AM340 - Manufacturing Processes and Materials PDF

Manufacturing Processes and Materials
Pearson Custom Publishing
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CONTENTS
Introduction
About the Book .............................................................................................................................................ix
Conventions Used in the Book ....................................................................................................................xi
Chapter 1Engineering Materials

1.1 Introduction to Materials ....................................................................................................................1.3
1.1.1 Classification of Materials ......................................................................................................1.3
1.1.2 Properties of Materials ............................................................................................................1.5
1.2 Testing of Materials ...........................................................................................................................1.21
1.2.1 Destructive Tests ...................................................................................................................1.21
1.2.2 Nondestructive Testing .........................................................................................................1.33
1.3 Atomic Structure of Materials .........................................................................................................1.36
1.3.1 Atomic Bonds in Materials ...................................................................................................1.36
1.3.2 Types of Crystal Structures in Materials ..............................................................................1.37
1.3.3 Influence of Variations in Bonding on Properties of Materials ..........................................1.38
Case Study 1 ..............................................................................................................................................1.42
Case Study 2 ..............................................................................................................................................1.44
Case Study 3 ..............................................................................................................................................1.46
Summary ...................................................................................................................................................1.47
Homework Exercises ...............................................................................................................................1.49
Lab Exercises ............................................................................................................................................1.51
Exercise 1 ........................................................................................................................................1.51
Exercise 2 ........................................................................................................................................1.53
Exercise 3 ........................................................................................................................................1.55
Exercise 4 ........................................................................................................................................1.56
iii
Chapter 2Manufacturing Processes for Metal Alloys

Casting and Joining
2.1 Introduction to Manufacturing Processes ....................................................................................... 2.3
2.1.1 Classification of Manufacturing Processes ........................................................................... 2.3
2.2 Casting ................................................................................................................................................... 2.4
2.2.1 Sand Mold Casting Process .................................................................................................... 2.5
2.2.2 Other Types of Casting Processes ....................................................................................... 2.10
2.3 Joining ................................................................................................................................................. 2.14
2.3.1 Types of Joining ................................................................................................................... 2.15
2.3.2 Tips for Selecting a Joining Process .................................................................................... 2.25
Case Study 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 2.27
Case Study 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 2.29
Case Study 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 2.31
Summary ................................................................................................................................................... 2.33
Homework Exercises ............................................................................................................................... 2.34
Lab Exercises ............................................................................................................................................ 2.35
Exercise 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 2.35
Exercise 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 2.36
Chapter 3Manufacturing Processes: Machining and

Machine Tools
3.1 Introduction to Machining Processes ............................................................................................... 3.3
3.1.1 Metal Cutting .......................................................................................................................... 3.4
3.1.2 Types of Machining Processes ............................................................................................... 3.6
3.1.3 Machine Tools ...................................................................................................................... 3.22
3.2 Automation and Flexible Manufacturing ...................................................................................... 3.32
3.2.1 Automation ........................................................................................................................... 3.32
3.2.2 Flexible Manufacturing System ........................................................................................... 3.33
Case Study 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 3.34
Case Study 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 3.35
Summary ................................................................................................................................................... 3.36
Lab Exercises ............................................................................................................................................ 3.39
Exercise 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 3.39
Exercise 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 3.40
iv
Chapter 4Manufacturing Processes for Metals and

AlloysMetal Forming
4.1 Introduction to Metal Forming ..........................................................................................................4.3
4.1.1 Classification of Forming ........................................................................................................4.4
4.2 Forging ...................................................................................................................................................4.6
4.2.1 Types of Forging .....................................................................................................................4.6
4.3 Extrusion .............................................................................................................................................4.12
4.3.1 Types of Extrusion ................................................................................................................4.12
4.4 Rolling ..................................................................................................................................................4.16
4.4.1 Types of Rolling ....................................................................................................................4.16
4.4.2 Application of Rolling ...........................................................................................................4.18
4.5 Drawing ...............................................................................................................................................4.19
4.5.1 Types of Drawing ..................................................................................................................4.19
4.5.2 Application of Drawing ........................................................................................................4.20
4.6 Bending ................................................................................................................................................4.21
4.6.1 Parameters of Bending ..........................................................................................................4.22
4.6.2 Types of Bending ..................................................................................................................4.24
4.7 Spinning ...............................................................................................................................................4.26
4.7.1 Types of Spinning .................................................................................................................4.26
4.8 Special Forming Processes ................................................................................................................4.30
4.8.1 Introduction to Special Forming Processes ..........................................................................4.30
4.8.2 Special Forming Processes ...................................................................................................4.30
Case Study 1 ..............................................................................................................................................4.32
Summary ...................................................................................................................................................4.34
Lab Exercises ............................................................................................................................................4.37
Exercise 1 ........................................................................................................................................4.37
Exercise 2 ........................................................................................................................................4.39
Chapter 5Manufacturing Processes for Powder Metals

and Nonmetals
5.1 Introduction to Nonmetals and Powder Metals ...............................................................................5.3
5.1.1 Introduction to Plastics ............................................................................................................5.3
5.1.2 Advanced Plastics ...................................................................................................................5.7
5.1.3 Manufacturing Processes for Plastics ...................................................................................5.13
5.2 Introduction to Ceramics ..................................................................................................................5.20
5.2.1 Types of Ceramics .................................................................................................................5.20
5.2.2 Manufacturing Processes for Ceramics ................................................................................5.22
5.3 Introduction to Powder Metals ........................................................................................................5.25
5.3.1 Preparation of Metal Powders ..............................................................................................5.26
5.3.2 Manufacturing Processes for Powder Metals ......................................................................5.27
5.4 Introduction to Composites .............................................................................................................. 5.31

5.4.1 Types of Composite Materials ............................................................................................. 5.31
5.4.2 Benefits of Composite Materials ......................................................................................... 5.39
5.4.3 Manufacturing Composite Materials ................................................................................... 5.41
Case Study 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 5.46
Product Details ............................................................................................................................... 5.46
Usage .............................................................................................................................................. 5.48
Case Study 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 5.49
Product Details ............................................................................................................................... 5.49
Analysis .......................................................................................................................................... 5.50
Case Study 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 5.52
Summary ................................................................................................................................................... 5.54
Lab Exercises ............................................................................................................................................ 5.59
Exercise 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 5.59
Exercise 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 5.61
Exercise 3 ....................................................................................................................................... 5.63
Chapter 6Heat Treatment, Cleaning, and Finishing

Processes
6.1 Introduction to Heat Treatment and Finishing Processes ............................................................. 6.3
6.2 Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys .................................................................................................... 6.4
6.2.1 Heat Treatment of Steel .......................................................................................................... 6.5
6.2.2 Heat Treatment of Cast Iron ................................................................................................. 6.12
6.3 Heat Treatment of Non-Ferrous Alloys ......................................................................................... 6.15
6.3.1 Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys .................................................................................. 6.15
6.3.2 Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys ................................................................................ 6.18
6.3.3 Heat Treatment of Copper and Its Alloys ............................................................................ 6.19
6.3.4 Heat Treatment of Nickel Alloys ......................................................................................... 6.20
6.4 Cleaning .............................................................................................................................................. 6.22
6.4.1 Mechanical Cleaning ............................................................................................................ 6.22
6.4.2 Chemical Cleaning ............................................................................................................... 6.25
6.4.3 Finishing ................................................................................................................................ 6.28
Case Study 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 6.33
Case Study 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 6.34
Case Study 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 6.35
Summary ................................................................................................................................................... 6.36
Lab Exercises ............................................................................................................................................ 6.39
Exercise 1 ....................................................................................................................................... 6.39
Exercise 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 6.41
vi
Chapter 7Inspection and Quality Control

7.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................7.3
7.2 Basics of Inspection and Quality Control Processes .......................................................................7.4
7.2.1 Inspection .................................................................................................................................7.4
7.2.2 Tolerance and Fits ...................................................................................................................7.5
7.2.3 Measurement Variables ..........................................................................................................7.7
7.2.4 Measuring Instruments and systems ......................................................................................7.7
7.2.5 Inspection Gauges .................................................................................................................7.15
7.2.6 Nondestructive Testing .........................................................................................................7.18
Case Study 1 ..............................................................................................................................................7.24
Case Study 2 ..............................................................................................................................................7.26
Summary ...................................................................................................................................................7.27
Lab Exercises ............................................................................................................................................7.31
Exercise 1 ........................................................................................................................................7.31
Exercise 2 ........................................................................................................................................7.33
Chapter 8Overview of Corrosion and Protective Coatings

8.1 Basics of Corrosion ..............................................................................................................................8.3
8.1.1 Anode and Cathode Reactions ................................................................................................8.3
8.1.2 Cell Potential ...........................................................................................................................8.5
8.1.3 Corrosion Rates .......................................................................................................................8.6
8.1.4 Corrosion Units .......................................................................................................................8.7
8.1.5 Types of Corrosion ..................................................................................................................8.7
8.1.6 Corrosive Environments .......................................................................................................8.11
8.1.7 Corrosive Inhibitors ...............................................................................................................8.14
8.1.8 Corrosive Protection ..............................................................................................................8.15
8.2 Protective Finishes and Coatings .....................................................................................................8.17
8.2.1 Organic Finishes ....................................................................................................................8.17
8.2.2 Inorganic Finishes .................................................................................................................8.19
8.2.3 Metallic Coatings ..................................................................................................................8.20
8.2.4 Conversion Coatings .............................................................................................................8.26
Case Study 1 ..............................................................................................................................................8.28
Case Study 2 ..............................................................................................................................................8.29
Summary ...................................................................................................................................................8.30
Lab Exercises ............................................................................................................................................8.33
Exercise 1 ........................................................................................................................................8.33
Index
Index ............................................................................................................................................................. I.1
vii
viii
About the Book

Material and manufacturing processes influence our everyday lives. They affect
industrial productivity and our standard of living. With the development of new
materials and increasing customer demands, manufacturing processes are becoming
increasingly complex. It is important that engineers be trained to understand and
appreciate the many ways in which materials can be processed and also the effect of
such processing on material properties. To manufacture competitively, the engineer
must be aware of the advantages and limitations of the process as well as possible
tolerances. Therefore, a basic understanding of industrial materials and processes is
essential for any engineering student. This volume has been carefully prepared for use
considering the above requirements.
In this book, topics have been chosen to provide the fundamentals of metals, ceramics,
polymers, and manufacturing processes that are applicable and most suited to each of
the above classes of materials. The main objective has been to provide information that
serves as a basis for comparing the merits of one processing method with another. No
attempt is made to describe any process in depth.
Therefore, this book offers, in a condensed manner, a vast accumulation of data
covering virtually every single commercial method of manufacturing. In addition to the
above, chapters on Inspection and Quality Control, Heat Treatment, and Corrosion and
its protection, which represent inseparable aspects of manufacturing, provide rich
information that will be very handy for any practicing engineer.
A sincere effort has been made to ensure that the text reflects the rapid technological
developments in the recent years. Each chapter of the book contains case studies, lab
exercises, practical questions, and home assignments that are carefully designed to
reinforce the reading of the text. It is hoped that this book will act as a stimulant to the
student for evincing serious interest in advanced aspects of manufacturing, including
numerically controlled machines, nonconventional machining techniques, and
processing of structural ceramics and special plastics.
ix
Conventions Used in the Book

This book contains features including notes, tips, warnings, and references, which are
identified by various icons. Each of these icons presents a different type of information.
Following is the list of icons that will be used in the book.
A note provides information about the topic in context. This is
additional information related to the topic.
A tip provides an alternative method for performing a task. It can

also contain a simplified, although unconventional, method of
doing a task.
Just-a-Minute presents nice-to-know information or a quick
question that checks the learners understanding of the current
topic.
A warning informs you about the dire effects of an action.
Focusing on these warnings reduces the likelihood that learners
will make the same errors.
A reference provides links to Web sites or relevant books and
white papers for further study on a particular topic.
Each topic begins with objectives that inform the reader about the
learning outcomes of a topic.
All colored figures in the book have been marked with an asterisk
sign. These colored figures are available in the Appendix for
reference.
xi
xii
Engineering Materials
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
Identify properties of each type of engineering material.
Distinguish between the properties of materials.
Identify the types of tests performed to assess various

material properties.
Identify the types of atomic bonds in materials.
1.1 Introduction to
Materials
1.2 Testing of Materials
1.3 Atomic Structure of
Materials
1.2 Engineering Materials
1.1 Introduction to Materials

A material is any substance that is made up of atoms or molecules and takes up space. A
material can also be used to create other materials or products. For example, wood is
used to create paper, which is used to create products, such as newspaper and stationery.
Materials are converted to other materials and products by using manufacturing

processes. You will learn about these processes in subsequent chapters.
In this chapter, you will learn about the classification of materials. In addition, you will
learn about various properties of materials and how these properties are assessed.
1.1.1 Classification of Materials

Identify properties of each type of material.
To distinguish among various types of materials, classify them on the basis of their
characteristics. This enables you to categorize the materials according to purposes
relevant for their processing. You can classify materials into the following three groups:
! Metals and alloys

! Polymers and plastics
! Ceramics, powdered metals, and composites
The properties of each group of materials are explained in the following sections.
Metals and Alloys

Most metals are extracted from ores available in nature. The market price of metals
varies according to the abundance and availability of an ore and cost of refining the ore
to extract pure metal.
Engineering Materials 1.3
Metals are generally characterized by high strength and ductility. Alloys are a
combination of two or more metals. Most metals and alloys are good conductors of heat
and electricity. They are opaque and can be polished to a high luster.
Metals and alloys can further be classified as:
! Ferrous: These materials contain iron as their main constituent. Examples are
wrought iron and stainless steel.
! Non-ferrous: These materials contain substances other than iron as their main
constituent. Examples of non-ferrous metal alloys are aluminum, lead, zinc, and
brass.
Polymers and Plastics

Polymers are organic materials made from animal or vegetable cells or organic
compounds. Nylon, rubber, and wood are examples of organic polymers. Most
polymers are low-density materials and are bad conductors of heat and electricity. Some
polymers are either transparent or translucent and flexible. Although a few polymers are
organic, most of the polymers and plastics are artificially produced from organic
materials. For example, rubber is available in nature, but nylon is artificially produced
from petroleum products.
Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds of metallic and nonmetallic elements. They are hard, brittle,
and resistant to high temperatures. Ceramics are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
Cement and glass refractories are examples of ceramic materials.
Many ceramic materials are naturally available. They just need to be purified for use
and are not very expensive. In contrast, ceramics produced from oxides or carbides of
metals and nonmetals are expensive.
Some metals and alloys, polymers, and ceramics commonly used in engineering
industries are listed in Table 1.1.
Metals and alloys
Aluminum
Polymers
Bakelite
Ceramics
Oxide ceramics (e.g. SiO2,
Al2O3, and MgO)
Copper
Polyvinyl chloride
Silicates (e.g. asbestos, clay,

and mica)
Brass
Nylon
Refractories (fire bricks)
Iron
Elastomers (Rubbers)
Porcelain
Steels
Silicones
Glasses
Zinc
Polyethylene
Enamels
Tin
Polystyrene
Abrasives (silicon carbide)
Magnesium
Polypropylene
Cement and concrete
Lead
ABS
Nickel
Titanium
Table 1.1: Commonly Used Materials in Engineering Industries
1.1.2 Properties of Materials

