Applications of Modern Physics in Electronics

Content
Solid State Physics
Diodes
Transistors
Biopolar Junction Transistor(BJT)
Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

Capasitor
Lasers
Quantum Computers
Difficulties in Quantum Computers

Conclusion
Index

Applications of Modern Physics in Electronic

Engineering

Solid State Physics:

It is not possible to have many technological devices without taking advantage of the basics of the
solid state physics and its applications.Solid state theory investigates the crystals of the matter
because electrical,magnetic,optical and mechanical properties are importat for several engineering
branches. As it is known that, the basis of many electronical devices were also created using the
solid state theory.In this project ,especially, the basis of solid state theory will be discussed in terms
of the electronical engineering.
Basically,solid state electorinic meratials could be defined as semiconductors ,conductors and
insulators. Generally,semicoductors are made silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide .Some of
the most important semiconductor devices are diodes, transistors,IC circuits (integrated circuits),
microprocessors,rams and so on. These semiconductor devices have changed the face of electronics
today and our lifes.They are in our daily lifes all the time in our computers,smartphones and many
that could not be counted.
Semiconductors are exactly what the name implies therefore they have both the properties of a
conductor and insulator.In order to understant the how this is possible,the only thing could be count
on is modern physics. It could help to visualise complexity of working principals of semiconductor
devices.
Semiconductors consist of the properties of conductors and insulators as it is indicated above. In
order to have the conducting properties a process required called doping.it is used to change the
configuration of the atom that makes up the semiconductor material.Most semiconductors have a
crystalline structure and by adding a n type doping into the material, which is essentially an
impurity, the conductive properties of the semiconductor could be increased and opposite p
type.Usage of p-n semiconductors are more common more useful to control the location and
concentration of p- and n-type dopants.
Diodes:
The forward-bias and the reverse-bias properties of the pn junction imply that it could be used as
a diode. A pn junction diode allows electric charges to flow in one direction, but not in the
opposite direction; negative charges (electrons) could easily flow through the junction from n to p
but not from p to n, and the reverse is true for holes. When the pn junction is forward-biased,
electric charge flows freely due to reduced resistance of the pn junction. When the pn junction is
reverse-biased, however, the junction barrier (and therefore resistance) becomes greater and charge
flow is minimal.
Semiconductors helps us to get precise control over the flow of current through a system. For
example,diodes are among the simplest electronic components available and they are manufactured
using semiconductors. Diodes will permit electricity to flow through them in one direction, but not
in the other. The most common and basic application of diode is actually LEDs, which stands for
light emmitig diode.
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The p-n type semiconductor diode shown in the figure below;

Figure 1. p-n type diode structure

Transistors:
Secondly,transistors is a great example of semiconductor based electronical devices in modern
age.As it is know , the microprocessors builds by using enourmous amount of transistors locaded on
the silicone chip.Microprocessors utilize transistors to perform the many functions for which they
are used.

Biopolar Junction Transistor (BJT):

Bipolar junction transistors are available as PNP as well as NPN devices.The difference between
npn and pnp transistors is the polarity of the base emitter diode junctions, as shown by the direction
of the schematic symbol emitter arrow. It points in the same direction as the anode arrow for a
junction diode, against electron current flow. The point of the arrow and bar correspond to P-type
and N-type semiconductors, respectively. For NPN and PNP emitters, the arrow points away and
toward the base respectively. There is no schematic arrow on the collector. However, the basecollector junction is the same polarity as the base-emitter junction compared to a diode.

Figure 2 .NPN PNP Biopolar Junction Transistors

Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET):

Today, most transistors are of the metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET) type as components
of digital integrated circuits.MOSFET transistors also uses the basics of
semiconductors.Usually,MOSFETs are made using silicondioxide but nowadays they could also be
produced using a chemical compound of silicon-germanium (SiGe). As the silicon dioxide is
a dielectric material, its structure is equivalent to a planar capacitor, with one of the electrodes
replaced by a semiconductor.

Figure 3.Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor

The channel could contain electrons (called NMOS), or holes (called a PMOS), opposite in type
to the substrate, so NMOS is made with a p-type substrate, and PMOS with an n-type substrate.
Semiconductors could be used to create anything from simple amplifiers to more complex circuits
to sophisticated supercomputers.Thus far, there have been few limits that have been hit utilizing
semiconductor technology.In the future ,semiconductors will increase the capabilities of the
technology than we have now.

