] lim N n N (1) n lim N 2 N 1
N
P lim
x (t ) dt e 2t dt 0.5e 2t
2
1
T 2T
P lim
1
2N 1
2
1
x[ n ] Nlim
2 N 1
2 N 1 n N
N
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1
T 2T
x (t ) dt lim
2t
dt
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Are all energy signals also power signals?
No. Any signal with finite energy will have zero power.
III. Important CT Signals
Are all power signals also energy signals?

No. Any signal with non-zero power will have infinite
energy.
Are all signals either energy signals or power signals?

No. Any infinite-duration, increasing-magnitude
function will not be either. (For example, the signal x(t) =t
is neither.)
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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1. The Unit Step Function
Building-block Signals
A definition of the unit step function is as follows:
1.
We will represent signal as sums of building-block signals.
2.
Important families of building-block signals are the unit
1 , t 0
u t 1/ 2 , t 0
0 , t 0
Precise Graph
Commonly-Used Graph
step, unit ramp, unit parabolic, unit impulse, and

complex exponentials functions.
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Ramp Functions
2. The Unit Ramp Function
A shifted ram function with slop B is defined as
g (t ) B(t t0 )
t , t 0 t
ramp t
u d t u t
0 , t 0
The unit ramp function is the integral of the unit step function.
It is called the unit ramp function because for positive t, its
slope is one amplitude unit per time.
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0, t 0
r (t ) tu (t )
t , 0 t.
f(t)
Unit ramp function being at t=0 by making B=1 and t0=0

and multiplying by u(t), giving
r(t)=tu(t)
Time, t
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3. The Unit Parabolic Function
4. The Signum Function

1 , t 0
sgn t 0 , t 0 2 u t 1
1 , t 0
The unit parabolic function
Precise Graph
Commonly-Used Graph
if t 0
0
pt 2
t / 2 if t 0
t2
u (t )
2!
The signum function, is closely related to the unit-step

function.
t
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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The Unit Rectangle Function
5. The Rectangular Pulse Function
Rectangular pulse,
1 , t 1/ 2
rect t 1/ 2 , t 1/ 2 u t 1/ 2 u t 1/ 2
0 , t 1/ 2
1/ a , t a / 2
, t a/2
0
a t
Commonly-used graph
Precise graph
The signal turned on at time t = -1/2 and turned back off at

time t = +1/2.
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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7. The Unit Sinc Function
6. The Unit Triangle Function
The unit sinc function is related to the unit rectangle function through the
Fourier transform.
1 t , t 1
tri t
, t 1
0
The unit triangle is related to the unit rectangle through an

operation called convolution. It is called a unit triangle because
its height and area are both one (but its base width is not).
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
sinc t
133
sin t
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The Dirac delta function
8. The CT Impulse Function
(t)
This unit impulse function (sometimes called the Dirac Delta

Function) is defined by the conditions:
Representation:
( t ) 0 , fo r t 0 .
The CT Impulse Function or the dirac delta

function
0
( t ) d t 1
(t)
Relationship
t
du t
dt
1/
u t t d
Normalization
(0)
t l im t
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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The Unit Step and Unit Impulse Function
The Delta Function
As a approaches zero, g t approaches a unit

step and g t approaches a unit impulse
The value of delta function can also be defined in the sense

of generalized function:
(t ) (t )dt (0)
(t): TestFunction
Functions that approach unit step and unit impulse
we talk about the values of integrals involving (t).
The unit step is the integral of the unit impulse and

the unit impulse is the generalized derivative of the unit step
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CT Unit Impulse Function
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Derivative of the Unit Step Function
The continuous unit impulse signal is defined:
0 t 0
(t )dt 1
t 0
Note that it is discontinuous at t=0
The arrow is used to denote area (1), rather than
actual value ()
(t )
du
(t )
dt
u(t)
(t)
Derivative
The continuous unit step signal is defined:

t
u (t ) ( )d
du(t )
(t )
dt
0 if t 0
u (t )
1 if t 0
0 t 0
u (t )
1 t 0
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
u (t )
( )d
Remark: The value of u(t) at t = 0 is not well defined, we

generally adopt one by convention.
The step function is discontinuous at time t=0