Distinguish between properties of materials.
The material used to create a product determines the properties of the product. For
example, a container made from steel has a strength and chemical resistance that is
different from that of a container made from plastic or glass. The product design must
include careful material selection to ensure that the material is appropriate for
manufacturing the desired product. The salient and relevant properties of materials can
be categorized into:
!
!
!
!
!
Physical
Mechanical
Electrical
Chemical
Thermal
Each of these properties is discussed in detail in the following sections.
Physical Properties
The physical properties of a material describe weight of the material and its response to
heat. These properties include:
! Density
! Melting point
! Specific heat
Density
The density of a material is defined as the mass per unit volume of the material. Density
can be expressed as follows:
Density = Mass/Volume
Different materials have different densities. Metals, as a category, have higher density
than plastics. However, some metals are denser than others. For example, the density of
lead is 11.3 grams per cubic centimeters (gm/cc), but the density of magnesium is only
1.7 gm/cc.
Density can change with temperature, and the density of a material must be considered
in relation to its temperature. When the density of a material is expressed with relation
to water, it is known as specific gravity. The density of water is 1 gm/cc at 40 C
temperature.
Density has a significant role in determining the strength-to-weight ratio of a material,
which is the ratio of the strength of a material to its density. If an object has high
strength and low mass, it exhibits a high strength ratio. It is important to consider the
strength ratio when you select a material for a strong and lightweight product. For
example, the body of an airplane must be strong and light. The use of a lightweight
material decreases the overall weight of an airplane and increases its potential payload.
Density is also an important consideration in automobiles. Currently, a substantial
portion of the body and the interior of automobiles are made of plastics. Plastics have
low density, making cars lighter and reducing fuel consumption.
Density is a key factor when designing of internal combustion engines. For example,
ceramics are used in engines, turbochargers, and high-speed components of machine
tools because of their low density. Low density reduces the weight of an engine,
resulting in an increase in efficiency. Objects that need to be heavy and strong, such as
anvils and boat anchors, are made of materials that have higher density than water.
Anchors are heavier than water as a result, they sink fast and can stop a moving boat.
The density of an object determines its weight. For example, a cubic meter of wood
weighs 450 kilograms and a cubic meter of steel weighs 7,800 kilograms because
steel has higher density than wood.
Melting Point
Melting point is the temperature at which pure metals or nonmetals change from solid to
liquid form. The melting point of a material depends on the energy required to separate
its atoms. In a molten state, the atoms of a metal are separated and float freely. It is
common knowledge that ice melts at 0 C (32 F). The melting point of aluminum is
660 C (1,220 F) but that of Iron is 1,535 C (2,795 F).
The melting point of alloys, which are made up of two or more metals, varies according
to their composition.
The melting point of a material is an important factor to be considered when selecting
materials for manufacturing processes, such as casting.
Casting is the process by which molten metals are shaped. In the casting process,
molten metal is poured into a mold cavity of the required shape. You will learn
more about casting in the subsequent chapter.
You must consider the melting point of materials used for casting because hot molten
material is poured into molds. Therefore, the molds must be made of materials with a
high melting point, such as die steel. This prevents melting of the molds when molten
material, such as aluminum, is poured into them.
Most polymers and some metals, such as zinc, lead, and tin, melt at low temperatures.
Aluminum alloys have a moderate melting point, and steel has a high melting point.
Ceramics have the highest melting points.
Specific Heat
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a material by 1 C is called the
heat capacity or the specific heat of the material. Metals have a lower specific heat
capacity than plastics. Therefore, they require less heat to reach a particular temperature
than plastics. In addition, low specific heat results in a higher thermal conductivity.
Therefore, metals are better conductors of heat than nonmetals.
Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties determine the behavior of materials when mechanical force is
applied to them. The study of mechanical properties is essential for selecting the
material and manufacturing process. The following mechanical properties of materials
are important considerations in selecting the appropriate metal for a particular use:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Strain
Stress
Strength
Stiffness
Hardness
Toughness
Elasticity
Ductility
Fatigue resistance
Creep resistance
Strain ( )
Strain and stress are important mechanical properties to be considered when selecting
materials. Strain is the deformation caused per unit length in the direction of an applied
force. Strain is divided into two types, elastic and plastic. Some materials, such as
rubber, return to their original shape after the force applied on them is removed. This
property of materials is called elastic strain. On the other hand, plastic strain results in
permanent deformation.
For example, if a steel wire 100 in. long is increased to 100.1 in. by pulling from either
side, the strain is calculated as:
Strain = [100.1100]/100 = 0.001
Stress ( )
When an external load is applied to a material, the material resists the distorting effect.
This resistance is referred to as stress. Stress can be classified into various types
depending on the load that is applied. Various types of stress are:
! Tensile stress: Two forces pull a material in opposite directions along the plane of
stress.
! Compressive stress: Adjacent parts of a material press against each other. For
example, a brick in a wall experiences compressive stress.
! Shear stress: Parts of the material slide across each other. For example, in a rivet
joint, shear stress forces parts of the rivet to slide across each other.
! Bending stress: Surfaces of a material are exposed to tension and compression at the
same time. For example, when metal is bent, tension stretches the top surface, but
compression compresses the bottom surface. This is evident in steel cantilevers
where the force tries to bend the cantilever. Figure 1.1 shows stress in a metal rod.
Figure 1.1 shows the tensile stress in a metal rod. If a tensile force of 1,000 kilogram is
applied across a metallic square rod that has a cross-section of 10 mm 10 mm, the
stress in the rod is calculated as:
Stress = Force / Area = 1,000 / (10 10) = 10 kg/mm2
Figure 1.1: Stress in a Metal Rod
Figure 1.2 displays how tensile, compressive, and shear stresses act on a body.
Tensile Stress
Compressive Stress
Shear Stress
Figure 1.2: Tensile, Compressive, and Shear Stresses
Strength
The strength of a material is its ability to withstand the external forces applied on it
during a test or actual use. These forces cause distortion and fracture of the material.
The resistance to this distortion is referred to as strength.
Material strength can be classified as:
! Tensile strength: The ability of a material to resist failure caused by external tensile
forces, such as pulling and stretching. For example, a steel wire rod that carries
heavy fabric is used in the rigging of sailboats. The wire cord is exposed to high
tension from the weight of the sails, requiring a wire material with high tensile
strength.
! Compressive strength: The extent to which the material can resist compressive
stress without breaking. For example, bricks have a high compressive strength and
are used to build tall buildings. Concrete also has a high compressive strength and is
used to build foundations.
! Yield strength: The point at which the material deforms, that is, yields and does not
resume its original shape after the external force is removed.
Stiffness
Stiffness is the resistance of a material to elastic deformation. Youngs modulus of
elasticity (E) is a measure of stiffness, as shown in the following equation:
(E) =
Stress
=
Strain
Hardness
Hardness is the ability to resist penetration, abrasion, and wear. Hardness increases
proportionately to tensile strength. Objects, such as knives, must be made with very
hard stainless or carbon steel.
Diamond is the hardest material known and is used to cut other hard materials. Talc is
the softest material. In general terms, ceramics are very hard, metals are moderately
hard, and most plastics are not hard. The cutting tools used for machining operations
and dies used in metal forming are made of ceramics.
Hardness is primarily a material property. In pure state, all samples of a material

have the same hardness value. However, the hardness of metal alloys can be
changed by heat treatment. For example, steel is heated to a high temperature and
then cooled at a controlled rate to modify its hardness properties.
Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and is calculated as the energy
absorbed per unit volume of material. In other words, toughness is the amount of energy
absorbed by a material before it fractures. A fracture begins with a crack in a material.
When pressure is applied on a material, both elastic and plastic deformations take place.
Therefore, toughness can also be defined as the sum of elastic and plastic energies.
Toughness is also the ability of a material to resist the propagation of cracks. Materials
with high toughness offer high resistance to the propagation of cracks when force is
applied.
Toughness is measured by the modulus of toughness or the amount of energy absorbed
per unit volume in straining to a fracture. The modulus of toughness equals the total
area under the stress-strain curve obtained in a tensile test. Alternatively, toughness can
be determined from an impact test. Toughness is desirable in machine parts, such as
couplings, chains, crane hooks, and gears.
Modulus of toughness = Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) strain at fracture (Ef)
In the equation above, ultimate tensile strength is the strength of the material just before
fracture, and the strain at fracture is calculated considering the length of the sample at
fracture.
For example, a 50-mm steel wire with a tensile strength of 480 MPa is subjected to a
tensile test. The length of the steel wire after fracture is 64.5 mm.
Therefore, the strain at fracture = (64.5 50)/50 = 0.29
Modulus of toughness = UTS Ef = 480 0.29 = 139 MPa
Brittle materials lack toughness. For example, ceramics and glass are brittle, but metals
are not brittle.
Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape after an applied load is
removed. The modulus of elasticity is the ratio of strain and stress in the elastic region
in a stress-strain curve. The stress-strain curve is obtained by measuring the strain in a
sample for different levels of stress.
E = Stress/Strain
In the above ratio, E is the modulus of elasticity.
Elasticity is an important factor to consider when selecting materials for high-load
applications, such as bridges. For example, during a tensile test, if the strain in a wire is
0.001 and if the corresponding stress is 10 lb/in2, the modulus of
elasticity = Stress/Strain = 10/0.001 = 10,000 lb/in2. This also means that for a material
with the modulus of elasticity 10,000 lb/in2, if the permissible strain is 1, then the
material can be subjected to a maximum stress of 10,000 psi.
Aluminum has a lower modulus of elasticity than steel. In addition, it has lower
toughness than steel.
Ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to resist a high amount of plastic deformation before
failing under tension. A material with high ductility can be stretched into wires without
fracture. Ductility is denoted by percentage elongation, which is defined as the
maximum elongation or the maximum change in the length of a material at fracture,
divided by the original length of the material.
The formula to express ductility is given below:
Percentage elongation =
Change in length of a material 100

Initial length of the material
For example, in a tensile test, if a wire of length 100 cm elongates to 105 cm at fracture,
its ductility = (5/100) 100 = 5%
The change in the length of a material is the difference between its final and
original lengths. Therefore, the change in length = final length original length.
Another measure of ductility is the reduction in the area of the material sample. This is
measured as the percentage difference between the new change in the cross-sectional
area and the original area.
The reduction in area is also used to predict the extent to which a material can take
stress without fracturing.
Some examples of highly ductile materials are copper alloys and soft steel with a
percentage elongation up to 40%. A ductile material can be easily drawn into wires. For
example, copper wires are made by methods known as wire drawing and pulling.
Between two materials that have the same strength and hardness, the material with the
higher ductility is selected for drawing wires.
When selecting materials for products such as car bodies, choose highly ductile
materials such as low-carbon steels or aluminum alloys because only materials that can
be formed into wires must be selected.
You can increase the ductility of materials by heating them during the forming
process.
Fatigue Resistance
A material experiences fatigue when it is exposed to fluctuating loads. This results in
the reversal of stress, which causes the material to fracture. The level of stress at which
a fracture occurs when a fluctuating load is applied is lower than the level at which the
fracture occurs when a static load is applied. The level at which a fracture takes place is
referred to as the fatigue strength.
A fatigue fracture is progressive in nature. This fracture begins as a minute crack that
increases with fluctuating and periodic loads. The beginning of a fatigue fracture is
marked as the point of the highest stress. The maximum limit to which a material can
withstand stress without failure is called its endurance limit. The endurance limit
specifies the stage up to which a material is useful under stress.
The fatigue strength is important to consider in applications that combine stresses. An
automotive connecting rod is a typical example of a component that is subjected to
fatigue loading. The automotive connecting rod is used to transfer motion from the
engine to other parts of the vehicle, resulting in combined stresses. Materials, such as
ceramics, are not very useful in applications involving fatigue because ceramics lack
toughness and ductility and cannot withstand shocks. If a crack occurs, it propagates
rapidly, causing fatigue failure.
Creep Resistance
Creep is the permanent plastic deformation of materials when subjected to constant
stress or prolonged loading, usually at high temperatures. It leads to a fracture in the
material during service.
Creep can occur irrespective of temperature. For example, creep at room temperature is
known as a low-temperature creep and may occur in materials such as glass. The
occurrence and nature of creep mainly depends on the material, the service temperature
that the material faces, and the stress involved.
The creep strength is an important factor to consider when selecting materials for
high-temperature applications, such as boilers and turbines. For example, aero-engine
turbine blades are exposed to a hot, high-pressure gas stream that emerges from the
combustion chamber, and the material you choose for the blades must have high creep
strength at high temperatures. You can control the creep rate by minimizing the stress
and temperature that a component must endure.
Density, stiffness, strength, and ductility of a material are important factors to

consider when designing structures. During an earthquake, the motion of the
ground attacks the structural weaknesses caused by uneven distribution of the
stiffness, strength, and ductility of various building materials.
Electrical Properties
The electrical properties of a material refer to its ability to either permit or resist the
flow of electricity. Select the materials to be used in electrical equipment on the basis of
their electrical properties, such as:
! Resistivity
! Conductivity
! Dielectric strength
Each of these properties is described in the following sections.
Resistivity
Resistivity is the property that resists the flow of electricity. Materials with a low
resistivity are known as conductors.
The formula to calculate the resistivity of a material is given below:
Resistivity ( ) = RA/l
R = Resistance of a conductor
A = Cross section of the conductor carrying an electric current
l = Length of the conductor
The unit for resistivity is ohm-M (Meter) or ohm-I (Inches)
Table 1.2 lists the range of resistivity of various engineering materials that differ in
conductivity.
Material
Resistivity Range (ohm.meter)

-5
-9
+1
+5
Metals
10 to 10
Semiconductors
10 to 10
Insulators
10
+12
to 10
+15
Table 1.2: Range of Resistivity of Materials with Varying Conductivity
Conductivity
Electric conductivity is the property that determines the electric current flow.
Conductivity ( ) is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity. The formula for calculating
the conductivity of a material is =1/ = l/RA
In this,
= Resistivity of the material

l = Length of the material
R = Resistance of the material
A = Cross-sectional area of the sample
Electrical conductivity is an important factor to consider when selecting the material for
electrical wiring systems. Copper is a suitable choice for electrical wires because it has
high electrical conductivity. However, in situations where you need protection from
electric shocks, use materials (such as plastics and ceramics) that have low conductivity.
Ceramics are widely used in the electrical industry to make insulated parts and
spark-plug bodies because they have high electrical resistivity and low thermal
conductivity. Porcelain, a type of ceramic, is used as an insulator in electrical
appliances.
Dielectric Strength
Dielectric strength refers to the insulating capacity of a material against high voltage. A
material with high dielectric strength, such as ceramics, can withstand high voltage
fields. These materials are ideal for applications, such as insulators in transformer and
high-voltage electric transmission lines. Materials with low dielectric strength get
polarized and lose their insulating capacity in high voltage fields.
Chemical Properties
The chemical properties of a material refer to the manner in which the material reacts
with other substances, such as air, water, and solvents. Some of the relevant, salient
chemical properties of materials are:
! Oxidation
! Corrosion
Oxidation
Oxidation is the process in which a metal reacts with oxygen to form layers of metallic
oxides on its surface. The rate of oxidation increases with an increase in temperature of
the metal. Some metals, such as silver, gold, and platinum, do not react with oxygen.
This makes these metals ideal for applications in an oxidizing environment. For
example, silver electrodes are used in batteries that contain acid.
Corrosion
Corrosion of metals is the process of destruction when metals are exposed to
atmosphere. In addition, certain metals can degrade when exposed to moisture or air
forming compounds that might be harmful for human contact. For example,
copper-cooking vessels corrode by forming copper sulfate, which when mixed with
food, can be harmful.
Corrosion and protection against corrosion are covered in a subsequent chapter.
Thermal Properties
The thermal properties of a material characterize its behavior when exposed to heat. The
following thermal properties of materials are important when selecting materials for
various applications:
! Thermal conductivity
! Thermal expansion
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity is the rate at which heat flows through a material. Most metals
have high thermal conductivity, but ceramics and plastics have low thermal
conductivity. Materials with high thermal conductivity, such as copper, are suitable for
car radiators and copper-bottomed cooking pots, but ceramics, which have low thermal
conductivity, are good heat insulators in ovens and furnaces.
When a material is subjected to stresses leading to plastic deformation, heat is

generated. Heat is also generated due to friction when two surfaces that are in contact
move relative to each other. To prevent the resulting rise in temperature, a material must
conduct heat at a high rate. In other words, materials with high thermal conductivity are
protected from the effects caused by a rise in temperature. Low thermal conductivity of
materials causes nonhomogeneous deformation of materials.
The thermal conductivity of a material must be considered when determining its use.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is the amount by which the unit length of a material changes when
the temperature increases by one degree. Thermal expansion is directly proportional to
the increase in temperature of the material, and is referred to as the coefficient of linear
expansion.
The extent to which a material changes shape with a change in temperature is important
in situations when two metal parts are exposed to friction. For example, the movement
of an axle in a wheel causes friction. If the wheel has a thermal expansion lower than
that of the axle, the hole in the wheel becomes bigger in relation to the axle.
Alternatively, if the metal used for the axle expands faster than the wheel, the metal of
the axle can grow bigger in size than the hole of the wheel, causing the wheel to stop
turning.
When the temperature changes and a material does not evenly conduct the heat, stress
causes the material to fracture. For example, if hot water is poured into a cold glass, the
surface layer in immediate contact with water gets heated more rapidly than other layers
of glass. The surface layer expands faster than the other layers, causing stress. The glass
may break. The speed at which the heat flows is proportional to the thermal
conductivity of the material. The higher the conductivity, the faster the flow of heat
through the layers of the material.
Materials with high strength, high thermal conductivity, and low coefficient of thermal
expansion have the best resistance to thermal stress.
It is essential to consider the thermal-expansion property when selecting the materials
for products such as electronic and computer components, glass and metal seals, struts
on jet engines, and moving parts of machinery.
When objects are made using more than one material, it is essential to consider
their expansion coefficient in relation to each other. For example, if the base of a
mechanical object is made of aluminum and the bearing of stainless steel,
aluminum and steel will expand at different rates when the temperature changes.
Stresses will build up at the aluminum-steel interface, and the base may warp.
Table 1.3 summarizes various properties of materials.
Property
3
Metals
Ceramics
Polymers
Density (gms/cm )
2 to 22 (average ~8)
2 to 19
1 to 2
Hardness
Medium
High
Low
Machinability
Good
Poor
Good
Tensile strength, Mpa
Up to 2500 (360)
Up to 400 (58) Up to
Tensile strength, Mpa
140(20)
(ksi)
15 to 400 (2 to 58)
150 to 450 (22 to 65)
0.001 to 10
Poor to medium
Excellent
Poor
Creep resistance
Poor to medium
Excellent
Poor
Thermal expansion
Medium to high
Low to medium
Very high
Thermal conductivity
Medium to high
Medium but often
Very low
(ksi)
Youngs modulus, Gpa
6
(10 psi)
High-temperature
strength
decreases rapidly with

temperature
Good
Generally poor
Electrical characteristics
Conductors
Insulators
Insulators
Chemical resistance
Low to medium
Excellent
Good
Oxidation resistance
Generally poor
The oxides have
Thermal shock
resistance
excellent oxidation
resistance; SiC and
Si3N4 have medium
oxidation resistance
Table 1.3: Properties of Materials
Machinabilty is the ease of performing operations, such as turning, shearing, or

shaping, on a material.
Practice Questions
1. Why are ceramics used in abrasives and cutting tools?
2. Why does a steel anchor sink, but a steel boat floats?
3. To break a metal sheet using only your hands, bend it upward and
downward several times till it breaks. Why does this happen?
4. The electric iron that is used to iron clothes has a coil that becomes
hot when electricity passes through it. This heat is used to iron
clothes. The electrical resistance of this coil is very high. Why not use
a coil with low resistance so that electric current easily passes through
it?
5. If silver objects are not cleaned for a long time, a black deposit forms
on it. What is this black deposit made of?
6. On a beach, why does the breeze blow from the sea toward the land in
the day and in the opposite direction during the night?
1.2 Testing of Materials

To help you select the appropriate material, tests have been developed to measure
properties, such as strength, ductility, and hardness.
The tests can be classified into two categories:
! Destructive
! Nondestructive
These tests are described in the subsequent topics.
1.2.1 Destructive Tests

Identify the types of tests performed to assess various material properties.
Destructive tests determine the limit at which a particular material is destroyed. This
limit is known as the fracture limit. Various types of destructive tests are:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Tensile
Compression
Bending
Hardness
Impact
Fatigue
Creep
Table 1.4 displays material properties and their respective tests.