Figure 4. An Overview of Semiconductors in Electronics

Capasitors:
It would be neccessery to indicate the how capasitors are made using the solid state
physics.Firstly,dielectric consept should be defined.A dielectric meterial is an electirical insulator
that could be polarized by an applied electric field. The term insulator is generally used to indicate
electrical obstruction while the term dielectric is used to indicate the energy storing capacity of the
material.
The basic definition of a capasitor is, when a dielectric is placed between two plates the electric is
charged as an electrostatic field as shown in the figure below;

Figure 5.Capasitor
Lasers:
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Another application of solid state physics in electronics is lasers which is acronym of light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.It is a device that utilizes the natural oscillations
of atoms or molecules between energy levels for generating a beam of coherent electromagnetic
radiation usually in the ultraviolet, visible, or infrared regions of the spectrum.It has to be indicated
that Einstains stimulated emission theory was the fundemental of the laser technology.The basic
theory of laser is invetigated above;
Quantum mechanics claims that light is composed of many quanta of energy photons. It also
indicates that electrons in an atom are only allowed to have certain discrete energies. Consider a
photon and a simple atom that only has two energy levels ,the photon and the atom (electron) could
interact in three different ways: Absorption , Spontaneous emission, Stimulated emission.
When light is absorbed by an atom, it is excited into a higher energy state. Quantum mechanics
only allows transitions to certain energy levels, so only photons of particular energies could be
absorbed (and emitted).
Spontaneous emission occurs when an atom is in an excited state and emits a photon in order to go
back to the preferred lower energy level.It is known that nature prefers to minimize energy.In this
case, an atom in an excited state is not stable, it tries to find a way of getting back to its ground
state eventually.
Stimulated emission occurs when you have an atom in an excited state and it interacts with a
photon that, ideally, has an energy that is identical to the transition energy between the atoms
current state and a lower energy state. The atoms response is to emit a photon that is exactly
identical to the incident photon.If one quantum of light send, then two quantum light will be
obtained. This is the fundamental phenomenon that gives us lasers.
The following figure shows the basic theory of producing laser.

Figure 6.
Laser
Theory
After
brief

the

information about laser theory above ,let us examine the lasers in electonics pont of view.There are
many types of lasers that could be used for different purposes like cutting ,reading ,scanning
,marking and etching which means, lasers have many applications including medicine,
scientific,military,nucleer fusion ,fiber optics and so on.In order to more focus on the relation
between the physcis and its aplicaions in electronics it is better to mention the laser diodes.
A laser diode is a laser where the active medium is a semiconductor similar to that found in a lightemitting diode. The most common type of laser diode is formed from a p-n junction and powered by

injected electric current.These are very new and trendy lasers which use the techniques of making
computer chips to make tiny lasers out of silicon and other semiconductors.
The most common laser diode generates semiconductor or injection laser. In these lasers, a
population of inversion electrons is produced by applying a voltage across its p-n junction. Laser
beam is then available from the semiconductor region. The p-n junction of laser diode has polished
ends so that, the emitted photons reflect back and forth and creates more electron-hole pairs. The
photons thus generated will be in phase with the previous photons. This will give us a pencil beam
and all the photons in the beam are coherent and in phase.
When we compared the semiconductor lasers to other types of lasers, semiconductor lasers are
compact, reliable and capable of long term use.Such lasers consist of two basic components, an
optical amplifier and a resonator. The amplifier is made from a direct-bandgap semiconductor
material based on generally galliumarsenide GaAs and InP indium phosphide substrates. These
are compounds based on the Group III and Group V elements in the periodic table.Alloys of these
materials are formed onto the substrates as layered structures containing precise amounts of other
materials.
The resonator continuously recirculates light through the amplifier and helps to focus it. This
component usually consists of a waveguide and two plane-parallel mirrors.These mirrors are
covered by a material to increase or decrease reflectivity and to improve resistance to damage from
the high power densities.
The performance and cost of a semiconductor depends on its output power, brightness, and
operating lifetime. Power is important because it determines the maximum throughput or feed rate
of a process. High brightness, or the ability to focus laser output to a small spot, determines power
efficiency. Lifetime is important because the longer a laser lasts, the less it costs to operate, which is
especially critical in industrial applications.The simplest semiconductor lasers consist of a single
emitter that produces over one watt of continuous wave power. To increase power, bars and
multibar modules or stacks have been developed. A bar is an array of 10 to 50 side-by-side
individual semiconductor lasers integrated into a single chip and a stack is a two-dimensional array
of multiple bars. Bars could produce 50 watts of output power and ends over 5,000 hours

Figure 7. Laser
Laser diodes could be switched on and off at frequencies as high as 1GHz, making them ideal in
telecommunication applications. Since laser generates heat on hitting the body tissue, it is an ideal
solution to heal sensitive parts like retina of eye and brain. Laser could be used to pinpoint the
lesions so that nearby tissues are not affected as in the case of surgery.
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Figure 8. Laser Diode

The small circle in the figure above ,it could be seen that the laser diode is plased into a DVD
player.
Quantum Computers:
Quantum computer is a device which uses the principles of quantum physics to increase the
computational power beyond what is attainable by a traditional computer. Quantum computers have
been built on the small scale and work continues to upgrade them to more practical models.
Computers function by storing data in a binary number format, which result in a series of 1s and
0s retained in electronic components such as transistors.Each component of computer memory is
called abit and could be manipulated through the steps of Boolean Logic so that the bits change,
based upon the algorithms applied by the computer program, between the 1 and 0 modes.