139
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Example 61: Negative steps and deltas
CT Unit Impulse Function (t)
-u
0 if t 0
u(t )
1 if t 0
t
-1
d u
(t )
dt
Representation:
(-1)
or
t
(-1)
t
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g (t )
The area under an impulse is called its strength or weight. It is

represented graphically by a vertical arrow. Its strength is either
written beside it or is represented by its length. An impulse with a
strength of one is called a unit impulse.
f ( ) d
[ ( ) u( ) ]d u(t ) u( ) d
0 if t 0
u
(
)
d
t if t 0
g
1
143
u ( ) d
t u (t )
g (t ) u (t ) 1 t
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Example 62: integrate f (t ) (t ) u(t )
Graphical Representation of the

Impulse Function
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
dg
(t ) u (t )
dt
Due to
Standard derivative
jump
Dr. Mohamed Zribi away from t = 0.
144
Translations and flips of steps and deltas

0 if t
u (t )
1 if t
Example 63:
1 if t
u ( t )
0 if t
f ( t ) u ( t ) u ( t 2)
u ( t ) u (2 t )
(t ) ( t )
Using the first expression,
df
(t ) t 2
dt
1 if t [a, b]
0 otherwise
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
t
145
t 0, f (t ) (t ) f 0 (t )
Similarly
f (0) (t ) dt f (0) (t ) dt f (0)
f (t ) (t ) dt f ( )
f
(1)
b t
Consistent with previous answer

Dr. Mohamed Zribi
a f (t ) (t ) dt u(t a ) u(t b) f (t ) (t ) dt
df
( t ) u (2 t ) u ( t ) t 2 ( t ) u
(2 ) u
(2 ) t 2
dt
1
1
146
Apply to the previous example:
(t ) t 2
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
f ( )
(1)
f (t ) (t ) dt
t , f (t ) (t ) f (t )
If f(t) continuous at
Consequence of our basic property
Let f(t) be a standard function.
df
dt
df
(t ) u(2 t ) u(t ) 2 t ( 1)
dt
(t ) u(2 t ) u(t ) t 2
Different answer?
A basic property of the delta

If f(t) is continuous at
Using the second,
u(t a ) u(t b) u(t a ) u(b t )
A pulse function:
147
f ( ) if a b
f ( ) u( a ) u( b)
0 if a or b
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Properties of Unit Impulse Function
a f (t ) (t ) dt
f ( ) if a b
0 if a or b
(1)
b t
What if falls exactly in one of the limits of integration?

In that case, for the integral to be well defined we must
a f (t ) (t a) dt
b
f (t ) (t b) dt f (b),
Write t ast+t0
f (t ) (t b) dt 0,
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
(t t0 )(t )dt (t )(t t0 )dt (t0 )
The sampling property extracts the value of a function at

a point.
149
Properties of the Impulse Function
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P3:
P2: The Scaling Property

a t t0
(t t0 ) (t )dt (t0 )
Proof:
a f (t ) (t a) dt 0.
b
f (a),
The Sampling Property
specify whether that point is included or not, as follows:

b
P1:
1
t t0
a
(at )
1
(t )
|a|
Proof:
This property illustrates that the impulse is different from
ordinary mathematical functions.
(at )(t )dt
1
1
(0)
(t )(t )dt
|a|
| a |
1
(t )(t )dt
| a |
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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P4:

f (t ) (t ) f (0) (t )
P5:
(
)
(
)
( 0)
at
t
dt
|a|
or f (t ) (t t0 ) f (t0 ) (t t0 )
Proof:
Proof:
Write t ast/a
Considera>0
Considera<0
(at )(t )dt
[ f (t )(t )](t )dt (t )[ f (t )(t )]dt
f (0)(0)
(at )(t )dt
1
1
t
t
(t ) dt
(t ) dt
a
a
a
a
1
1
(0)
(0)
a
|a|
|
|
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
f (0) (t )(t )dt
[ f (0)(t )](t )dt
153
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Example 64:
P6:
f (t ) (t ) f (0) (t )
1
(at )
(t )
|a|
' (t ) (t )dt (t ) ' (t )dt ' (0)
' (t )
P7:
t (t ) 0
(t ) (t )
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d(t )
,
dt
' (0)
d(t )
dt t 0
( n ) (t ) (t )dt (1) n ( n ) (0)
d n (t )
(t )
,
dt n
(n)
d n (t )
( 0)
dt n t 0
(n)
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P8:
P9:
[ f (t ) (t )]' f ' (t ) (t ) f (t ) ' (t )
f (t ) ' (t ) f (0) ' (t ) f ' (0) (t )
Proof:
[ f (t )(t )]' (t )dt [ f (t )(t )]' (t )dt (t )[ f (t )' (t )]dt
(t ){[ f (t )(t )]' f ' (t )(t )}dt
Proof:
f (t )' (t ) [ f (t )(t )]' f (t )' (t )
(t )[ f (t )(t )]' dt (t )[ f (t )' (t )]dt
[ f (0)(t )]' f ' (0) (t )
' (t )[ f (t )(t )]dt (t )[ f (t )' (t )]dt
[' (t ) f (t ) (t ) f ' (t )](t )dt
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Summary of important properties

of unit impulse
Sifting properties
t2
f t 0 t1 t t 2
f
t
t
t
dt
t1
a)
b)
at b
1
a
b
a
c)
Extension of Sifting properties

t2
t 2 (t 10)dt
Scaling properties
xt t t0 xt0 t t0
158
Example 65:
otherwise
Sampling properties
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
d)
n
n
xt t t0 dt 1 x t , t1 t0 t2
n
t (t 10)dt
2
20
20
= 100
=0
t 2 (t 10)dt
= 100
t 2 ' (t 10)dt
1.
d
(t 2 )
dt
= - 20
t1
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Successive integration of the unit impulse

1.
Remark:
Successive integration of the unit impulse yields a

family of functions.
integration
Unit ramp
Unit step
differentiation
integration
Unit parabolic
Unit ramp
2.
Later we will talk about the successive derivatives of

(t)
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
integration
Unit impulse
Unit step
differentiation
161
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10. Exponential Signals
9. The Unit Periodic Impulse
The unit periodic impulse/impulse train is defined by
T t
differentiation
t nT , n an integer
These signals occur frequently and serve as building blocks to construct many
other signals
CT Complex Exponential: x (t ) Ce
where a and C are in general complex.
at
Depending on the values of these parameters, the complex exponential can

exhibit several different characteristics
a>0
Real Exponential
(C and a are real)
x(t)
The periodic impulse is a sum of infinitely many uniformlyspaced impulses.
growing
Exponential
x(t)
x(t ) Ce
C
a<0
Decaying
Exponential
at
C
t
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
164
Real Exponential Signals
Example 66: Exponential Signals
Exponential signals are characterized by exponential

functions
t
f (t ) Ce
f(t)
Where e is the Naperian constant 2.718 and C and are

real constants.
f (t ) Ce t
<0
Time, t
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
166
Sinusoidal Signals
11. Sinusoidal Signals
A sinusoidal function
2t

f (t ) A cos(2ft ) A cos(t ) A cos
T0
x(t) = A cos(t + )
frequency in hertz or cycles per second, the phase shift in radians,

the radian frequency is 2 . f rad/s and the period
is T0 1 / f (sec)
Exponential functions, as in
A is the maximum amplitude of the sinusoidal signal

is the radian frequency
g (t )
is the phase shift
B j (t ) B j (t )
e
B cos(t )
e
2
2
Where B is the amplitude, 2 . f is angular frequency in

radians/second, and is the phase shift in radians.
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
168
Exponentially Modulated Sinusoidal Functions

1.
Example 68:
If s sinusoid is multiplied by a real exponential, we have an

exponentially modulated sinusoid f (t ) Aet cos(2ft )
that also can arise as a sum of complex exponentials, as in
Complex exponentials and unit steps can be combined to produce
B
B
f1 (t ) e t e j (t ) e t e j (t ) B cos(t )
2
2
causal and anti-causal decaying exponentials.
Example 67:
f (t ) 3e 0.2t cos(t 1)
Turned on at t = +1
by multiplying shifted
unit step u(t-1)
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
169
x(t ) Ce
2.
where C and s, are complex numbers.
3.
If s is complex then it can be written as s = + j,
170
Case 1: real s
If s = is real and C is real then
The complex exponential signals have the form:

1.
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
Complex Exponentials x(t ) Ce st
12. Complex Exponentials
st
x(t ) Ce t ,
And we get the family of real exponential functions.
for all t
Case 2: imaginary s
If s = j is imaginary and C is real then
where and are the real and imaginary parts of s.
x(t ) Ce j t C (cos t j sin t ),

and we get the family of sinusoidal functions.
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
171
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
172
Complex Exponentials
For
Case 3: s complex
x(t ) Ce s t ,
{x(t )} Ce t cos t is plotted for
different values of s superimposed on the complex s-
If s = + j is complex and C is real then
plane.
x(t ) Ce
( j ) t
Ce (cos t j sin t ),
t
and we get the family of damped

sinusoidal functions.
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173
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
174
General Complex Exponential Signals
1.
x(t ) Ce st
For x(t ) Ce s t , Im{x(t )} Ce t sin t is plotted

for different values of s superimposed on the
complex s-plane.
Here, C and s are general complex numbers

Say, C C e
and s j
x(t ) Ce st
Then x(t ) Cest C e t e j (t ) C e t cos(t ) j C e t sin(t )

(Real and imaginary parts) Growing and damping sinusoids for r>0 and r<0
Re{x(t )}
Re{x(t )}
t, 0
t, 0
xr (t ) Ce t cos(t )
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envelope
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General Complex Exponential Signals
Example 69: Examples of General Complex

Exponential Signals
x (t ) e j 2t e j 3t
xr (t ) Ce t cos(t )
x (t ) e j 2.5t (e j 0.5t e j 0.5t )

x (t ) 2e j 2.5t cos(0.5t )
x (t ) 2 cos(0.5t )
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
178
Example 70:
Superposition of sinusoidal signals ejt to
produce x(t)
IV. Important DT Signals
x(t) = sin(t) + 0.2cos(2t) + 0.1sin(5t)

sin(t)
x(t)
sin(2t)
sin(5t)
t
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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1. The DT Impulse Function
The DT Impulse Function
Unit-sample sequence [n]

[n] is sometimes called
a discrete-time impulse; or an impulse
(n)
(n 3)
[n]
1 n 0
[ n]
0 n 0
n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
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2 3
m = n-3
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182
1, n 0
u ( n)
0, n 0.
Definition of unit step sequence:
The unit step sequence u(n) is related to unit sample sequence

n
by
u (n) (m).
U(n)
m
A n n x n A x n
0
1
step sequence
but no scaling property. That is,
n an for any non-zero, finite integer a.

Dr. Mohamed Zribi
The unit step sequence is the discrete-time version of the unit step
in CT situations.
The discrete-time unit impulse (also known as the Kronecker delta function)
is a function in the ordinary sense (in contrast with the continuous-time unit
impulse).
It has a sampling property,
2. The Unit Step Sequence
1 , n 0
n
0 , n 0
m=n
Plots of Unite Sample Sequences
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The DT Impulse Function
B, n n0
A shifted step is: Bu[n n0 ]
0, n n0
183
2 3
Plot of Unit Step Sequence
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The DT Unit Impulse and Step Signals
DT Unit Impulse and Unit Step Functions
The discrete unit impulse signal is defined:

0 n 0
x[n] [n]
1 n 0
Critical in convolution as a basis for analyzing
other DT signals
u [ n ] [n - k]
[n-k]
- - -
k 0
(DT step is the

running sum of DT
unit sample)
The discrete unit step signal is defined:

0 n 0
x[n] u[n]
1 n 0
Note that the unit impulse is the first difference
of the step signal
- - 0
n<0
k
Interval of summation
[n-k]
- - -
- - -
x[n] [n] x[0] [n]
[n] u[n] u[n 1]
n>0
k
More generally for a unit impulse [n-n0] at n0 :
x[n] [n n0 ] x[n0 ] [n n0 ]
Similarly, the unit step is the running sum of the