Property
Proportional stress
Description
The highest value of stress that a material
Test
Tensile test
can bear.
Elastic limit
The maximum value of stress to which
Tensile test
deformations on a material do not persist.

Ultimate tensile stress
The maximum load value a material can
(UTS)
withstand without being fractured.
Tensile test
Breaking stress
The stress level at which a material either
Tensile test
fails or fractures. The value of the breaking

stress is less than the value of the ultimate
tensile stress.
Yield stress
The stress that shows an appreciable
Tensile test
plastic or permanent deformation at a

constant value, without any strain
hardening.
Resilience
The amount of energy, up to its elastic limit,
Tensile test
absorbed by a material.
Toughness
The amount of energy absorbed by a
Tensile test
material prior to its fracture.

Stiffness
The resistance of a material to elastic
Tensile test
deformation.
Ductility
The ability of a material to undergo large
Tensile and bending
plastic deformation before a fracture under
tests
tensile loading conditions.

Malleability
The ability of a material to be rolled into thin
Tensile test
sheets.
Nature of failure
The measure of the types of fractures that
Tensile test
can occur in a material when the tensile test

is performed.
Compressive strength
The ability of a material to resist
Compression test
compressive pressure.
Hardness
The resistance of a material to permanent
Hardness test
indentation.
Impact strength
The ability of a material to withstand shock
Impact test
loads.
Fatigue strength
The behavior of a material under fluctuating
Fatigue test
and reversing loads or stress.

Creep strength
A permanent deformation of material, which
Creep test
is a result of the static loading of the

material over a long period at room
temperature or at an elevated temperature.
Table 1.4: Material properties and tests that can be performed to measure their values.
Malleability is the ability of a material to be sheared into thin sheets.
The following topics provide details of these tests.
Tensile Test
The tensile test is one of the most common tests performed. Table 1.4 lists the various
properties of materials that tensile tests measure.
The steps involved in a tensile test are:
1. A standard sample size of the material is taken. The sample of the material can be
either cylindrical or in the form of sheets or plates.
2. The test piece is tightly held between the two grips in a tensile-testing machine.
Some of the commonly used tensile-testing machines are the universal testing
machine and tensionmeter.
3. The tensile testing machine applies a progressively increasing load on the sample
till the sample fractures. This machine applies the load at a constant rate that can be
controlled for greater accuracy.
4. As the load on the specimen increases, the load and deformation readings are
simultaneously taken. The elongation of the specimen caused due to the load is
measured by a mechanical, electrical, or optical device called an extensometer.
Ensure that the size of the sample material is not frequently altered because this
may lead to inconsistent values of the property being measured. The results of a test
also depend on the dimensions of the sample being used for the test.
The values recorded during the tensile test can be used to calculate the properties of a
material. For example, the maximum value of load at which the sample material returns
to its original shape is its elastic-limit value. Similarly, the amount of energy that the
material absorbs within its elastic limit is referred to as the resilience of the material. In
addition, the yield-stress point is the value at which the stress becomes constant, but the
strain continues to increase.
Hookes law states that within the elastic limit, the value of strain is directly
proportional to the value of stress in a material. Therefore, when selecting the
material for an application, ensure that the stress limit for the application is less
than the elastic limit for the material.
Table 1.5 lists the property values of some metals and alloys after performing a tensile
test.
Metal or Alloy
Ultimate Tensile Stress
Yield Stress (psi)
% Elongation
(psi)
Steel
60,000
35,000
40
Wrought iron
50,000
30,000
30
Cast iron
20,000
Red brass
32,000
15,000
45
Aluminum
33,000
15,000
25
Table 1.5: Values of Metals and Alloys Derived from a Tensile Test
Compression Test
The compression test determines the capacity of a material to handle a compressive
load. In addition, this test determines the value of stress at failure and the elasticity of a
material. This test is performed in a universal testing machine in which pressure is
applied to the material until it fractures.
The steps performed in a compression test are similar to those of the tensile test except
that the load applied in the compression test is in the opposite direction. In the
compression test, forces are exerted inward toward one another. In the tensile test,
forces are exerted outward from one another.
The compression test is suitable for brittle materials, such as concrete blocks, because
materials with high ductility have less chances of fracturing. However, compression
tests do not provide accurate results because it is difficult to:
! Apply inward-bound axial loads
! Obtain a uniform deformation throughout the length of the specimen because the
friction force is acting at the ends of the specimen
! Measure the strain because the length of the specimen is short. The length of the
specimen is kept short because a long specimen may buckle under the compression
force.
Bending Test
Bending tests are performed to measure the ductility of a material, such as a copper
pipe. The steps performed in the bending test are:
1. A straight sample of the material is placed in the bending machine, which holds the
two sides of the sample.
2. A side of the sample is fixed to the machine, and the other side is subjected to a
unidirectional pressure.
3. The test sample is bent over a pin at a large angle, and observations on the cracking
of the piece at the outer surface are recorded.
This test is performed at room temperature. The angle of the bend and the size of the pin
around which the piece is to be bent without cracking varies according to the material
and its intended use.
Hardness Test
The hardness test measures the resistance of a material to surface indentation. This test
is useful in fabrication shops to test the hardness of stainless-steel sheets that they
intend to purchase. Hardness can also be defined as the resistance of a material to wear
and scratch. The hardness of a material depends on the grain size, the yield strength, the
tensile strength, and the ductility. The various types of hardness tests are:
!
!
!
!
Brinell
Vickers
Rockwell
Shore scaleroscope
These tests are described in detail below.
Brinell Hardness Test

In this test, hardness is determined by applying a load up to 3,000 kg on ferrous metals
for 10 seconds or for non-ferrous metals, a load up to 500 kg for 30 seconds. The test
uses an indenter, which is a 10-mm-diameter ball, made of either high-carbon steel or
tungsten carbide. After applying the load for a specific period, the load is gradually
removed and indentation is measured using a traveling microscope.
The syntax to calculate the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is:
BHN =
Load applied in kg.

Surface area of indentation in Sq. mm
Figure 1.3 displays the Brinell hardness tester.
Figure 1.3: Components of a Brinell Hardness Tester
The smaller the indentation, the harder the material is. High-carbon steel indenters are
used for less hard materials. If BHN hardness is more than 500, a tungsten-carbide
indenter is used. A drawback of the Brinell hardness test is that it cannot be used to test
materials that are very hard or soft.
Table 1.6 displays the BHN of some metals.

Material
BHN
Soft brass
60
Mild steel
130
Annealed chisel steel
235
White cast iron
415
Nitrided surface
750
Table 1.6: BHN Values of Metals (Typical)
Vickers Hardness Test

This test was earlier known as the Diamond Pyramid hardness test. It works on a
principle similar to the Brinell hardness test. The Vickers hardness test uses a
pyramid-shaped diamond indenter. A load of 1 to 120 kg, depending on the sample
material, is applied on this pyramid. The indenter is placed on the sample, and the load
is applied on the indenter for a definite time. Next, the load is automatically and slowly
removed. The slow removal of the load ensures that the indenter avoids the effect of
inertia because inertia can affect the indentation mark on the sample surface. A special
microscope determines the impression made by the load. The Vickers hardness number
can be calculated using the following syntax:
HV = 1.8544 P/L2
In the above syntax,
P = Load
L = Length of indention measured at a diagonal angle
Rockwell Hardness Test

In this test, the hardness of a metal is related to the depth of penetration, instead of the
area of indentation as in the Brinell and Vickers hardness tests. For this test, either a
small-diameter steel ball or a diamond-tipped cone is used as an indenter. In the
Rockwell hardness test, the load is applied in two stages. First, a minor load of 10 kg is
applied, and then the major load, which is up to 150 kg, is applied. This test includes
various combinations of indenters and loads. In this test, the letter A that precedes the
hardness number indicates a 60 kg load with diamond-tipped indenter, and the letter
1
B indicates a 100 kg load with a
" diameter ball indenter. The hardness of the
16
material is inversely proportional to the depth of penetration. Therefore, if the depth of

penetration is less, the material tested is hard. For the indenters, the hardness number
can be calculated using the following syntax:
Hardness number =
100 Depth of penetration in mm

.0002
For ball indenters, the hardness number can be calculated using the following syntax:
Hardness number =
130 Depth of penetration in mm

.0002
Figure 1.4 displays the Rockwell hardness tester.
Dial
Anvil
Indenter holder
Indenter
Elevating
screw
Weights
Handwheel
Loading lever
Figure 1.4: Components of a Rockwell Hardness Tester
Shore Scaleroscope Hardness Test

This test measures the rebound hardness of materials. The rebound hardness is the
extent of rebound an indenter has after its impact with the sample surface. The higher
the rebound, more the hardness. A diamond-tipped hammer is dropped on the surface of
a test material. Next, the rebound height of the hammer is measured. When the hammer
is dropped from a certain height, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. At
the contact surface, a part of the kinetic energy forms an impression on the sample
surface and the rest is used for the rebound. The height to which the dropped hammer
rebounds is measured in terms of an arbitrary number that indicates the hardness of the
material. For softer materials, the depression on the sample surface is larger because
higher energy is converted into deformation. Thus, less energy is used to rebound.
Therefore, the height of a rebound is directly proportional to the hardness of the
material.
Impact Test
The impact test measures the strength and ductility of a material by measuring the
ability of the material to absorb energy during shock loading. An impact test can also
measure the resistance of a material to the propagation of a crack when the crack is
formed. There are two types of impact tests:
! Izod
! Charpy
Impact tests producing a high rate of loading help determine the tendency of materials
towards a brittle fracture. The Izod and Charpy impact tests are types of notched bar
tests. In a notched bar test, a notch is introduced in the specimen to create a tendency for
a brittle fracture. The Izod impact test is used in UK, and the Charpy test is common in
the United States. In both cases, a certain mass is released from a distance above the
impact points to strike on the material being tested.
Figure 1.5 displays impact tests.

Direction
of blow
Specimen
10 X 10 X 55
28mm
450
8mm
Direction of blow
40mm
450
Specimen
10 X 10 X 75
Vise
Charpy
Izod
Figure 1.5: Charpy and Izod Impact Tests
Izod Impact Test

This impact test uses a standard specimen that has a 45 notch of a 2-mm depth and a
radius of 0.25 mm. In this method, a swinging pendulum is allowed to fall freely from a
certain height on the side of the sample material that is held by the Izod impact
machine. When the pendulum hits the sample material, the sample deforms due to the
energy released by the pendulum. The energy absorbed by the material is calculated by
measuring the height attained by the pendulum after hitting the sample material. A
pointer on the Izod impact machine displays the height attained by the pendulum.
Figure 1.6 shows the relation between impact energy and temperature.
Figure 1.6: Relation Between Impact Energy and Temperature
Charpy Impact Test

The tasks performed in the Charpy impact test are similar to the tasks performed in the
Izod impact test. However, the difference between the two impact tests is that in the
Charpy test, the swinging pendulum hits the center of the sample material, which is free
to move and is not fixed.
Figure 1.7 displays the components used in the Charpy impact test.
Figure 1.7: Components Used in the Charpy Impact Test
Fatigue Test
Fatigue is the behavior of materials under fluctuating and reversing stress. The rapid
stress fluctuation causes a material to fail at a stress value lower than its ultimate tensile
strength. This type of failure is encountered in rotating machine parts, springs,
connecting rods, aircraft wings, turbines, compressors, and pumps.
The maximum stress to which a material is subjected without fatigue failure, regardless
of the number of cycles of the fluctuating stress, is known as the endurance or fatigue
limit. This stress is generally 0.3 to 0.5 times the ultimate tensile strength of materials.
In a fatigue test, the material is in the form of a cantilever and is loaded at one end of
the fatigue test machine through a ball bearing. Next, it is rotated by means of a
high-speed motor to which a counter is attached to count the number of rotations. For
every rotation, the upper surface of the specimen is under tension and the lower surface
is under compression.
The number of cycles that cause failure varies with the applied stress. The higher the
stress, the lower the number of cycles that causes failure. The fatigue properties are
correlated with the tensile properties of materials. The ratio of the fatigue limit to the
tensile strength is called the fatigue or endurance ratio.
In the case of cyclic stress, the proportionality limit of a material is not constant and
varies in relation to the direction of stress. If stress is applied in the opposite direction,
plastic deformation begins at a lower stress than the initial yield stress. This lowering of
the yield stress when deformation is in one direction followed by deformation in the
opposite direction is called the Bauschinger effect.
The environment in which a component undergoes stress reversals has a marked effect
on the fatigue life. An increase in temperature results in a reduction of the fatigue life.
However, the size of the component has no effect on the fatigue life.
Creep Test
Creep is a slow and progressive deformation of a material under constant stress at
temperatures approximately above 0.4 tm, where tm is the melting point of the metal
under test.
Creep tests are important in determining the behavior of a material for service in a
continuously high temperature under stressed conditions because they help determine
the fracture resistance of the material. In creep tests, the sample materials are subjected
to constant tensile stress at a specific temperature. Next, the extent of deformation or
strain, with time, is measured. Creep is also determined in terms of compression, shear,
and bending. The test specimen may be circular, square, or rectangular in cross section.
1.2.2 Nondestructive Testing

Identify the types of tests performed to assess various material properties.
Nondestructive tests are used to determine the properties of materials by testing the
internal or external surface of materials without damaging them. Nondestructive tests
are also useful for inspection and flaw detection. The types of nondestructive tests are:
! X-ray and gamma ray tests

! Magnetic particle test

! Ultrasonic inspection
! Fluorescent dye penetrant test
These test are explained in detail below.
X-Ray and Gamma Ray Tests

These are radiographic tests in which the energy rays that can penetrate a material
determine the presence of fissures, cracks, and other types of defects. The intensity of
X-rays is inversely proportional to the density of the material through which they have
to pass. Therefore, a void in the material allows more rays to pass through and results in
greater exposure of the photographic film in that particular area. These means help
register the areas of high intensity and low intensity on the film to form an image. After
an exposed film is developed, it may serve as a means of checking the examined parts,
as well as cracking a permanent record of the inspection. For example, most aircraft
components made of titanium or aluminum are tested under X-rays or gamma rays.
Gamma rays are the rays that emanate from radium. Gamma rays correspond to X-rays
generated at approximately 2.5 million volts. Gamma rays are used for testing materials
that have high density and require higher penetration of rays than that of X-rays.
Magnetic Particle Test

This method of testing is applied only to ferromagnetic metals. If a sample being tested
contains irregularities, such as holes, cracks, and slag pockets, these will cause
distortion of the path of magnetic flux.
Magnetic testing is helpful in exploring surface defects. If the magnetizing forces are
sufficiently strong, a subsurface defect may be indicated. Success in finding a
subsurface defect also depends on its distance from the surface, its width, and the ratio
of its height to the thickness of the section being examined. The pattern of the magnetic
flux is indicative of its distance from the defect. Therefore, with experience, a
technician can judge the depth of a defect with reasonable accuracy.
Ultrasonic Inspection
An ultrasonic inspection uses ultrasonic wave propagation to pinpoint defects, such as
cracks and slag inclusions, in a sample material with thickness varying from 1/16 inch
to 35 inches. This method is capable of detecting defects that are too small to be
identified by radiography.
The ultrasonic apparatus uses echoes. An ultrasonic generator energizes a quartz crystal
probe and sends ultrasonic vibrations of a short duration into the object being tested.
During transmission, the vibrations are reflected back on to the crystal, which changes
the vibrational energy into electrical energy of the same frequency as the original
vibrations. The time base or the horizontal trace is vertically deflected when the original
wave enters the test medium. If any defects are present in the material, some of the
waves are reflected back by them. The reflected waves are recorded on a photographic
film or a screen. A defect causes a jump on the screen that specifies its location.
The sensitivity of ultrasonic testing is a function of the frequency of the vibrations used,
the crystal probe size, and the grain level as set on a standard test block. By selecting a
low-searching frequency, small defects are readily indicated. Ultrasonic testing can also
be used to assess the mechanical properties of materials such as the elastic modulus.
Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Test