Figure 9. A Quantum Chip

Let us consider if such computer produced, how it would be work. A quantum computer would
store information as either a 1, 0, or a quantum superposition of the two states. Such a "quantum
bit," called a qubit , allows for far greater flexibility than the binary system.
Specifically, a quantum computer would be able to perform calculations on a far greater order of
magnitude than traditional computers. Some peoples belives that quantum computers would
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destroy the world's financial system by ripping through their computer security encryptions, which
are based on factoring large numbers that literally could not be cracked by traditional computers
within the lifespan of the universe. A quantum computer could factor the numbers in a reasonable
period of time.
In order to understand how this speed works in quantum device, let us consider this example. If the
qubit is in a superposition of the 1 state and the 0 state, and it performed an calculation with another
qubit in the same superposition, then one calculation actually obtains 4 results: a 1/1 result, a 1/0
result, a 0/1 result, and a 0/0 result. This is a result of the mathematics applied to a quantum system
when in a state of decoherence, which lasts while it is in a superposition of states until it collapses
down into one state. The ability of a quantum computer to perform multiple computations
simultaneously.
The exact physical mechanism at work within the quantum computer is somewhat theoretically
complex and intuitively disturbing. Generally, it is explained in terms of the multi-world
interpretation of quantum physics, wherein the computer performs calculations not only in our
universe but also in other universes simultaneously, while the various qubits are in a state of
quantum decoherence.
A handful of quantum computers have been built. The first, a 2-qubit quantum computer in 1998,
could perform trivial calculations before losing decoherence after a few nanoseconds. In 2000,
teams successfully built both a 4-qubit and a 7-qubit quantum computer. Research on the subject is
still very active, although some physicists and engineers express concerns over the difficulties
involved in upscaling these experiments to full-scale computing systems. Still, the success of these
initial steps to show that the fundamental theory is strong.

Figure 10. Comparison between Clasical bits and Qubit

Difficulties in Quantum Computers:

The main disadvantages of quantum computers is quantum decoherence. The qubit calculations are
performed while the quantum wave function is in a state of superposition between states, which is
what allows it to perform the calculations using both 1 and 0 states simultaneously.As a solution, a
quantum computer must be totally isolated from all external interference during the computation
phase. Some success has been achieved with the use of qubits in intense magnetic fields, with the
use of ions.

However, when a measurement of any type is made to a quantum system, decoherence breaks
down and the wave function collapses into a single state. Therefore, the computer has to somehow
continue making these calculations without having any measurements made until the proper time,
when it could then drop out of the quantum state, have a measurement taken to read its result, which
then gets passed on to the rest of the system.
The physical requirements of manipulating a system on this scale are considerable, touching on the
realms of superconductors, nanotechnology and quantum electronics, as well as others. Each of
these is itself a sophisticated field which is still being fully developed.
Even though there are many problems to overcome, the breakthroughs in the last 15 years,have
made some form of practical quantum computing not unreachable but it is a open question that how
much time is needed. However, the potential that this technology offers is attracting enormous
interest from both the government and the private sector. Military applications include the ability to
break encryptions keys via brute force searches, while civilian applications range from DNA
modeling to complex material science analysis. It is this potential that is rapidly breaking down the
barriers to this technology, but whether all barriers could be broken, and when, is very much an
open question.
Conclusion:
In counclusion,it has been indicated that,the applications of physics is around us all the time.
When it is look the inside of electronics devices with the light of physics, it could be eaisly seen that
there is a powerful physics theories lies behind.The substructures of electronic devices are
investigated and what found is the Solid State Physics.It is one of the most importat theory that used
in all of the electronic devices.The study of theoretical physics especially the solid state physics,
allows us to understand, in a deeper way, the field of electronics at the atomic level. It is an
enhancement to the study of electronics.
Let us consider this example to make it more clear,a person could be trained in electronics without
being trained in physics.They could design,built and provide innovative electronic devices.It could
be also possible that they could discover new components like many electrician in the
past.However,on the other hand,in order to understand how the components work exactly and
suggest other materials that might work better ,it is all required to know the physics.
The procedure works like ,a physical phenomenon is observed in a laboratory, described
mathematically, improved, and then used in a practical circuit by electronic engineers combining it
with pre-existing components through the use of mathematics.Transistors,microchips and capasitors
could be great example of this process.
To summarize,electronics is the study of the practical application of existing devices through the
use of their observed mathematical descriptions and physics is the study of the interaction of matter
and energy, and the mathematical description of the process.

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Figure 11. An Integrated Circuit Built by Silicone

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