unit impulse.
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Sampling property
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3. The DT Periodic Impulse Function
Remark:
Interval of summation
N n
Since a sequence of Discrete-Time Signals can be represented in term of
n mN
Shifted Unit impulse as defined below :
x[n] = x[k][n-k]
k=-
Then, the unit step sequence can be defined in term of Shifted Unit Impulse
as shown below :
u[n] =[n-k]
k= 0
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The Shifted Ramp Function
4. The DT Unit Ramp Function
Ramp Sequence
A shifted ramp sequence with slop of B is defined by:
The unit ramp sequence and shifted ramp sequences
n , n 0
ramp n
u m 1
0 , n 0 m
n
g (n) B(n n0 )
Example 71:
g[n]= 2(n-10)u[n].
MATLAB Code:
n=-10:1:20;
f=2*(n-10);
stem(n,f);
r[n]=nu[n]
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5. The DT Exponential Function
5. The DT Rectangle Function
Exponential function
x [n]
1 , n N w
rect N w n
, N w 0 , N w an integer
0 , n N w
x[n] = A n
n=0
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0<<1
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6. The DT Sinusoidal Function
The Sinusoidal DT Sequence

A sinusoidal sequence may be described as:
2n
f (n) A cos

N
Sinusoidal function
x [n]
where A is positive real number (amplitude), N is the period, and

alpha is the phase.
Example 72:
x[n] = A cos(n + )
n=0
A = 5, N = 16
and
/ 4.
MATLAB Code:
n=-20:1:20;
f=5*[cos(n*pi/8+pi/4)];
stem(n,f);
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7. The DT Real Exponential Function
Summary of Basic DT Sequences

Unit impulse
xn C n where C and are real numbers
Unit step
It is more convenient and customary to use instead of e r n
Exponential
Periodic
Sinusoidal
for 1,0 1,1 0, 1

(Sign alternation for 0)
Random
1
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0 1
1 0
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1
196
Example 73: Real Exponential DT Signal
DT Real Exponential Signals

x[n] C n
Real exponential signals : C and are real
x[ n ] C n
C is constant and lpha is a real number.
(a) 1
C 0
(b)0 1
C>0
(c) 1 0
(d) 1
cases when 1 or 0are trivial
197
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Real exponential sequence is defined as:
f (n) C ( ) n
Example for C = 10 and alpha = 0.9, as n goes to infinity the sequence

approaches zero and as n goes to minus infinity the sequence approaches plus
infinity.
1
0.9
0.8
y(k)=0.7k
0.7
Composite sequence:
0.6
f (n) A(a ) n u (n)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
y(11)=0.0198
MATLAB Code:
n=-10:1:10;
f =10*(.9).^n;
stem(n,f);
axis([-10 10 0 30]);
0.1
0
10
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199
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8. Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal

DT Signals
x n C x n C
n
DT Complex Exponential Signals
e j0 n e j 0 2 n
When C and are real numbers real exponential

DT signals
are identical. We need only consider a

frequency interval of 2, e.g. 0 0 2.
0, 02, 04,
When =ej0 complex exponential DT signal
e j0 N 1 0 N 2m
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x[n] C n C n cos( w0 n ) j C n sin( w0 n )

Re{x[n]} j Im{x[n]}
then
n
Re{x[n]} or Im{x[n]}
Re{ x[ n ]} or
Im{ x[ n ]}
x[n] C n C cos(0 n ) j C sin(0 n )

Re{x[n]} j Im{x[n]}
202
C C e j ; e jw0
Re{ x[ n ]} or
Im{ x[ n ]}
If C and are in polar form as
DT Complex Exponential Signals
Complex exponential signals : C and are complex
C C e j , e j 0
If N and m have no factors in

common then N is the fundamental
period of x(t).
0 m
rational number
2 N
DT Complex Sinusoidal Signals

x[n] C n
DT complex exponential signals are periodic with period N such that
e j0 n N e j0 n
Note that: e j0 n cos 0 n j sin 0 n
Unlike CT complex exponential signals ej0n is not distinct for

distinct values of 0.
1
1
Re{x[n]} or Im{x[n]}
Real and imaginary parts of DT general complex exp are

sinusoidals (growing 1, and decaying 1)
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Example 76: Complex Exponential