This is a testing method in which a fluorescent or a dye penetrant is used to locate
cracks, pores, and other surface discontinuities in metals and nonmetals. The surface of
a material is brushed or sprayed with a liquid penetrant, and the penetrant is allowed to
enter any openings that may exist. The time required by the penetrant may vary from
one minute to several hours. After the surplus penetrant is completely removed and the
surface is dried, a developer is applied to the surface. A developer is a dry powder or a
liquid that highlights the penetrant seeping out of the flaws. A fluorescent penetrant is
viewed under black light, and a dye penetrant under the visible light.
One nondestructive test does not solve all the inspection problems. These tests are used
in combination. Table 1.7 compares the nondestructive methods of testing.
Test
Radiation testing (e.g., X-ray
Advantages
Good resolution
and gamma ray tests)
Limitations
Expensive and a health hazard
because radiations are harmful
for humans
Magnetic particle test
Rapid and sensitive
No pictorial record of the

defect; feasible only for
magnetic materials
Ultrasonic inspection
Speed, simplicity in use, and
Expensive
high sensitivity
Fluorescent dye penetrant test
Low cost and simplicity in use
Can be slow; internal defects

not revealed
Table 1.7: Comparison of Various Nondestructive Testing Methods
1.3 Atomic Structure of Materials

Depending on their molecular structure, materials are classified as crystalline and
amorphous. A crystal can be defined as a solid composed of atoms or molecules
arranged in a pattern, periodically repeated in three dimensions. A solid might be a
single large crystal or many smaller crystals bonded together. Materials that have
several crystals bonded together are called polycrystalline materials.
Amorphous materials have a molecular structure similar to that of liquids. Glass is a
typical example of an amorphous solid, which is also referred to as a super-cooled
liquid. Crystalline materials have properties, such as high luster, good thermal and
electrical conductivity, and the ability to be ionized in solutions. Amorphous materials
are harder than crystalline materials and have higher permanent magnetic properties. In
addition, some amorphous alloys are ductile enough to be cut by a pair of scissors.
1.3.1 Atomic Bonds in Materials

Identify the types of atomic bonds in materials.
The chemical and physical properties of a material are a result of the binding forces
between any two atoms of the material. The following types of bonding exist in
materials:
!
!
!
!
Ionic
Covalent
Metallic
Van der Waals
Ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds are called primary bonds because they are formed by
the exchange of electrons between atoms. Van der Waals bonds are called secondary
bonds because they do not involve any exchange of electrons between atoms. These
bonds are explained in detail in subsequent sections.
1.3.2 Types of Crystal Structures in Materials

List the types of crystal structures in materials.
The arrangement of atoms in a crystal can be described using the coordinate-axes

system. The following types of crystal systems are used to describe crystal structures:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Cubic
Tetragonal
Orthorhombic
Rhombohedral
Hexagonal
Monoclinic
Triclinic
The concept of a unit cell is useful in describing atomic arrangements. A unit cell is the
smallest building block for a crystal that is repeated throughout the crystal. The
following list states the various types of crystal structures:
!
!
!
!
Simple cubic (sc)

Body-centered cubic (bcc)
Face-centered cubic (fcc)
Close-packed hexagonal (cph or hcp)
When the unit cell is repeated in three dimensions, it results in complete arrangements
of atoms in the crystal.
1.3.3 Influence of Variations in Bonding on

Properties of Materials
Identify the effect of variations in bonding on properties of materials.
The strength of the bonds between the atoms in a material decides the physical and
chemical properties of the material. Most materials have more than one type of bond.
This topic describes the various types of bonds and their characteristics.
Ionic Bonds
An ionic bond occurs due to the electrostatic attraction between the positive and
negative ions in solid crystals. For example, common salt or NaCl has ionic bonds
between the Na+ ions and the Cl ions. If a material with an ionic bond is put in a
dielectric medium, such as water, which does not conduct electrical charges, the
negative and positive ions separate and the bonds are broken.
Therefore, most ionic crystals are hygroscopic and easily dissolve in water. In addition,
they are transparent as single crystals. For example, MgF3 is an ionic crystal and is
widely used for lenses in scientific instruments.
Figure 1.8 displays the ionic bonds in a material.
Ionic Bond
Atoms
Electron moves from

one atom to another
Figure 1.8: Ionic Bond
Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds occur when electrons are shared between atoms. In each covalent bond,
two electrons are shared between two atoms. Covalent bonds are stronger than ionic
bonds. A solid that features mainly covalent bonds is hard and stable at high
temperatures. For example, diamond is the hardest natural material because it is made of
carbon molecules bonded entirely by covalent bonds.
Figure 1.9 displays the covalent bonds.
Covalent Bond
Atoms
Electrons are shared

between atoms
Figure 1.9: Covalent Bond
Metallic Bonds
Metallic bonds exist in almost all metals. This makes a metallic bond de-localized
because metallic crystals consist of positively charged ions with de-localized valence
electrons floating freely in the crystal. Metallic bonds are not directional in nature.
Metallic crystals, having metallic bonds, consist of valence electrons moving freely in
the crystal. This makes metallic crystals good conductors of heat and electricity. Crystal
structures with metallic bonds resemble closely packed spheres surrounded by a cloud
of electrons. Metallic ions move freely, leading to a high plasticity of metals.
Figure 1.10 displays the metallic bonds.
Metallic Bond
Atoms
Electrons are shared
by all atoms
(electron cloud)
Figure 1.10: Metallic Bond
Van der Waals Bonds

These are weak, secondary bonds that exist between molecules or between layers of
atoms. They are found between gas molecules and between covalently bonded chains of
atoms in polymers. Van der Waals bonds are a result of the polarization of the electric
charges of atoms. Polarization is the separation of positive and negative charges in
electrically neutral atoms or molecules when they are brought close to similar atoms or
molecules. A hydrogen bond present in water and in some organic materials is also a
type of secondary bond.
The strength of bonds between atoms decides the properties of the resultant molecules.
Similarly, the bonds between molecules govern the physical appearance and properties
of materials. For example, graphite has covalent bonds between its atoms, which result
in a sheet-like structure. These sheets are bonded to each other through weak Van der
Waals bonds, allowing the sheets to slide over each other and remain stable at high
temperatures. This is the reason graphite is used as a lubricant in high-performance
engines.
Figure 1.11 displays the Van der Waals bonds.
Figure 1.11: Van der Waals Bonds
Practice Questions
1. If a metal can regain its shape after the deforming force is removed,
how is it possible to pull wires from metals?
2. If an acquaintance breaks a bone, the orthopedic surgeon uses X-rays
to detect the fracture. What is the principle of X-rays?
Case Study 1
Given a design specification, calculate the clearance required for thermal expansion
when various materials are used together.
Inside a McDonalds baking oven, a steel shaft of a 2-inch diameter rotates on a bronze
bearing. The clearance between the shaft and the bearing has to be a minimum of 0.005
inch. The ambient temperature is 70 F, and the maximum operating temperature of the
oven is 350 F. The shaft and bearing need to be replaced.
What is the proper clearance between the shaft and the bearing if the linear expansion
coefficient per inch and per F is 0.0000150 for bronze and 0.0000075 for steel?
Analysis
Metals expand when they are heated. In a shaft and bearing assembly, the shaft and the
bearing are made of different metals that have different rates of thermal expansion. The
clearance between the shaft and the bearing must be adequate to accommodate the
difference in the radii of the shaft and the bearing. In addition, the clearance must not be
too high, otherwise, the shaft may slip out of the bearing. The task involves calculating
the clearance required to accommodate the thermal expansion in the shaft-bearing
design.
Requirement
! The shaft must not run loose in the bearing.
! At elevated temperatures, the diameter of the shaft must not exceed the internal
diameter of the bearing.
! The thermal expansion of the bearing must also be considered when calculating the
clearance between the shaft and bearing.
Calculation
Increase in Temperature
= 350 70 = 280 F
Expansion of Bronze
= 280 0.0000150 2 = 0.0084"
Expansion of Steel
= 280 0.0000075 2 = 0.0042"
Difference in Expansion
= 0.0084 0.0042
= 0.0042"
Result
A clearance of 0.0042 inches must be maintained between the shaft and the bearing
when designing the shaft-bearing assembly. This clearance would accommodate the
thermal expansion of the two metals at high temperatures.
Case Study 2
Given a specification, calculate the Brinell Hardness number for a material.
In a Brinell Hardness No (BHN) test on a steel plate, the following were observed:
Applied Load- L
1,000 kg
Application of load
10 seconds
Diameter of indent- D
10 mm
Diameter of indentation formed- d
3 mm
Use the equation, BHN = Load / Surface Area of indentation, and calculate the BHN of
steel. Will the size of the indent change if the same test is conducted on aluminum and
ceramic tiles?
Analysis
The task involves calculating the Brinell Hardness No (BHN) by using the data for the
BHN test conducted on steel. In the BHN test, a load is dropped on the surface of the
sample. As a result of the impact, an indent is created on the sample surface. This indent
is inversely proportional to the hardness of the material. That is, for a given load, the
indent on hard materials is smaller than that on softer materials.
Requirement
! Calculate the BHN for steel by using the test data.
! Interpret the BHN results for aluminum and ceramic tiles.
Calculations
HB ( Formerly BHN ) =
Load ( kgf )
Surface Area of Indentation mm
D
2
(D
P
D2 d 2
where,
D : Diameter of the ball indenter,
d : Diameter at the rim of the permanent impression,
P : Load
HB =
=
Load
Indentation Area
D
2
10
2
(D
P
D2 d 2
1000
(10
102 32
2 1000
10 10 91
2000
3.141592654 10 0.460607985
2000
=
14.47042662
=
= 138.2129257
The same load will result in a large indent because aluminum is softer than steel. In
comparison, a ceramic tile is harder than steel, therefore, the indent will be small.
Result
The BHN1000 for steel, as concluded from the test = 138.
In addition, for aluminum, the same load will result in a larger indent, but the indent on
ceramic for the same load will be smaller than that on steel.
Case Study 3
Given an observation, identify the reason for the phenomenon.
When you pour hot coffee into a metallic cup, your hands immediately feel the heat, but
in a porcelain cup, your hands do not feel the heat for some time. The coffee remains
hot for a longer time in a porcelain cup than in a metallic cup. Explain why?
Analysis
The time required for heat transfer through a material is inversely proportional to the
thermal conductivity of the material. The thermal conductivity of metals is higher than
those of nonmetals. The task involves comparing the thermal conductivity for various
materials and analyzing the difference between them to explain the observed
phenomenon.
Requirement
! Compare the thermal conductivity for various materials.
! Correlate the differences between the thermal conductivity for various materials,
and use the analysis to explain the difference in time required for heat to transfer.
Result
The thermal conductivity of metals is faster and higher than that of ceramics, such as
porcelain. Therefore, metal conducts heat to your hand more quickly.
In a metal cup, heat is conducted faster from the coffee to the exterior of the cup,
therefore, the coffee gets colder more quickly.
Summary
! Materials can be classified into two groups, metals and nonmetals.
! Metals can be classified into:
Ferrous
Non-ferrous
! Nonmetals can be classified as:
Polymers
Ceramics
! The material used to create a product decides the properties of the product. When
designing a product, select the materials to create the product. To select materials,
assess the properties of each material to ensure that the selected material is
appropriate for manufacturing the desired product.
! The properties of materials can be classified as:
Physical
Mechanical
Electrical
Chemical
Thermal
! Different tests have been developed to measure the values of the properties of
various materials. The tests may either be destructive or nondestructive. These tests
help in selecting materials for various specified purposes.
! Different types of destructive tests are:
Tensile
Compression
Bending
Hardness
Impact
Fatigue
Creep
! Various types of nondestructive tests are:
X-ray and gamma ray tests
Magnetic particle test
Ultrasonic inspection
Fluorescent dye penetrant test
! The crystal structure and atomic bonds determine various properties of all classes of
materials. Crystalline and amorphous materials have characteristic properties. In
addition, the behavior of a material depends on the type and strength of atomic
bonds in it. When selecting materials for a product or deciding the composition of
an alloy, the crystal structure and the atomic bonds in the materials are considered.
Homework Exercises
1. Briefly, explain why graphite is used as a lubricant for applications involving high
temperatures.
2. What are X-ray and gamma ray tests used for?
3. Differentiate between destructive and nondestructive tests for materials.
4. It is a common practice to leave a quarter-inch gap between adjacent rails when
laying long railway lines from place to place. What is the reason for this gap? Why
are ceramics used in electrical applications?
5. Which instrument is used to measure the roughness of a surface? Explain in brief
the working of that instrument.
6. What is the Brinell Hardness No (BHN) test used for?
7. Why is corrosion never observed in aluminum utensils even though aluminum
readily reacts with oxygen?
8. It was found that cracks developed on the dished ends of the body of a liquor
concentrator. On inspection after completion of the manufacturing process, it was
found that cracks had developed on the outer surface of the dished ends. The dished
ends under discussion had been cold formed by a process of pressing and spinning,
had a diameter of 2.2 m, and were of boiler quality plates corresponding to SA 516
Gr.60, 16-mm thick. The cracks were of random lengths, ranging from 10 mm to 50
mm. In some cases, the cracks were in two directions intersecting each other. The
depth of the cracks was 1 mm to 3 mm. Analyze the scenario, and prepare a report
documenting your analysis.
Lab Exercises
Lab Exercises
Exercise 1
Objective
! Calculate the BHN for steel by using the test data.
! Interpret the BHN results for aluminum and ceramic tiles.
Theory
In this test, hardness is determined by applying a load up to 3,000 kg on ferrous metals
for 10 seconds, or for non-ferrous metals, a load up to 500 kg for 30 seconds. The test
uses an indenter, which is a 10-mm-diameter ball made of either high-carbon steel or
tungsten carbide. After applying the load for a specific period, the load is gradually
removed and the indentation is measured using a traveling microscope.
The formula to calculate the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) is:
BHN =
Load applied in kg.

Surface area of indentation in Sq. mm
Scenario
In a Brinell Hardness No (HB or BHN) test on a steel plate, the following were
observed:
Applied Load
1,000 kg
Application of load
10 seconds
Diameter of indent
10 mm
Diameter of indentation formed
3 mm
Use the equation, BHN = Load /Surface Area of indentation, and calculate the BHN of
steel. Will the size of the indent change if the same test is conducted on aluminum and
ceramic tiles?
Procedure
1. The task involves calculating the Brinell Hardness No (BHN) by using the data for
the BHN test conducted on steel.
2. List the features of the BHN test.

In the BHN test, a load is dropped on the surface of the sample. As a result of the
impact, an indent is created on the sample surface. This indent is inversely
proportional to the hardness of the material. That is, for a given load, the indent on
hard materials is smaller than that on softer materials.
3. Calculate the BHN for steel by using the test data. Interpret the BHN results for
aluminum and ceramic tiles.
Calculations
HB or BHN =
Load ( kgf )
Surface Area of Indentation mm
D
2
(D
where,
D : Diameter of the ball indenter,
d : Diameter at the rim of the permanent impression,
P : Load
HB or BHN =
D
2
(D
10
2
Load
Indentation Area
P
D2 d 2
1000
(10
102 32
2 1000
10 10 91
2000
3.141592654 10 0.460607985
2000
=
14.47042662
=
= 138.2129257
The HB1000 (BHN1000) for steel, as concluded from the test = 138.
P
D2 d 2
Decision
Because aluminum is softer than steel, the same load will result in a large indent. In
comparison, a ceramic tile is harder than steel; therefore, the indent will be small.
Lab Activity Checklist

S. No.
Tasks
Completed
Yes
1.
No
Calculated the BHN for steel by using the test

data
2.
Interpreted the BHN results for aluminum and

ceramic tiles
Lab Exercises
Given that the HB1000 (BHN1000) for steel is 138, identify the impact of the same load on
an aluminum object.
Exercise 2
Objective
! Distinguish among the properties of materials.
Theory
Thermal conductivity is the rate at which heat flows through a material. Most metals
have high thermal conductivity, but ceramics and plastics have low thermal
conductivity. Materials with high thermal conductivity, such as copper, are suitable for
car radiators and copper-bottomed cooking pots, but ceramics, which have low thermal
conductivity, are good heat insulators in ovens and furnaces.
When a material is subject to stresses leading to plastic deformation, heat is generated.
Heat is also generated due to friction when two surfaces that are in contact move
relative to each other. To prevent the resulting rise in temperature, a material must
conduct heat at a high rate. In other words, materials with high thermal conductivity are
protected from the effects caused by a rise in temperature. Low thermal conductivity of
materials causes nonhomogeneous deformation of materials.
The thermal conductivity of a material must be considered when determining its use.
The following expression governs the flow of heat in a material:
Q = T/ x . In this, Q is the heat flow across the unit area, is the coefficient of
thermal conductivity, and T is the temperature of the material. T / x is the temperature
gradient in the given unit area.
Scenario
When you pour hot coffee into a metallic cup, your hands immediately feel the heat, but
in a porcelain cup, your hands do not feel the heat for some time. The coffee remains
hot for a longer time in a porcelain cup than in a metallic cup. Explain why.
Procedure
1. First, compare the thermal conductivity for various materials, and analyze the
difference between them to explain the observed phenomenon.
2. Next, list the definition of thermal conductivity, and correlate the differences
between the thermal conductivity for various materials.
The time required for heat transfer through a material is inversely proportional to
the thermal conductivity of the material. The thermal conductivity of metals is
higher than that of nonmetals.
Decision
Based on the above comparison, identify the reason for coffee cooling faster in a
metallic cup.
In a metal cup, heat is conducted faster from the coffee to the exterior of the cup,
therefore, the coffee gets cold faster.