1
cos(k*pi/6)
0.5
Sinusoidal sequence
Re{x[n]}
Re{x[n]} C cos(n0 n )
-0.5
-1
10
12
14
16
18
1
1
x [n]
n
sin(k*pi/6)
0.5
Im{x[n]}
0
-0.5
-1
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10
12
14
16
18
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x[n] = Cjn; frequency of complex exponential sinusoid, C is a constant
1
0 .8
0 .6
u (k ) = c o s (k * p i/ 6 ) * 0 .9
0 .4
0 .2
0
-0 .2
-0 .4
-0 .6
-0 .8
-1
10
14
16
18
Re(x[n])
Re(x[n])
12
Im(x[n])
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Exponentialy Modulated DT Sinusoidal Sequence

By multiplying an exponential sequence by sinusoidal sequence, we
obtain an exponentially modulated sequence described by:
2n

g (n) A(a ) n cos
N
Example 81:
2
1.5
y(k) 2 0.8k sin(
Example 80:
A = 10, N = 16, a = 0.9

/ 4.
And
MATLAB Code:
0.5
n=-20:1:20;
f=10*[0.9 .^n];
g=[cos(2*n*pi/16+pi/4)];
h=f .*g;
stem(n,h);
axis([-20 20 -30 70]);
k
k
) 0.8k cos( )
3
3
-0.5
-1
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Example 82:
10
12
14
16
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20
210
Comparison of the Signals
e jw0t and e jw0n
The dash line are the CT function. The CT function are obviously
different but the DT function are not.
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Operation on Signals
V. Operation on Signals
Basic operations on signals
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
Example 84: Amplitude Scaling,
Example 83: Amplitude Scaling, gt A gt
215
214
gt A gt
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Operation on Signals
Example 85: Amplitude Scaling
Sometimes we need to change the independent variable axis for

theoretical analysis or for just practical purposes (both in CT
and DT signals). Some of these operations are:
Time shift
[ Delay
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Example 86: Time Shifting
x(t ) x(t to)

x(t-2);
Advance
Time reversal
x(t ) x(t )
Time scaling
x(t ) x(t / 2)
x(t+2) ]
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x(t)
Time shift
t
x(t-t0)
t
t0
t0 < 0 x(t-t0) is an advanced version of x(t)
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Replace t by t- to.
If to>0, shift to the right. If to <0, shift to the left.
e.g. to = -2 :
Time shift
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The original signal x(t) is

shifted by an amount t0 > 0 .
Given
x(t) = u(t+2) - u(t-2),
find x(t-t0) and x(t+t0).
221
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x[n]
Time shift
...
...
x[n-n0]
........
...
n0
If n0 > 0 x[n-n0] is the delayed version of x[n]

(Each point in x[n] occurs later in x[n-n0])
Shifting the function to the right or left by t0

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t=0
Time shift
xn 3
xn
n
xt
Determine x(t) + x(2-t) , where x(t) = u(t+1) - u(t-2)
find x(2-t): Advance, then reverse in time.
Add the two functions: x(t) + x(2-t)
xt 4
t
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t
225
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Time Reversal

Time shifting
u(t+1)- u(t-2)
n n n0 , n0 an integer
x(t)
Time reversal
t
x(-t)
Reflection about t=0
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Example 95: Time reversal
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi

xn
Replace t by to.
x n
Time reversal
Referred the reflected signal as folding (view it

from behind the paper. e.g to = 6:
Time reversal
xt
x t
t
230
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t
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Time Scaling
Time Scaling
Time scaling
x(t)
t
x(2t)
Example 99:
Given x(t), find y(t) = x(2t). This

speeds up x(t) (the graph is shrinking)
compressed!
t
x(t/2)
What happens to the period T?

The period of x(t) is 2 and the period of y(t) is 1.
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
stretched!
t
233
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Time Scaling
Time Scaling
Given y(t),
Multiply t by a constant , say, .

If > 0, the signal is compressed. If <0, the signal is
expanded. e.g = 2:
find w(t) = y(3t)

v(t) = y(t/3).
Time scaling
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Example 100: Time Scaling
t t/a
t t/a
Expands the function horizontally by a factor of |a|

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x(t)
If a < 0, the function is also time inverted. The time inversion

means flipping the curve 1800 with the g axis as the rotation axis
of the flip.
Original signal
10
T1
T2
(t) = x(2t)
Compressed signal
(a = 2)
T1 0
2
T2
2
(t) = x(t/2)
Expanded signal
(a = 0.5)
2T1
0
2T2
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Remark : Time Expansion for DT Signals
n Kn
Time expansion
n n / K, K 1
K an integer > 1
For all n such that n / K is an integer, g n / K is defined.

For all n such that n / K is not an integer, g n / K is not defined.
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Combined Operations on Signals
covered: time shifting, time scaling, and time reversal. The
To form x(at - b) from x(t) we could use two approaches:

1)
operations can often be applied in different orders, but care must

be taken.
2)
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We can use various combinations of the three operations just
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Time-shift then time-scale

A. Time-shift x(t) by b to obtain x(t - b). i.e., replace every t by t
- b.
B. Time-scale x(t - b) by a (i.e., replace t by at) to form x(at - b)
Time-scale then time-shift
A. Time-scale x(t) by a to obtain x(at).
B. Time-shift x(at) by b/a (i.e., replace t with t b/a) to yield
x(a[t b/a]) = x(at b)
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t t0
g t A g
a
Amplitude scaling, time scaling and time shifting can be applied
simultaneously.
t t0
a
Example 106: Operation on Signalsgt Ag
A multiple transformation can be done in steps

amplitude
t t0
t t t t0
t t / a
scaling, A
A g t
A g
Ag
g t
a
a
The order of the changes is important. For example, if we

exchange the order of the time-scaling and time-shifting
operations, we get:
amplitude
t t0
t
t t t0
scaling, A
t t / a
g t
A g t
A g t t0
A g t0 A g
a
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Example 107: Operation on Signals
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Find x(3t/2+1)
Find y(t) = x(2t + 3).
x(t)
1
x(t+1)
1
-1
x(1.5t+1)
1
-2/3
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2/3
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1
xt
x(t)
Given the signal x(t):
x(t+1)
1
(It is a time shift to the left)

-1
(time reversal of x(t+1))
-1
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
x2 t / 2
x(-t+1)
1
Let us find x(-t+1):
x t
Let us find x(t+1):
3
249
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
t
250
Given x2(t), find y(t) = 1 - x2(t).

y(t) = 1 - x2(t)
x(2t)
Remember: This is x(t) =1
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Multiplication of two signals: x2(t)u(t)
Step unit function
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Properties of the CT Unit Step Function
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CT Unit Ramp Function

Unit ramp function can be achieved by:
u (at t0 ) u (t t0 / a ), a 0
t0
f (t ) u ( t0 )d d (t t0 )u (t t0 )
to
to+1
Non-zero only
for t>t0
u (t t0 ) [u (t t0 )]2 [u (t t0 )]k
Remark:
u (t ) 1 u (t )
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(t )u (t )dt (t )dt
0
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Signals can be combined to make a rich

population of signals
Example 115:
Unit steps and ramps can he combined to produce

pulse signals.
Note:
u(-t+3)=1-u(t-3)
Example 116:
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Example 118:
Describe analytically the signal shown in
Example 117:
f(t)
A
r(t) - 2r(t-1)+r(t-2)
u(t) - u(t-1)
t
0
1
1
Solution: Signal is (A/2)t at 0 t 2 , turn on this signal at t = 0 and

turn it off again at t = 2. This gives,
f (t )
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A
t[u (t ) u (t 2)].
2
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Example 120:
Example 119:
Plot
f (t ) 3u (t ) tu (t ) [t 1]u (t 1) 5u (t 2)
f (t ) 3[t 2]u (t 2) 6[t 1]u (t 1) 3[t 1]u (t 1) 3u (t 3)
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
rect(t/T)
Can be expressed as u(T/2-t)-u(-T/2-t)
Draw u(t+T/2) first; then reverse it!
262
T/t
1
-T/t
-T/t
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
Write the expression of the

plotted function
Answer:
f(t)=0
f(t)=3(t+2)
f(t)=-3t
f(t)=-3
f(t)=0
T/t
1
Example 122:
-T/t
f(t)=0
f(t)=3[t+2]
f(t)=-3t
f(t)=-3
f(t)=0
261
Example 121:
t<-2
-2<t<-1
-1<t<1
1<t<3
3<t
T/t
Can be expressed as u(t+T/2)-u(t-T/2)
Can be expressed as u(t+T/2).u(T/2-t)