S. No.
Tasks
Completed
Yes
1.
No
Distinguished the properties of the materials
Lab Exercises
The rate of thermal conductivity of metals is faster and higher than that of ceramics,
such as porcelain. Therefore, metal conducts heat to your hand more quickly than
does porcelain.
Exercise 3
Objective
! Given a situation, analyze reasons for failure.
Scenario
Two different grades of steel, a and b, are used for making shock absorbers for transport
vehicles. Both grades of steel have the same value for compressor strength and
toughness. However, the failure rate of the shock absorbers made from steel of grade b
is higher than those made from grade a steel. Identify the reason for failure.
Procedure
1. First, perform different mechanical tests on the shock absorbers and identify the
behavior of the two materials. The possible tests are proportional tests, toughness,
compressor strength, and fatigue resistance.
2. During the tests, the shock absorbers made from grade a and grade b steel exhibited
similar results for all properties except fatigue resistance. Shock absorbers are
subjected to fluctuating and reversing stress. Grade b failed before grade a.
Decision
From the above test analyses, identify the suitable steel for manufacturing shock
absorbers and give reasons.
Grade a steel is preferred because it has a higher fatigue resistance than grade b
steel. Fatigue resistance is important to survive fluctuating and reversing stresses. These
stresses can cause material fracture.

S. No.
Tasks
Completed
Yes
1.
Analyzed the reasons for failure
No
Exercise 4
! Given a situation, analyze reasons for failure.
Scenario
XYZ boilers incorporated manufacture boilers made of steel. A boiler is a large
cylindrical vessel and contains liquid that is heated to high temperatures. The lid of the
boiler is made of toughened glass. The lid of the boiler needs to be changed every
month due to fracture. However, the body of the boiler is intact. Analyze the possible
cause of frequent failure and suggest a solution.
Procedure
1. First, identify the type of failure by examining the broken parts.
2. During the examination, it was found that the glass has undergone plastic
deformation. Glass exhibits creep at high temperatures.
Creep can occur regardless of temperature. For example, creep at room
temperature is known as a low-temperature creep and may occur in materials, such
as glass. The occurrence and nature of creep mainly depends on the material, the
service temperature that the material faces, and the stress involved.
Creep strength is an important factor to consider when selecting materials for
high-temperature applications, such as boilers and turbines. For example, aeroengine turbine blades are exposed to a hot, high-pressure gas stream that emerges
from the combustion chamber, and therefore, the material you choose for the blades
must have high creep strength at high temperatures. You can control the creep rate
by minimizing the stress and temperature a component must endure.
During the examination, it was noted that the pressure control valves were intact
and the glass used was of good quality.
Lab Exercises
Objective
Solution
Based on the above description of creep, suggest an appropriate solution. A possible
reason for the lid failure can be poor quality of glass or lack of temperature control. As
stated, the boiler consists of pressure release valves and the glass is of good quality.
Therefore, the solution is to make the lid from boiler quality steel.

S. No.
Tasks
Completed
Yes
1.
Analyzed the reasons for failure
No
Manufacturing
Processes for Metal
AlloysCasting and
Joining
Identify the various manufacturing processes.
Identify the steps in the casting processes.
Identify the types of casting processes.
Identify the advantages and limitations of the casting

processes.
Given a specification, identify the casting process to be

used.
Identify the types of joining processes.
Identify the suitability to specific materials.
Identify the advantages and limitations of the joining

processes.
Given a specification, identify the joining process to be

used.
2.1 Introduction to
Manufacturing
Processes
2.2 Casting
2.3 Joining
2.2 Manufacturing Processes for Metal AlloysCasting and Joining
2.1 Introduction to Manufacturing

Processes
The objects around you are made up of various types of materials, such as wood, metal,
plastic, and leather. Each object undergoes some treatment and process to take its form.
For example, to create a metallic lock and key, a set of steps known as manufacturing
processes are sequentially performed to convert the raw material into a finished product.
In this chapter, you will learn about several categories of manufacturing processes and
processes for manufacturing various products.
2.1.1 Classification of Manufacturing

Processes
Identify the various manufacturing processes.
To create a product, a process is performed on a workpiece, a unit of raw material.

Depending on the requirements of the final product, you can use one of several
manufacturing processes, which are broadly classified into five categories, as shown in
Figure 2.1.
Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Joining
Machining
Forming
Finishing
Figure 2.1: Categories of Manufacturing Processes
You will learn about these processes in the following sections and chapters.
Manufacturing Processes for Metal AlloysCasting and Joining 2.3
2.2 Casting
Casting, also known as founding, is the initial step in manufacturing most products. The
purpose of this process is to create useful shapes out of various metals and alloys.
In the casting process, liquid metal is poured into a container known as a mold. The
mold is prepared beforehand in the shape of the object to be created. For example, to
create a pudding bowl, an oval mold is prepared. The metal to be cast is poured in a
liquid state into the mold and left for a specific time so that it solidifies and forms the
desired shape. Figure 2.2 shows casting.
Figure 2.2: Casting
The term casting is used for both the process of casting and the object that is
formed using the casting process. To cast an object, you need molds, molding
equipment, tools, patterns, and melting equipment to produce molten metal. Casting
is done in a foundry.
2.2.1 Sand Mold Casting Process

Identify the steps in the sand mold casting process.
Sand mold casting is the most commonly used casting process.

The steps involved in casting an object using the sand mold casting process are:
1. Creating a pattern
2. Creating a mold
3. Melting and pouring
4. Cleaning the solidified casting
Creating a Pattern
Pattern making is the first step in casting. A pattern is a replication of the shape of the
final object to be created. Creating a pattern is similar to creating a blueprint of the final
product. The pattern enables you to eliminate all possible errors so that the final product
is free of defects and the cost of production is economical. The pattern is used to make a
mold in which the casting is produced.
When a molten metal solidifies and cools in the mold, it shrinks in size. To
compensate for this, the pattern is made larger than the required size of the finished
casting. The amount by which the dimensions of the pattern are increased is known
as the shrinkage allowance. For more information on shrinkage allowance, refer to
the Appendix.
A pattern can be created from any of the following materials:
! Wood: Is the most commonly used material for creating patterns because it is easy
to work with and is easily available. In addition, wood is economical and can be
used to create patterns in small quantities.
! Metal: Is used to make patterns when a large number of castings have to be

manufactured. Metal patterns last longer because they are not damaged during
storage.
! Thermocole: Is also known as Styrofoam, and can be used to make patterns quickly.
However, such patterns are fragile and can easily break while in use or during
storage.
! Plastic: Patterns made of plastics are more durable and less expensive than those of
wood or metal. These patterns are not affected by moisture and do not get damaged
during storage. Unlike Styrofoam patterns, plastic patterns are not brittle. Plastic
patterns are also used to salvage broken or worn patterns.
Table 2.1 summarizes the materials used for creating patterns and the situations in
which they should be used.
Material
When to Use
Wood
To make small quantities of castings when cost is a consideration
Metals
To produce large quantities of castings when patterns need to be

stored for a long duration and cost is not a major consideration
Thermocole
To produce a single casting when patterns need to be created

quickly
Plastics
To repair broken or worn patterns and to create durable and

lightweight patterns
Table 2.1: Materials for Creating Patterns and Their Usage
Creating a Mold
After creating a pattern, the mold is created. A mold has a cavity in the shape of the
object to be produced. To obtain the exact shape of the mold cavity, the pattern of the
intended object is used. The material used for making a mold is packed around the
pattern inside a mold flask. This can be done either manually or by molding machines.
After packing, the pattern is pulled out to form the cavity for pouring the molten metal.
Instead of clay and water, you can use sodium silicate or a resin as a sand binder.
The quality of casting is influenced by the quality of the mold. A good mold must have
the following characteristics:
! The mold must be strong enough to hold the weight of the molten metal or alloy
being poured into it.
! Because the molten material poured into the mold can be at a high temperature, the
mold must be able to withstand the high temperature of the molten material.
! The mold must be able to resist the erosive action that may occur when molten
material is poured rapidly into the mold.
! The mold must generate only a minimum amount of gas when filled with the molten
material. Gas may contaminate the material and result in casting defects.
! The mold must be constructed in such a way that any gas formed can pass through
the body of the mold itself instead of penetrating the metal of the casting.
! The mold must be designed in such a way that it can be broken into pieces and
stripped cleanly away from the casting after the casting has cooled.
Materials for Creating Sand Molds

Molding material maintains the shape of the mold until the molten material solidifies. A
mold can be made of various refractory materials, a common one being sand. Sand is
mixed with a binding agent, such as clay or bentolite, and water. Silica sand is the most
commonly used molding material, especially for metals that melt at high temperature.
Silica sand is used as a molding material because:
!
!
!
!
It is easily available.
It is inexpensive.
It can be easily formed into complicated shapes.
It can withstand the effects of molten metal.
Instead of silica sand, you can use plaster, also known as gypsum, or a ceramic powder,
such as aluminum oxide, zircon, or chromite as the mold material. You choose the
molding material depending on the time available, the number of products to be
manufactured, and the surface finish.
Table 2.2 lists the features of molds.

Mold
Material Used
Features
Sand molds
Dry sand, loam sand, or
Economical, not reusable, poor
green sand bonded with clay
surface finish, nonconductive,
and water, sodium silicate,
casting takes longer to cool,
petroleum products, or resin
suitable for small-scale

production
Plaster molds
Gypsum plaster
Economical, good surface finish,

nonconductive, casting takes
longer to cool, not reusable
Ceramic molds
Aluminum oxide, zircon, or
Expensive, not reusable, highly
fused silica
resistant to heat, good finish
Table 2.2: Features of Molds
Cores
Some castings require holes, cavities, passages, or complex hollow regions to be created
inside or on the surface. An automobile engine block is an example of a casting with
cavities and hollow regions. To create such objects, cores are used along with the mold.
A core is an insert that is usually made up of sand and placed in the relevant position
inside the mold. When the molten material is poured into the mold, a hollow cavity is
created in the casting where the core is placed. After the casting cools down, the cores
can be easily brushed out from the cavities or hollow regions because they are made of
sand.
A core is created using a method similar to that used for making molds. Sand is
generally used to create cores because it is porous, heat-resistant, and easily
disintegrates.
Melting and Pouring

After a mold cavity is created, it is ready for receiving the molten metal. To melt and
pour the metal,
1. Melt the metal to be cast in a melting furnace.
2. While melting, add flux to the material. Flux acts as a cleanser. It collects the dirt
and other impurities present in the metal.
3. Transfer the molten metal from the melting furnace into a large refractory-lined
ladle.
4. Use pouring ladles to pour the metal into the mold.
The molten metals or alloys should be poured continuously and uniformly until the
cavity is completely filled. In addition, the temperature of the molten material must
remain constant throughout the process of pouring, otherwise the quality of the
casting suffers.
The molten metal is then allowed to cool and solidify in the mold. A chill can be used to
speed up the process of solidification. A chill is a metal block that facilitates quick
cooling through rapid heat dispersion.
Cleaning the Solidified Casting

The casting is removed from the mold by breaking the mold after the metal solidifies.
When the casting is taken out from the mold, particles such as sand and dirt are attached
to it on the surface. Therefore, the casting must be cleaned using a cleaning process, as
described in the following section, Finishing.
The sand-casting process is used to produce both large and small castings for industrial
applications. Sand-cast objects range from heavy machine frames, which cannot be
fabricated by any other process, to small piston rings each weighing a few ounces.
Ferrous, as well as non-ferrous, castings can be made using the sand-casting process.
2.2.2 Other Types of Casting Processes

! Identify the types of casting processes.
! Identify the advantages and limitations of various casting processes.
In addition to the sand mold casting process, the following casting processes are
suitable for specific applications:
!
!
!
!
!
Permanent mold casting

Pressure die casting
Centrifugal casting
Shell mold casting
Investment casting
Permanent Mold Casting

Permanent molds are made up of a suitable metal by machining from blocks. This type
of mold is usually made up of cast iron or tool steel that has high resistance to heat.
Permanent molds are reusable. The metal mold can be used to cast a large number of
castings. Therefore, the process is suitable for large-scale and continuous casting
production. Moreover, the casting quickly cools down because a permanent mold can
conduct heat faster than sand. As a result, the casting process is faster. Permanent molds
also result in a better surface finish because they are smoother than sand molds.
In permanent mold casting, the molds are given a coating with refractory slurry, such as
graphite, before the metal is poured to improve the surface of the castings produced.
This process is used to produce thousands of automobile pistons.
Permanent mold casting is applied in industries in which a large number of castings are
required and reusability of the mold is desired.
Figure 2.3 shows permanent mold casting.
Figure 2.3: Permanent Mold Casting
Pressure Die Casting

Pressure die casting uses permanent molds. This process forces the molten metal into
the mold by using high pressure externally. This type of casting is used to produce
high-quality castings, such as automobile carburetors, dashboard instruments, and wheel
rims.
The pressure die casting process is an expensive process and is suitable for high-volume
production. The processes of permanent mold casting and pressure die casting are used
only for producing non-ferrous castings.
Centrifugal Casting
As the name suggests, the centrifugal casting process uses centrifugal forces to
distribute the molten material into a die or a mold. The molten material is poured into a
continuously rotating die. The continuous rotation of the die produces inertial forces
that spread the molten material evenly in the die. In centrifugal casting, the die is rotated
around a horizontal axis. This process is used to cast products such as large sewage
pipes, wheels, and cylinders.
Centrifugal casting is also used to manufacture wheels, pipes, automotive cylinder
liners, and gun barrels.
Shell Mold Casting

Shell mold casting provides a better surface finish than that obtained from sand
molding, better dimensional accuracy with smooth surfaces, and a higher rate of
production. In this type of casting, a mixture of sand and thermosetting plastic binder is
dropped on to a heated metal pattern. This forms a solid region adjacent to the metal
pattern. The shell segments are stripped from the metal pattern and assembled. When
the poured metal solidifies, the shell is broken to take out the finished casting. This
process is used for cast iron and alloys of aluminum and copper. For example, a
motorbike cylinder block is created by shell mold casting.
Shell mold casting is used to manufacture small mechanical parts that require high
precision, such as gear housing, cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, and connecting rods.
Investment Casting
Investment casting derives its name from the term investing, or putting in. In this
casting process, a wax pattern created using injection molding is invested in a slurry of
refractory material. As the pattern is repeatedly dipped in the slurry, the coating of the
refractory material over the pattern thickens and the mold is formed. Once the required
thickness of the mold is reached, it is allowed to dry. The mold is then heated to a
temperature of 90 C or above so that the wax melts and can be taken out. The wax can
be reused. Next, the mold is heated to a temperature of 650 C or above to remove
moisture. The molten material is then poured into the mold cavity. Once the metal
solidifies, the mold is broken to take out the casting.
Investment casting is used to manufacture intricate machinery parts and turbine blades,
and is usually made of metals that have a high melting point.
Tips for Selecting a Casting Method

While selecting a suitable casting method, you should consider the following factors:
!
!
!
!
!
Time required to complete the casting process

Specifications of the piece to be cast
Properties and quality required in the casting
Total number of castings to be manufactured and the cost of each casting
Adaptability of the casting process
Table 2.3 summarizes the advantages and limitations of the various casting processes.
Processes
Advantages
Limitations
Sand mold
Used for any metal cast, no limit
Requires finishing and wide
to size, shape, or weight, and
tolerance
low tooling cost

Permanent mold
Pressure die
Centrifugal
Good surface finish,
High mold cost, limited shape
dimensional accuracy, and high
and intricacy, and unsuitable for
rate of production
metals with a high melting point
Excellent surface finish,
High cost of die, usually limited
to non-ferrous metals, long lead
rate of production
time, and limited part size
Large cylindrical parts with good
Requires expensive equipment
quality and high rate of
part shape
production
Shell mold
Good surface finish,
Requires expensive patterns
and equipment; part size
rate of production
Investment
Used for any metal cast,
Expensive patterns, molds, and
intricate shapes, excellent
labor limited part size
surface finish, and dimensional

accuracy
Table 2.3: Advantages and Limitations of Various Casting Processes
Practice Questions
1. Identify any casting that you come across at home or in the institute
or workplace. Try to identify the material it is made of and guess how
the finished component has been made.
2. It is possible to produce hollow cylindrical castings. When you pour
liquid metal in a cavity, how is it possible to end with a hollow shape?
2.3 Joining
As the name suggests, in a joining process, two or more workpieces are joined together
to form a useful product. The workpieces can be of the same or different materials. The
joining process can be carried out through welding, fastening, gluing, or fusing using
screws, nails, adhesive, rivets, molten metal, or other joining methods. Usually, two or
more workpieces are joined for a specific application, which can range from assembling
an object as simple as a pencil box to constructing huge metal bridges. Every product
uses some kind of joining process unless it is a single piece product. Therefore, joining
processes form an important phase in any manufacturing activity.
Joined workpieces must be held in a specific position with a required amount of
strength, depending on the purpose of the joint and the function of the resultant object.
Each joining process has its own benefits and areas of application. Figure 2.4 shows two
different joints between metal strips.
Figure 2.4: Joining of Metal Strips
Two arms of a pair of scissors are joined with a screw or a rivet. The two arms must
stay together but also should be able to perform the cutting action.
2.3.1 Types of Joining

! Identify the types of joining processes.
! Identify the suitability to specific materials.
You can join workpieces by:
!
!
!
!
!
Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Adhesive bonding
Mechanical fastening
Figure 2.5 shows the types of joining processes.
Figure 2.5: Types of Joining Processes
Welding
Welding is used to join two surfaces with a metallurgical bond using heat, pressure, or
both. You can weld steel, copper, aluminum, and many other metals. Welding is
commonly used for machine parts, automobile parts, as well as large structures such as
electrical transmission towers. The welding process is divided into the following two
classes:
! Fusion welding
! Solid state welding
Fusion Welding
Fusion welding is the most commonly used welding technique. The workpieces to be
joined are heated together until the surfaces melt. In the molten state, these surfaces mix
with each other. After mixing, the molten metal is allowed to solidify resulting in the
fused material.
At times, the metals being joined may not be compatible with each other. These metals
are joined by means of another metal known as the filler metal.
Examples of metals on which fusion welding can be applied are gold, silver, platinum,
stainless steel, brass, and nickel. One of the applications of fusion welding is to create
jewelry.
Fusion welding can be of the following types:
! Electric arc welding: This process is based on the formation of an arc between an
electrode and the base material to provide heat. An electric arc is formed when there
is an electrical discharge between two metal objects that are not in contact with each
other. In this case, the two objects are the electrode and the base metal workpiece.
! A base material is a workpiece that needs to be welded with another piece.

! An electrode is a metal wire or rod coated with flux. The flux provides a
shielding layer.
Electric arc welding can be classified as:
Shielded metalarc welding: This process is widely used for the fabrication of
pressure vessels, pipes, and pipeline joints. An arc is created between the
electrode and the base metal at the joint line. The arc melts a portion of the
base metal and the electrode to form a weld pool. The molten metal is
protected from the surrounding atmosphere by the decomposition of the
electrode coating, which forms a gaseous CO2 cloud. The electrode coating
also contains fluxes that remove impurities from the molten metal. The flux
helps in the formation of a slag layer that protects the cooling weld metal from
atmospheric contamination. During this type of welding, the power supply can
be AC or DC.
Due to the very high temperature of the arc and the open atmosphere in which the
arcing takes place, shielded metal arc welding is suitable only for ferrous material
such as steel and cast iron. Non-ferrous metals would be severely oxidized in such
conditions.
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding: MIG arc welding is also known as Gas Metal
Arc Welding (GMAW). In this process, an electric arc is produced and
maintained between an electrode wire and the workpiece. The arc and the
welding surface are protected from oxidation or atmospheric contamination by
the shielding gas that is supplied through a nozzle. The shielding gas used in
this process can be carbon dioxide (CO2), argon, or a mixture of gases. The
gas used depends on the metals being welded. The GMAW process requires
less operator skills than other welding processes. It is cost-effective and can
be automated. Because it uses a shielding gas, this process can be used for
non-ferrous metals. The advantages of GMAW include no flux required, high
welding speed, high corrosion resistance, and high economy.
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW): GTAW is also known as the Tungsten
Inert Gas (TIG) welding process. In this process, an arc is placed between a
non-consumable Tungsten electrode and the base metal. The arc fuses the
base metal and the filler. The welded metal solidifies to form a metallurgical
bond. Either Argon or Helium can be used as the shielding gas to eliminate
the oxidation of the weld metal, the base metal, and the filler metal. The TIG
process is ideal for obtaining high quality welding because a uniform arc gap
is maintained and the electrode is not consumed.
! Thermal welding is classified as:
Gas welding: Involves the mixing of combustible gas, such as acetylene and
oxygen, in a nozzle that is ignited to generate heat. The flame produced is
directed on to the joint area to provide rapid melting of the base metal.
Acetylene and oxygen are stored in high-pressure cylinders. The flame
produced has two distinct zones. The luminous zone has a dark blue color and
the temperature within this zone can reach 3,500 C. The second zone, the
outer envelope, has a temperature of 2,100 C. The main advantage of this
process is portability without the requirement of an electric supply. Most

ferrous and non-ferrous metal can be gas welded by adding appropriate filler
metal during welding.
Thermit welding: The heat for Thermit welding is generated by the

exothermic reaction between the finely divided powders of a metal oxide,
such as iron oxide and aluminum. Aluminum has higher affinity for oxygen
than iron. Therefore, the exothermic reaction produces alumina and metallic
iron. This process is suitable for welding of pipes, cables, conductor, rails,
shafts, and broken machining frames.
Electron beam welding: The source of heat for electron beam welding is a
beam of electrons that have been accelerated to about 60% of the speed of
light. The high-power density of the electron beam causes instant melting of
the base metals that are to be welded. This type of welding is used for
automobiles, airplanes, aerospace equipment, and for ball bearings over
100 mm.
Laser beam welding: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation (LASER) beam welding. The metals are joined by the heat obtained
from the application of a concentrated coherent light beam on the surfaces. A
laser is a device used to concentrate light waves that can produce tremendous
energy on a small area. A laser enables the fusion required for welding
processes. Laser beam welding is used for minute welding operations, such as
the welding of watch components. Boiler shells are an example of the
products created by welding.
! Resistance Welding: This uses materials that are resistant to an electrical current to
provide the heat for fusion. The parts to be joined are held together under force.
Electrodes apply a short electrical pulse at low voltage and high current. The
electric pulse causes melting at the contact point between the two parts. The two
main types of resistance welding are spot welding and seam welding. In both these
processes, the electrodes also provide the clamping force to maintain contact
between the surfaces to be joined.
During spot welding, the electrode and the workpieces are stationary in relation to each
other. In seam welding, circular electrodes produce a continuous weld along the
workpieces. Spot welding operations can be automated for mass production of
automobile body components. Seam welding produces a gas- and liquid-tight seal at a
high welding speed. These attributes make the resistance process suitable for joining
sheet metal parts for automobile gas tanks, catalytic converters, mufflers, heat
exchangers, water tanks, and similar appliances.
Shielded metalarc welding and gas welding are the most commonly used and least
expensive welding processes. Other types of welding such as MIG, TIG, electron beam,
and laser welding are specialized and more expensive.
Solid State Welding

In solid state welding, two clean surfaces are brought into atomic contact with each
other under sufficient pressure to form a strong joint.
Brazing
Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is placed between the surfaces to be
joined. The temperature is raised to melt the filler metal but not the workpieces. The
metals to be joined are known as base metals. The melted filler metal helps in creating
the joint between the base metals.
Figure 2.6 shows the concept of brazing.
Figure 2.6: Brazing
The heat applied is lower than the melting point of the metals so that they do not melt.
In the presence of heat, the filler metal melts and fills in the gap between the base
metals. In this manner, the filler metal forms a joint between the base metals.
Examples of metals that can be used as filler metals are silver, brass, and bronze. The
bond that the filler metal forms with the base metals is strong and permanent. This type
of joining is used to weld workpieces made of two different materials. Brazing is also
used to make small but strong joints in small structures or machine parts, such as
agricultural equipment or semiconductors.
Table 2.4 lists the advantages and disadvantages of brazing.

Advantages
Disadvantages
It can be used to join dissimilar metals with ease
It cannot be used for large assembles.
by using filler metals.

The joints are permanent and strong.
Brazed joints are difficult to disintegrate.
The joints are corrosion-resistant.

The base metals do not lose their properties
because they are not melted in this process.
Table 2.4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Brazing
Soldering
Soldering involves the use of a filler metal that has a low melting point. The principal
alloys for the filler metal are tin, lead, cadmium, antimony, and zinc. High-temperature
fillers have a melting range between 699.8 and 800.6 F and low-temperature fillers
have a melting range below 312 C. The solder metal melts and joins the two
components. Figure 2.7 shows the concept of soldering.
Figure 2.7: Soldering
The methods of soldering are:
! Torch soldering: In torch soldering, an air acetylene torch or oxy-fuel gas torch is
used with tips of varying sizes and shapes. Torch soldering can also be done with a
stream of hot air at a temperature up to 600 C.
! Resistance soldering: In resistance soldering, the workpiece is heated by its own

electrical resistance. The solder derives the heat from the base metal.
! Wave soldering: Wave soldering is a technique that is applicable to printed circuit

boards. The components are assembled on the circuit board and the joining side is
passed over a bath of molten solder. Pressure is applied through a nozzle to create
the waveform.
! Electric soldering iron: For continuous light soldering work required in electrical or
electronic component assemblies, the use of externally heated torches are
impractical. Soldering irons heated by electrical resistance are used. These are
generally lightweight, electrically operated, and enable faster soldering.
Tin-lead soldering alloys are the most commonly used solders. These solders have a
melting point of around 190 C and are generally used for joining aluminum, zinc, or
galvanized steel.
Soldering is also used for joining small articles made of copper and brass, and for wire
joints in electrical work. Soldering is not recommended for joints requiring high
strength or joints subjected to vibration or heat.
Soldering is an essential process used in electrical and electronic industries. Wire-tostrip and wire-to-wire solder joints are commonly made using electric ions. Printed
circuit boards are manufactured using the wave soldering technique. However, the
soldered joints are weaker than brazed joints. Therefore, these joints can be used only
for light assemblies and thin gauge materials.
To achieve a good solder joint, the surfaces being soldered must be free of impurities.
Use flux to get rid of these impurities.
Soldering Flux
For successful soldering, the principal requirement is cleanliness. A flux is used to
protect the cleaned surfaces from fumes and atmospheric action while the soldering
process is taking place. Fluxes can be from one of two types. Organic fluxes are made
from gum wood rosins, salts, or alcohol. Inorganic fluxes (acid core soldering wire) are
used when rapid oxidation could occur. They are made from salts and acids.
Soldering, which is a minor form of welding, is extensively used in joining the electrical
parts on a circuit board. You can easily locate a printed circuit board in your television
set, music system, or computer with a number of microchips soldered on to it.
Adhesive Bonding
Adhesives are synthetic substances that are used to create joints between metal-tometal, metal-to-non-metal, plastic-to-rubber, glass-to-glass, and leather-to-leather
combinations for varied applications. Adhesives are mainly used in automobile and
aircraft industries and in making furniture.
Types of Adhesives
Adhesives are classified into three main categories:
! Natural resin adhesives: These adhesives are generally prepared from animal hides
and bones. Natural resins are formed from starches, dextrin, and protein.
! Inorganic material adhesives: These adhesives are prepared from silicates such as
sodium silicate. These adhesives are widely used in the paper industry and for
making gum.
! Synthetic resin adhesives: The most commonly used synthetic resin adhesives are
made from thermoplastic resins, thermosetting resins, and synthetic rubbers. Some
examples are epoxies, nylon, epoxy-hotmelt, and polyurethane. Solvents,
hardeners, and fillers are added for specific purposes.
Adhesive bonding is an established technique and has proved to be an alternative to
other joining techniques. As compared to other joining methods, an adhesive joint helps
in evenly distributing the stress across the two surfaces being joined and does not
concentrate the stress at a single point of the joint. An adhesive may be in the form of a
liquid, paste, or film. Numerous types of adhesives are available for various
applications, based on the materials to be joined, the service conditions, and other
factors.
The application of the adhesive depends on the type of application. The common
practice is to apply the adhesive by hand, use a dip method, apply it with a brush or a
roller, or spread it using a knife or a spatula. For large-scale working, spray guns and
similar methods are used for liquid adhesives.
Table 2.5 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of adhesive bonding.

Advantages
Disadvantages
Easily joins dissimilar materials
Deterioration of adhesive properties due to

environmental conditions
Minimizes stress concentration
Requirement for jigs and fixtures in many cases
Prevents electrolytic corrosion
Strength limitation
Enables the use of lighter materials in

assemblies
Table 2.5: Advantages and Disadvantages of Adhesive Bonding
Adhesives are used in a variety of applications such as joining wooden pieces in

furniture shops, metals, or other materials. For example, adhesives are used in making
thermostat strips or for soundproofing your car interior.
Mechanical Fastening
Assembly is often performed by mechanical fastening. Mechanical fastening includes a
wide variety of techniques and fasteners designed to suit the individual requirements of
a multitude of joints and assemblies. Mechanical fasteners include integral fasteners;
threaded discrete fasteners, such as screws, bolts, and studs; nonthreaded discrete
fasteners, such as rivets and pins; and shrink and expansion fits.
The effectiveness of mechanical fasteners depends upon the material of the fastener, the
fastener design, hole preparation, and the installation procedure.
Integral fasteners are formed areas of a component that interfere or interlock with other
components of the assembly and are commonly found in sheet metal products. Some
examples are lanced or shear-formed tabs, extruded hole flanges, edge seams, and
crimps.
Discrete fasteners are separate pieces whose function is to join the primary components.
These include bolts, nuts, screws, and rivets.
Figure 2.8 shows a screw.
Figure 2.8: Screw
Rivets are objects made of wrought iron, mild steel, aluminum, or copper. They are
used to permanently connect two or more pieces of metal. A rivet consists of three
parts: head, body, and tail. The two workpieces to be riveted are placed over each other.
The head of the rivet is held in place while the other end is beaten hard, locking the two
workpieces together.
Riveting is a type of permanent fastening. For example, large metal girders are riveted
together to form huge bridges. Boilers or metallic storage tanks in industrial
applications have riveted joints.
Figure 2.9 shows rivets.
Figure 2.9: Rivets
Shrink and expansion fits form another category of mechanical fastening. In these
extremely strong joints, a dimensional change is introduced to one or both of the
components by heating or cooling. Assembly is then performed, and a strong

interference fit is established when temperature uniformity is restored.
2.3.2 Tips for Selecting a Joining Process

Identify the advantages and limitations of the joining processes.
The points to be considered while selecting a joining process are:
! The purpose of the joint, the cost involved, and the time required for creating the
joint.
!
!
!
!
Whether the join required is permanent or temporary.

The required strength of the joint and its application.
Whether the joint is to be applied on similar or dissimilar materials.
Whether the materials being joined can withstand high temperature and pressure.
Table 2.6 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of various joining processes.
Processes
Advantages
Disadvantages
Welding
It provides very strong joints, is a
Special equipment is needed for
rapid process, is applicable to
welding non-ferrous metals,
most metals, and can be
very thin sections need extra
automated.
care, the initial cost is high, and

there are welding stresses.
Brazing
It can be used to join dissimilar
It cannot be used for bigger
metals with ease by using filler
assembles, and brazed joints
metals.
are difficult to disintegrate.
The joints are permanent and

strong.
The joints are corrosion-resistant.
The base metals do not lose their
properties because they are not
melted in this process.
Soldering
It is a very simple process, it is
The strength of the joint is low,
suitable for many applications in
and it is not suitable for a large
the electrical industry, and it is the
area of joining.
least expensive.
Adhesive bonding
It easily joins dissimilar materials,
Environmental conditions
minimizes stress concentration,
inevitably cause deterioration of
eliminates electrolytic corrosion,
the adhesive properties, and jigs
and enables the use of lighter
and fixtures are required for the
materials in assemblies.
application of heat and

pressure.
It provides flexibility in dismantling
Both sides of the joint need to
and very strong joints.
be accessible, the design of the

fasteners is critical, and there is
a higher possibility of corrosion.
Table 2.6: Advantages and Limitations of Joining Processes
Practice Questions
1. What welding operation did you recently see? Can you classify that
under any one of the welding processes listed in this course?
2. Bolts and nuts that are used for joining have hexagonal heads. Is there
a specific reason for this?
Case Study 1
Given a specification, identify the casting process that must be used.
30,000 aluminum alloy flanges are required for a refrigerator manufacturing company
within 60 days. Machining from the bar stock will be very expensive, and the shape is
not suitable for extrusion. The two possibilities are pressure die casting and forging. The
dies for pressure die casting takes 45 days to create, whereas the dies for forging needs
only 30 days. Which of the above would you recommend and why?
Analysis
You can decide which process to use based on the following parameters:
! Time
! Cost
! Quality
Requirement
30,000 aluminum alloy flanges in 60 days.
Constraints
Machining from bar stock is expensive.
Shape achieved from machining is not suitable.
Comparison of Processes
Casting Process
Pressure die casting can produce up to 100 shots per hour. If the die set has two cavities,
it amounts to 200 castings per hour. Within the 10 working days available and assuming
16 hours of production per day, the foundry can turn out 10 X 16 X 200 = 32,000
pieces. In addition, the rejection rate in die casting is minimal and the castings are
almost ready for use.
Forging
Forging is a simple and flexible process. It is low cost and available in wide range of
sizes. However, this process has low production rate and is not suitable for large-scale
production. The production rate for the forging process is much lower, and the surface
finish is not comparable to that of die castings.
Recommendation
Die casting is recommended for manufacturing aluminum flanges.
Case Study 2
Given a specification, identify the casting process to be used.
The solidification time of a casting is directly proportional to the mass or volume of the
casting and inversely proportional to the surface area of the casting.
A small foundry in Detroit wants to compare the solidification times of 50-pound steel
castings made in the form of (a) a cube and (b) a cylinder of H/D = 1.0. The density of
the steel is 0.29 pounds per cubic inch. Compare the above solidification times.
The casting weight is the same, but the solidification times differ.
Analysis
You need to compare the surface area and volume of cube and a cylinder. Based on the
comparison, calculate the cooling time for both.
Specifications
50-pound steel castings in the form of a cube and cylinder of H/D = 1.0
Density of steel is 0.29 pounds per cubic inch
Hint
Casting weight is the same, but the time taken to solidify differs.
Comparison
First, calculate the volume of casting. This is same in both cases.
Volume of casting = 50/0.29 = 172 cubic inches
If the side of the cube is a, its volume = a3 = 172
Therefore, a = 5.56"
If the diameter of the cylinder, which is the same as its height, is b,

Its volume = 3.14 b3 = 172
4
Therefore, b = 6.03"
Surface area of the cube casting = 6a2 = 6 5.562 5.562 = 185.48 sq.inches
Surface area of the cylindrical casting = 3.14 b b + 2 3.14 b2/4
= 170.99 sq.inches
The volume of both the castings being the same, the solidification times will be in the
ratio of Ratio of Cube to Cylinder = [172/185.48] : [172/170.99]
= 1:1.085
Result
A cylinder takes 8.5% more time to solidify than a cube of the same mass.
Case Study 3
Given a specification, identify the joining process to be used.
Gabriel Inc., a Florida manufacturing company, manufactures washing machines,

blenders, and electric irons. In every electric iron, the terminal of the nichrome heating
element is to be firmly joined to the copper connector. The firm makes 1,000 electric
irons every month.
Their vendor uses a simple gas welding technique because they do not have any other
facility. This has resulted in nonuniform joints and customer complaints of break down.
Gabriel Inc. now wants to use a different welding vendor who can provide a foolproof
technique. Analyze the various options, and suggest the most appropriate technique.
Analysis
The task involves the joining of two dissimilar, non-ferrous metals with varying melting
temperatures.
Requirement
!
!
!
!
A reliable and strong weld joint is required.