-T/t
Dr. Mohamed Zribi
T/t
263
for t<-2
for -2<t<-1
for -1<t<1
for 1<t<3
for 3<t
f (t) 3(t 2)[u(t 2) u(t 1)] 3t[u(t 1) u(t 1)]

3[u(t 1) u(t 3)]
3[t 2]u(t 2) 6[t 1]u(t 1)
3[t 1]u(t 1) 3u(t 3)
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Representation of DT Signals using

Sequences

Sequences
Discrete-time system theory is concerned with processing
It is possible to re-generate an arbitrary signal by sampling it with

shifted unit impulse:
signals that are represented by sequences.
x[n] = - - - + x[-4] [n+4] + x[-3] [n+3] + x[-2] [n+2] +

+ x[-1] [n+1] + x[0] [n] + x[1] [n-1] + - - -
x [n]
This is called the sifting property:

n
3 4 5 6 7
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
1 2
x[n]
8 9 10
x[k ] [n k ]
shifted impulse
weights
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Sequences
Sifting property of DT impulse
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Example 124:
The Unit Impulse can be shifted or delayed. The shifted Unit Impulse is denoted as :[n-k] => The unit impulse is shifted to right by k
[n+k] => The unit impulse is shifted to left by k
Example 123:
x[n]
x[k ] [n k ]
a-3
The sequence, p[n] is expressed as :

p[n] = a-3 [n + 3] + a1 [n 1] + a2 [n 2] + a7 [n 7]
Graphical representation of Shifted unit Impulse of p[n]:
x [n]
a1
2
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
7
3 4 5 6
a2
8 9 10
a7
x[n] a3 [n 3] a1 [n 1] a2 [n 3] a7 [n 7]
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Example 125:
x[n] is actually a sequence of time-shifted and scaled impulses
Think of a DT signal as a sequence of individual impulses
x[-2][n+2]
-2
Consider x[n]
x[1][n-1]
...
-4
-1
0 1
-3 -2
012
01
...
2 3
x[0][n]
x[-1][n+1]
-1
x[2][n-2]
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Dr. Mohamed Zribi
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Remember These Geometric Series
Example 126:
Describe analytically the following sequence.
f[n]
1
A Pulse Sequence
-2
-1
This pulse sequence can be describe by
f[n] = u[n] u[n-3]

The first step sequence turn on the pulse at n = 0, and second step turns
it off at n = 3.
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272

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EE 312 Signals and Systems

II. Classifications of Signals

Signals: Concepts & Properties

IV. Important DT Signals

Prof. Mohamed Zribi

EE312 Signals and Systems

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

EE312 Signals and Systems

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

the bank account.

o Typically we will use a mathematical function such as f(t),

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

EE312 Signals and Systems

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

Remarks about Signals

Example 1: Daily high temperature measured over a month

II. Classification of Signals

o Values for x may be real or complex

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

EE312 Signals and Systems

1. One-dimensional and Multi-dimensional Signals

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

EE312 Signals and Systems

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

A signal can be a function of a single variable or a

Speech varies as a function of time one-dimensional

Image intensity varies as a function of (x , y) coordinates

In this course, we will focus on one-dimensional

EE312 Signals and Systems

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

Continuous-Time (CT) Signals

2. Continuous-time vs. Discrete-time

A signal is continuous time if it is defined for all

Most signals in the real world are continuous time.

A signal is discrete time if it is defined only at

E.g. voltage, velocity,

discrete instants of time, x[n].

A discrete time signal can be derived from a

continuous time signal through sampling, i.e.:

EE312 Signals and Systems

A CT signal is denoted by x (t), where the time interval

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

EE312 Signals and Systems

Discrete-Time (DT) Signals

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

Continuous-Time vs. Discrete-Time

they are sampled. For example, pixels, daily stock price

A DT signal is denoted by x[n], where n is an integer value that

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

It is meaningless to say 1.5 sample of a DT signal because it is

EE312 Signals and Systems

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

Continuous time signal

Discrete time signal

fs = 1/T : sampling rate

EE312 Signals and Systems

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

EE312 Signals and Systems

Dr. Mohamed Zribi

Graphical Representation of a DT is shown below:

A discrete-time signal is usually (not always) obtained from sampling a