The electrical conductivity of the joint is a primary requirement.
The selected technique should enable the production of a large quantity.
The selected technique should not increase the cost of the end product.
Comparison
Mechanical types of fasteners are ruled out because of the requirement for conductivity.
Shielded arc welding is not suitable for copper and nichrome, both of which are prone
to oxidation. Brazing and soldering are low-strength joints and are not suitable for large
volume production.
Electric resistance welding is not suggested for thin sections of dissimilar non-ferrous
metals. In addition, the mandatory application of pressure in this poses problems.
Result
Of the two options of TIG and MIG, TIG is more specifically suitable for aluminum and
magnesium instead of for a high temperature alloy, such as nichrome. MIG offers the
following advantages suitable for Gabriel Inc:
MIG is particularly suitable for thin, non-ferrous parts to be welded.
Any welding position is accommodated.
It provides excellent weld quality and a smooth welded surface.
The welding is rapid, high speed, and enables mass production.
It has a lower cost than most other welding techniques.
Therefore, MIG is recommended. The new vendor, who has an MIG set-up, is able to
perform the work.
Summary
! Manufacturing processes are classified as:
Casting
Joining
Machining
Forming
Finishing
! The steps involved in the casting process are:
Creating a pattern
Creating a mold
Melting and pouring
Cleaning
! The types of casting are:
Sand mold casting
Permanent mold casting
Pressure die casting
Centrifugal casting
Shell mold casting
Investment casting
! The types of joining processes are:
Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Adhesive bonding
Mechanical fastening
Homework Exercises
1. Cast iron, as the name indicates, is made by casting. It is made from pig iron.
Discuss the salient properties of cast iron that have made it the most versatile cast
material. What are the disadvantages of cast iron?
2. Pressure die castings are free from defects, have a very smooth surface finish, and
exhibit superior mechanical properties, whereas sand mold castings do not have
these qualities. Discuss why.
3. Gas welding makes use of two gases, oxygen and acetylene, to generate heat. Is
there any other gas or a mixture of gases to replace oxygen and acetylene? What are
the consequences?
4. Adhesives are extensively used in automobiles. List four applications of adhesives
in cars, and identify the components of the adhesives.
5. You need to create a metal face mask that has the following properties:
It is lightweight.
It is easy to wear.
It consists of a head strap to hold it on the face.
It has smooth surface finish.
Analyze and prepare a report on the manufacturing process that would be applied to
create such a mask.
Lab Exercises
Given a specification, identify the welding process to be used.
Exercise 1
Scenario
A welding company has received an order for welding objects made of non-ferrous
metals. They were using gas welding. This welding corrodes non-ferrous metals.
Recommend the welding process to be used for non-ferrous metals.
Procedure
Step 1
Analyze the reason for corroding.
Due to the very high temperature of the weld and the open atmosphere in which the
welding takes place, non-ferrous metals may corrode.
To prevent this, the metal being welded needs to be protected from atmospheric
Oxygen.
Step 2
List the features of shielded arc welding.
In shielded arc welding, the insulating gas shields the metal at high temperature and
prevents corrosion and oxidation of the metal. Moreover, this process can be automated.
Additionally, a specialized skill is not required for this welding process.
Step 3
Based on the above features, describe the solution.
Solution
The heated shielded metal arc welding is suitable for non-ferrous materials. Methods
such as gas welding are suitable only for ferrous metal. Due to the very high
temperature of the arc and the open atmosphere in which the arcing takes place,
Lab Exercises
Objective
shielded metal arc welding is suitable only for ferrous material, such as steel and cast
iron. Non-ferrous metals would be severely oxidized in such conditions.
Exercise 2
Scenario
A construction company has to build scaffolding. They have been welding iron pipes
for this purpose. Over a period of time, they have observed that, due to repeated
dismantling and welding, the pipes wear out. Suggest a method that provides higher
reliability joining for the application.
Procedure
Step 1
Compare welding with other joining methods. Evaluate the methods based on the
strength of the joint, ease of dismantling, strength and reliability of the joint. Possible
options are welding, brazing, and mechanical fastening.
Step 2
List the advantages and disadvantages of the selected joining methods, as shown in
Table 2.7.
Advantages
Welding
Disadvantages
It provides very strong joints, is
Special equipment is needed
a rapid process, is applicable
for welding non-ferrous metals,
to most metals, and can be
very thin sections need extra
automated.
care, the initial cost is high,

and there are welding
stresses. Dismantling is
difficult and also wears out the
metal.
Brazing
It can be used to join dissimilar
It cannot be used for bigger
metals with ease by using filler
assembles, and brazed joints
metals. The joints are
are difficult to disintegrate.
permanent and strong. The

joints are corrosion-resistant.
The base metals do not lose
their properties because they
are not melted in this process.
It provides flexibility in
Both sides of the joint need to
dismantling and very strong
be accessible, the design of
joints.
the fasteners is critical, and

there is a higher possibility of
corrosion.
Table 2.7: Advantages and Disadvantages of Selected Joining Methods
Step 3
Based on the features listed and the stated requirements, fill the comparison Table 2.8.
Requirements
Welding
Brazing
Ease of dismantling
High strength of joint
High reliability of the joint
Table 2.8: Comparison Table
Lab Exercises
Processes
Solution
From the preceding table, identify the best joining method and state reasons.
Mechanical fastening meets all the requirements, therefore, this is the recommended
method.

S. No.
Tasks
Completed
Yes
1.
Identified the welding process used for nonferrous metals.
2.
Identified the welding process that provides

higher reliability joining.
No
Manufacturing
Processes: Machining
and Machine Tools
Compare the machining processes with non-machining

processes.
Identify the key components in metal cutting.
Describe various machining processes.
Given a specification, identify the machining process to

be used.
Describe the common machine tools and their operation.
Given a specification, identify the machine tool to be

used.
Describe the need for implementing automation.
Describe flexible manufacturing systems.
Discuss the concept of flexible manufacturing.
3.1 Introduction to
Machining Processes
3.2 Automation and
Flexible
Manufacturing
3.2 Manufacturing Processes: Machining and Machine Tools
3.1 Introduction to Machining

Processes
Compare the machining processes with nonmachining processes.
You shape metals or alloys by machining them. Machining includes processes such as
turning, milling, drilling, and grinding, and removes chips from a workpiece to make it
into the required shape and size. Sometimes, combinations of machining processes are
applied to a workpiece to achieve the necessary change in appearance.
Separate machines, each with its own set of tools, carry out the various machining
processes. For example, welding leaves bumpy welding joints that need smoothing, so a
grinding machine is used with a specific grinding wheel to remove the surplus material
from the welded joint. You select a machining process depending on the shape and size
of the product.
Figure 3.1 shows some parts produced after the application of various machining
process.
Figure 3.1: Machined Parts
Manufacturing Processes: Machining and Machine Tools 3.3
Table 3.1 compares machining processes with non-machining processes, such as

casting, joining, forming, and forging.
Machining processes
Nonmachining processes
Cheaper and faster for small number of
Cheaper and faster for large number of
components.
components
Can be used on all known materials.
Can be used on only certain materials, such as

aluminum and stainless steel
Can be used on materials with any geometry.
Only certain forms of materials can be created
Good tolerance and finish.
Low tolerance and finish. Therefore, require

finishing operations
Table 3.1: Comparison Between Machining and Non-Machining Processes
In this chapter, you will learn about the various types of machining processes. You will
also learn about the various machine tools and their applications. Finally, you will learn
about the importance of automating manufacturing processes and flexible
manufacturing of products.
3.1.1 Metal Cutting

Identify the key components in metal cutting.
To perform successful metal cutting, you must use a cutting tool with the following
properties:
! Hot hardness: The ability of the metal to retain its hardness at high temperatures.
! Strength and resistance to shock: The strength of the metal to withstand the shock
generated while cutting a workpiece.
! Low coefficient of friction: The heat produced from the friction between the tool
and the chip kept to a minimum.
Some of the most commonly used cutting tool materials are:
! High carbon steel: Contains 0.60% or more carbon with some chromium and
tungsten to improve wear resistance.
! High Speed Steel (H.S.S): Steel made to cut at high speeds and possesses good
strength and shock resistant properties. It is used for single-point lathe cutting tools
and multi-point cutting tools, such as drills and milling cutters.
! Cemented carbides: An extremely hard material made of tungsten powder. Brazed

or clamped tips are made of other carbides.
The size of the cutting chip produced from cutting depends on the material that is
machined and the cutting conditions, such as the type of tool used tool, rate of cutting,
condition of the machine, and the cutting fluid.
The cutting speed is the rate at which the material is cut. Feed rate is the distance
traveled by the tool per unit revolution of the workpiece. The relationship between the
tool life and cutting speed is: STn = C.
Where S = cutting speed in m/min, T = tool life in min, and C = a constant, n is a
material related exponent.
During metal cutting, you aim for accuracy and good surface finish on the workpiece
while wanting the tool to have the longest possible life. During the metal cutting
process, heat is generated from friction at the tool point and deformation of the material.
You use a lubricant to reduce the heat generated from friction. However, to reduce the
heat caused by deformation, a cutting fluid must be used. The use of a cutting fluid
reduces the tool wear, gives good surface finish, and ensures dimensional accuracy.
Some common types of cutting fluids are:
! Water
! Soluble oils
! Vegetable oils
! Mineral oils
While working with machine tools, keep these safety tips in mind:
! The cutting tool and workpiece must be clamped.

! Cutters must be in good condition and correctly ground.
! Use correct feed rate, cutting speed, and depth of cut.
3.1.2 Types of Machining Processes

Describe various machining processes.
Machining processes include the following:
! Turning
! Drilling and boring
! Planing and shaping
! Grinding
! Milling
! Sawing
! Broaching
! Honing
! Lapping
Turning
Turning is the simplest and the most commonly used method for cutting metals. You
can use this process to produce cylindrical, conical, and curved surfaces on the
workpiece. The two movements that occur in the turning process are:
! Rotating movement of the workpiece

! Feed movement of the tool
In the turning process, the workpiece keeps rotating while it is being machined. The
workpiece is machined in a region that is near the edge of the tool, and the machined
surface and chips are formed.
The turning process uses the following parameters:
! Cutting speed: The speed at which the material is cut. The cutting speed is constant
when the spindle speed and part diameter remains the same.
You can calculate the cutting speed by using the formula: Cutting Speed in meter/
minute C = DN/1,000.
Where D represents the diameter of the workpiece being cut in mm. N is the
rotational speed of the workpiece represented by rotations per minute.
Example 3.1
A steel shaft of 25-mm diameter is turned at a cutting speed of 50 m per
minute. Find the RPM of the shaft.
Solution:
Cutting Speed = DN/1,000 m per minute
Therefore, 50 = *25*n/1,000
n = 50*1,000/ *25
Therefore, n = 637 RPM
! Depth of cut: The difference between the uncut and cut surface. Depth of cut equals
half the difference between the uncut and cut diameter. The depth of cut can also be
represented as the perpendicular distance from the machined surface to the uncut
surface of the workpiece. The formula to calculate the depth of cut is given below:
Depth of cut, d = D1-D2/ 2, where D1 represents the uncut diameter of the object,
and D2 represents the cut diameter.
! Feed rate: The distance traveled by the tool per unit revolution of the workpiece. In
other words, the feed rate is the distance the tool advances for each revolution of
the work. The feed rate depends on factors such as size, slope, strength, and method
of holding the component. In addition, the feed rate depends on the shape of the
tool and the settings of the tool with respect to overhang, the rigidity of the
machine, depth of cut, and power available. An increase in feed decreases the
cutting time. At the same time, increase in feed also reduces the life of the tool.
Coarse feeds are used for rangling, and finer feeds for finishing cuts.
The feed rate is expressed in terms of millimeters per revolution. You can calculate the
machining time for a turning operation as the number of revolutions of the job required
for a complete cut.
The feed movement of the tool is in the direction in which the tool is fed. The tool can
be fed along the axis of the workpiece, which means that the diameter of the workpiece
can be turned down to a smaller size. Alternately, the tool can be fed toward the center
of the workpiece. Often, feeds are combinations of these two directions. This
combination results in tapered or curved surfaces.
Figure 3.2 shows a turning process.
Workpiece
Cutting tool
Chip
Figure 3.2: Turning Process
Types of Turning
You can perform turning in any of the following ways:
! Plain turning: Reduces the external diameter of the workpiece by using a straight
motion of the tool parallel to the axis of rotation. This process is also known as
straight turning,
! Step turning: Reduces the diameter of the workpiece in step lengths.

! Facing: Feeds the tool towards the center.
In both plain and step turnings, the tool is fed along the axis of the workpiece.
Turning is used extensively for cutting various metal shapes from large metal bars. Such
metal shapes are then joined together to form a machine part or a structure.
Manufactured parts often require turning before other manufacturing processes.
Example 3.2
Cast iron is to be turned at a speed of 220 fpm and with a feed of 0.015 in
per revolution. The depth of cut is 0.25 in. Calculate the rate of metal
removal.
Solution
The rate of metal removal can be calculated by using the following
formula: Q = 12*V*f*d
Where V = surface speed, f = width of the uncut chip in inches, and d =
depth of cut in inches
Therefore, Q = 0.0158*0.25*12*220 = 9.9 cubic in/minute
Drilling and Boring

Drilling is the process of creating a hole in a workpiece by forcing a rotating drill
against it.
Boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled in the workpiece.
A hole can also be created by holding the drill stationary and rotating the object against
the drill. Boring does not create a hole but widens an existing hole to a specific size.
Enlarging a hole for a limited depth is called counter boring.
Drilling is commonly used in manufacturing to make holes for fastening or screwing.
The size of a drill determines the nominal diameter of its body and the hole it creates.
Standard drills are available in numbered, lettered, and millimeter sizes.
Deep holes are difficult to drill because chips are difficult to get out of the hole. Deep
holes that require a smooth finish are drilled with single-flute, single-edge drill bit using
gun drills operated at high speeds and low feeds. The workpiece is revolved and oil is
forced through a hole that emerges from the end of the drill to wash out chips and
provide cutting fluid. Deep holes may be reamed after drilling to improve the finish.
Reaming, like boring, is a hole enlarging process, but reaming produces an accurately
sized hole with a good surface finish.
Drilling and boring produce holes for fastening, providing air vents, or for other design
requirements.
Figure 3.3 shows a drilling process.
Figure 3.3: Drilling Process
Cutting Speed for Drilling

To calculate the cutting speed of drilling, you can use the formula for calculating the
cutting speed of turning.
If d is the diameter of the drill, the cutting speed for a 14-mm drill to cut at 15 meters
per minute can be calculated as follows:
d = 1,000s/d
= 1,000*15/*14 = 381 revolutions/minute
Planing and Shaping

Planing and shaping are the oldest methods of machining. In planing, the tool is
stationary and the workpiece is fed towards the tool. The tool performs a cutting action
on the workpiece. However, in shaping, the workpiece is kept stationary and the tool
moves towards the workpiece.
Shaping is performed on small stationary workpieces, whereas planing is suitable for
large workpieces, such as a large machine frame or bed.
In both the processes, a single-point cutting tool is used, and the cutting motion is not
continuous. As a result, these operations are neither efficient nor economical. However,
these processes are best suited for machining small quantities of objects.
Shaping is more suitable for smaller workpieces than planing because unlike
planing, it is easier to hold a small workpiece and provide motion to the tool.
Planing and shaping are used to provide finer shapes to workpieces, such as making key
ways in shafts and machining large surfaces.
Figure 3.4 shows the difference between shaping and planing.
Figure 3.4: Difference in Operations of Shaping and Planing
Grinding
Grinding can be performed on the surfaces of almost all materials. Grinding uses
abrasives to remove the surplus material from a workpiece by friction. An abrasive is a
nonmetallic hard particle that has sharp edges with an irregular shape. Abrasive
particles, called grit, act as cutting points. The wheel used for performing the grinding
operation is known as the grinding wheel. It consists of abrasives held together by a
binding material or bond.
Figure 3.5 shows the grinding process.
Grinding
wheel
Work
piece
Table
Figure 3.5: Grinding
The abrasives used to make grinding wheels that are used in the grinding process are of
two types:
! Natural abrasives: Directly obtained from mines. Common natural abrasives are
sandstone, emery, carborundum, quartz, and diamond. Diamond is largely used for
dressing the grinding wheels and as an abrasive for hard materials. Sandstone is
often used for sharpening woodworking tools.
! Artificial abrasives: Manufactured under controlled conditions. The most

commonly used artificial abrasives are silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, and boron
nitride.
A bond holds the abrasive grains together and forms a series of cutting edges. The most
commonly used bonds for manufacturing grinding wheels are vitrified bond, silicate
bond, shellac bond, rubber bond, and Bakelite bond. Based on the hardness, a grinding
wheel is classified as very soft, soft, medium, hard, and very hard.
Grinding finishes a workpiece. Grinding is used to remove excess material from most
welded joints.
Milling
Milling can accomplish a variety of tasks, from reducing stock to a specified size to
creating uniquely shaped surfaces. Milling uses multi-tooth cutters rotating along the
x, y, and z axes of the workpiece. The multi-point cutting tool mills the surface in a
rotating condition in a single pass, so it is suited for mass production. A milling
machine can create various surfaces, such as concurred surfaces, complex and irregular
surfaces, slots, external and internal threads, gear cutting, and helical surfaces of various
cross-sections.
Milling cutters are available in many standard and special types, forms, diameters, and
widths. The tooth of the cutter may be straight, parallel to the axis of rotation, or at a
helix angle. The cutter may be right-handed to turn clockwise or left-handed to turn
counter-clockwise.
The types of milling operations are:
! Slab milling: Uses the teeth on the outside edge of the cylindrical milling cutter to
make the cuts. This operation is also called peripheral milling.
Figure 3.6 shows slab milling.
Workpiece
Tool
Figure 3.6: Slab Milling
! End milling: Uses straight or tapered shanks for small and large cutter sizes,
respectively. The cutter rotates on an axis perpendicular to the workpiece. It can
also be used to machine tapered surfaces.
Figure 3.7 shows end milling.
Workpiece
Tool
Figure 3.7: End Milling
! Straddle milling: Uses two or more cutters on an arbor. This process is used to
machine two parallel surfaces on a workpiece.
! Form milling: Produces curved profiles with the help of cutters having teeth of a
specific shape.
! Face milling: Performs either conventional or climb milling. The axis of rotation of
the cutter is perpendicular to the workpiece surface. A face-milling cutter leaves
feed marks on the machined surface because of the relative motion between the
cutting teeth and workpiece.
Figure 3.8 shows face milling.
Workpiece
Tool
Figure 3.8: Face Milling
The methods for feeding work on milling machines are:
! Up milling or conventional milling: The maximum chip thickness is at the end cut,
and the cutter rotates against the feed rate of the workpiece. This method is not
suitable for cutting a material having a thickness less than 0.4 mm.
! Down milling or climb milling: The cutting starts at the thickest location. This is
not a commonly used method. It is not suitable for workpieces such as hot worked
metals, forgings, or castings, because such workpieces are hard and may quickly
wear out the tool. In down milling, the cutter rotates in the same direction as the
feed rate while the work is pulled toward the cutter. This type of cutting produces a
smooth surface without chatter and requires less clamping force.
Milling is used to make complex metal parts, such as twisted gears as well as small and
complex parts for automobiles and other mechanical applications. Milling is similar to
drilling and turning.
You can calculate the cutting speed and feed rate as follows:
! Cutting speed:
CS = rpm C
C = D/1,000
rpm = 1,000 CS/ D
Where CS is the cutting speed, rpm is the revolutions per minute of the spindle, C
is the circumference of the cutter, D is the diameter of the cutter, and Pi = 3.14.
! Feed rate:
F = fpt t rpm
Where F is the feed rate, fpt is the feed per tooth, and t is the number of teeth on a
particular tooth.
Sawing
Sawing uses a hand held or automated cutting tool attached with a toothed blade. The
saw blade runs horizontal or perpendicular to the workpiece and cuts it in the same
direction. This process can be applied to both metal and nonmetals. The blades used are
very thin with small teeth to minimize waste. Sawing machines come in the following
types:
! Power hacksaw: Power hacksaws drive a blade back and forth through a workpiece,
pressing down on the cutting stroke and releasing the pressure on the return.
! Circular saw: Circular saws cut off stock with a rotating saw. One type of circular
saw machine uses a cold saw, which is mounted on a carriage with hand, air, or
hydraulic feed.
! Band saw: Band saws have a continuous saw blade that runs over the rims of two
wheels. The saw is carried on a frame and is fed downward through the workpiece
that is clamped in a vise on the bed. The band saw blade is continuous and runs
faster than a hacksaw.
Broaching
Broaching uses a multiple-point cutting tool that travels along the surface of a
workpiece in a straight line and completes the assigned cut in one or more strokes.
Internal broaching, also called hole broaching, produces splines and keyways, gun
barrels, socket wrenches, and gears. External broaching, also called surface broaching,
is used to make connecting rods, cylinder blocks, and steering gear components.
Broaching is classified according to the following parameters:
! The manner in which the cut is made

! The manner in which the cutting tools are propelled
! The character of tooling
! The position of the cutting tool in the machine
Broaching produces work similar to milling, shaping, and other machine-tool
operations. Broaches can also produce irregular forms with high accuracy.
Broaching is used for high-quality, straight or contoured external surfaces or special
shapes on the inside surfaces of holes. Broaching is used extensively in the automotive
industry.
Broaching Machines
Some types of broaching machines are:
! Broaching presses: Used for internal push broaching, such as whole sizing and key
way cutting. Hydraulic arbor type presses equipped for broaching are called push
broaching machines and range in capacity from one-quarter to 35 tons.
! Pull broaching machines: Used mostly for internal broaching. The broach is pulled
by a draw head triggered by a hydraulic piston and a cylinder.
! Surface broaching machines: Attached to a ram or rams and forced in a straight

path past the workpiece, either horizontally or vertically.
! Continuous broaching machines: Broaching cutters remain stationary while the

workpieces held in fixtures are carried past the cutters. A series of fixtures are
mounted on a chain drive. The pieces are released down a channel at the other end
of the machine. Parts are broached as rapidly as they are loaded.
Table 3.2 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the broaching process.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Fast
Expensive
Automation is easily possible and little skill is
Special fixtures are needed
required
A broach does not need to be sharpened or
A surface cannot be broached if it has an obstruction
replaced often and has a long life because of
across the path
low speed
Good finish and accuracy
Table 3.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Broaching
Honing
Honing is a low surface-speed metal removal operation. Honing eliminates bore
distortion, heat checks, fractured metal, and other surface deterioration because a
relatively large area is in contact with the workpiece in low pressure. The honing
operation produces geometrically perfect bores with a crosshatched, base-metal finish
that has thousands of microscopic pockets ideal for supporting a uniform lubrication
film. Some applications of honing include fine finish gears, valves in automotive
cylinders, and tappets.
Honing is most commonly used to remove stock from internal and external cylindrical
surfaces. Honing uses spring-loaded abrasive stones for cutting. The stones can be
composed of aluminum oxide, silicon oxide, or diamond grains held together by a
vitrified or organic bond. During the honing process, much of the honing stones area is
in contact with the workpiece. A slow, combined reciprocating and rotating action is
transmitted to the stone by a driveshaft on the toolhead. The abrasive grit protruding
through the bond contacts the part being honed and acts as a tiny cutter to cut off minute
chips.
The process is most commonly used for cast iron and steel. The process is also used for
finishing titanium, copper, bronze, carbides, glass, ceramics, and certain plastics.
Lapping
Lapping is used on flat, cylindrical, or spherical surfaces. The workpiece is brought into
contact with a grooved metal surface or lap. Fine and loose abrasives mixed with oil,
grease, or water are used between the lap and the workpiece to provide the necessary
abrading. Both the workpiece and the lap are in motion with one another so that fresh
contacts are made constantly.
Lapping is an operation used to perform the following tasks:
! Improve dimensional accuracy

! Correct minor surface imperfections
! Provide a close fit between two surfaces
Lapping is used on various types of surfaces, such as flat, cylindrical, or spherical. For
example, crankshafts and camshaft-bearing surfaces are lapped on abrasive belt-lapping
machines.
Most lapping is done by spreading the lapping mixture on the lap. The face of the lap is
charged with abrasive grains. The grooves across the face of the lap collect excess
abrasive and foreign particles.
Lapping is not done on softer materials because the abrasive particles have a tendency
to embed in the workpiece. For example, crankshafts and camshaft-bearing surfaces are
lapped on abrasive belt-lapping machines.
Table 3.3 summarizes the general characteristics of machining processes.
Machining Processes
Turning
Characteristics
Applications
Uses single point tools, needs
Cutting various metal shapes
skilled labor, low rate of
from large metal sheets or bars.
production.
Boring
Drilling
Creates internal surfaces,
Making holes for the purpose of
characteristics similar to turning.
fastening or screwing.
Creates round holes of different
Making holes for the purpose of
sizes and depths, high rate of
fastening or screwing.
production, needs boring for

accuracy.
Milling
Requires variety of tools, variety
Making complex metal parts
of shapes including flat surfaces
such as twisted gears.
and slots, needs skilled labor,

and low to medium rate of
production.
Planing
Suitable for low quantity

production, flat surfaces, and
straight contour profiles on large
surfaces.
For large unmovable pieces.
Shaping
Flat surfaces and straight
For small components
contour profiles on small

surfaces, suitable for low
quantity production
Grinding
Finishes workpieces
Smoothing welded joints and

fine finishing
Broaching
Sawing
Costly tooling, external and
Creating straight or contoured
internal flat surfaces, slots with
external surfaces or special
good surface finish, high
shapes on the inside surfaces of
production rate
holes
Straight and contour cuts on flat
Cutting metals and nonmetals
or structural shapes, low rate of

production and needs low labor
skill. Not suitable for hard
materials unless the saw has
carbide teeth or diamond
coating
Honing
Lapping
Geometrically perfect bores with
Finishing titanium, copper,
a crosshatched base-metal
bronze, carbides, glass,
finish
ceramics, and certain plastics
Flat, cylindrical, or spherical
Machining crankshafts and
surfaces with good surface
camshaftbearing surfaces
finish, improves dimensional

accuracy
Table 3.3: General Characteristics of Machining Processes
Tips for Selecting a Machining Process

Use the following list to select the process and the machine you use:
! Number of products required

! Material to be removed
! Shape and size of the product
! Work material
! Degree of accuracy
Use the following list to select the appropriate machining processes:
! Design of the workpiece

! Complexity of the workpiece
! Material of the workpiece
! Size of the workpiece
! Whether or not the workpiece is already installed
3.1.3 Machine Tools

Describe the common machine tools and their operation.
Lathe
A lathe is a machine tool that removes material by rotating the workpiece against a
single-pointer cutter. Parts that are machined are held between centers, attached to a
faceplate, supported in a jaw chuck, or held in a draw-in chuck. Lathes are powered
with electric motors. The power is transmitted by pulleys and belts. Some of the
operations that are performed on the lathe are turning, boring, and drilling. The most
common lathe is the engine lathe that is powered with overhead pulleys and belts from
nearby engines.
Figure 3.9 shows an engine lathe.
Figure 3.9: Engine Lathe
The basic components of lathes are:
! Bed: Supports all major components of the lathe. Beds have a large mass and are
rigidly built from gray or modular cast iron.
! Carriage: Consists of an assembly of the cross-slide, tool post, and apron. It is used
for mounting and moving cutting tools.
! Headstock: Fixed to the bed and is equipped with motors, pulleys, and V-belts that
supply power to the spindle at various rotational speeds.
! Tailstock: Can slide and be clamped at any position to support the other end of the
workpiece. It has a center that is either fixed, or free to rotate with the workpiece.
Figure 3.10 shows some of the components of a lathe.
Figure 3.10: Lathe
Lathes are used to machine plain cylinders, tapers, irregular forms, and threads. The
main frame of the lathe has accurately machined guiding ways that align the headstock
and tailstock and guide the carriage that supports the cutting tool. The tool is stationary.
The workpiece surface revolves against the cutting tool edge and removes the chips.
Other types of lathes are:
! Bench lathe: This lathe is small. It is set on a workbench and has a bed up to 6-feet
long.
! Tool room lathe: This lathe is similar to an engine lathe, but built more accurately.
The tool room lathe or toolmakers lathe has more speeds, feeds, and accessories.
! Speed lathe: This lathe has a headstock, tailstock, and tool post on a light bed,
without power feed and only two or three high spindle speeds. Speed lathes are
used for polishing, light metal spinning, and woodturning.
! Duplicating lathe: This lathe is also called a tracer lathe. It has an attachment that
enables the machine to turn or bore. As the carriage moves along, the tool is made
to follow a path that duplicates the path of a tracer finger moving along the
template.
! Production lathe: This lathe is used for moderate quantity production runs and for
straight turning of single diameters and facing.
You can calculate the cutting speed of the machine as follows: C = L/f R.
Where C is the cutting speed, f is the feed in inches per revolution, and R is the number
of revolutions per minute. L is the length of cut that includes the length of surface cut
plus the distance the tool is fed to enter and clear the cut. It is usually 1/16 to inches
for turning.
Drilling Machine
Drilling machines are used for drilling holes, tapping, reaming, and for small diameter
boring operations. Drilling machines are made in many forms and sizes. Portable or
hand drills are well known. The most common type of drilling machine is drill press.
Figure 3.11 shows a drilling machine.
Figure 3.11: Drilling Machine
Drill presses come in the following types:
! Standard upright drill press

! A bend type drill press
! Production drill press
! Multi-spindle drill press
! Turret drill press
! Radial drill press
The workpiece is placed on an adjustable table by clamping it into the slots and holes on
the table. The drill is manually lowered by hand wheel or by power feed at preset rates.
Manual feeding requires skill in judging the appropriate feed rate.
To maintain proper cutting speeds at the cutting edges of drills, the spindle speed on
drilling machines must be adjustable to accommodate various drill sizes.
The types of drilling machines range from simple bench-type units that are used to drill
small diameter holes to large radial drills that can accommodate large workpieces. The
distance between the column and the spindle center can be 3m (10 ft).
Drilling machines with multiple spindles are used for high-production rate operations.
In one step, such machines drill 50 holes of varying size, depth, and location. These
machines are also used for reaming and counter boring operations. Reaming is an
operation that is used to make an existing hole dimensionally more accurate and
improve its surface finish.
Milling Machine
Milling machines are among the most versatile and useful machine tools as they can
perform a variety of cutting operations. Column-and-knee type milling machines are the
most common milling machines. The components of these machines are as follows:
! Worktable: The table moves longitudinally relative to the saddle. The workpiece is
clamped on it.
! Saddle: It supports the table and moves in the transverse direction.

! Knee: It supports the saddle and gives the table vertical movement so that the depth
of cut can be adjusted.
! Overarm in horizontal machines: It is adjustable to accommodate different arbor

lengths.
! Head: It contains the spindle and cutter holders. In vertical machines, the head may
be fixed or it can be vertically adjustable. In universal column-and-knee milling
machines, the table can be swiveled on a horizontal plane.
Figure 3.12 shows a milling machine.
Column
Knee
z
y
Figure 3.12: Milling Machine
The quality of work produced by milling is based on the following factors:
! Geometry of the machined surface

! Proper selection of speeds and feeds
! Condition of the machine
! Type of cutter
! Type of material being machined
Grinding Machine
Grinding machines make metal parts by using an abrasive wheel. Grinders produce high
quality finishes and are usually used to finish parts having cylindrical, flat, or internal
surfaces. The type of surface that is machined determines the type of grinding machine.
Grinding is done in three methods. In the first method, the depth of cut is obtained by
moving the wheel down into the workpiece or moving the workpiece up into the wheel.
The required surface is then obtained by traversing the wheel across the workpiece or
vice versa. In the second method, the wheel is radially fed into the workpiece as it
revolves. This is similar to form cutting on a lathe. In the third method, the workpiece is
slowly fed past the wheel and the total depth is obtained in a single pass.
Grinding machines are classified as follows:
! Cylindrical grinder: This machine is mainly used for grinding cylindrical surfaces.
In addition, tapered and simple formed surfaces may also be ground.
! Surface grinder: This machine grinds flat or plane surfaces. Two types of machines
have been developed for this purpose: one similar to a planer and one having a
rotating work table.
! Internal grinder: It works internal surfaces or holes.

! Tool grinder: In this, a bench or pedestal type grinder is used. The tool is held by
hand and continually moved across the face of the wheel to avoid excessive
grinding. This type of grinding is used for single point tools and requires skill.
Figure 3.13 shows a grinding machine.
Figure 3.13: Grinding Machine
CNC Machines
There is an increasing demand for complicated components of high accuracy from the
development of sophisticated technology, equipment, and machinery. Machines that
solve this problem are called Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines. A CNC is
the most recent and powerful form of Numerical Control (NC). It uses a dedicated
computer as the tool controller.
A CNC system has the following three basic components:
! Data input: The numerical information is read and stored in computer memory.
! Data processing: The program is read into the machine control unit of processing.
! Data output: This information is translated into commands to the servomotor. Then,
the servomotor moves the table on which the workpiece is placed to specific
positions through linear or rotary movements.
A dedicated stored-program computer is used to perform the NC functions for each tool.
Some of the advantages of CNC are:
! Reduction in process and set-up time

! Increased flexibility in terms of changes to design or schedules
! Improved accuracy and repeatability
! Diminished need for fixturing to hold and position the parts
Table 3.4 lists the advantages and disadvantages of numerically controlled machines.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Tooling costs are reduced because of the
Loss in machine flexibility occurs if tape or punched
optimization of speeds and feeds of the
cards have not been prepared for a part or if a
cutting tool.
breakdown occurs.
Number and extent of use of jigs and
Additional costs are associated with control systems.
fixtures, particularly those used to define

positioning, are reduced.
There is a reduction in machining and setup
Maintenance costs increase due to the additional
times.
equipment and the necessity of electronically trained

personnel.
Adaptable to short runs as compared to
Additional space is required.
special purpose production machines, which,

in addition to other economies, allow smaller
inventories to be maintained.
Inspection costs are reduced.
Design, production, and operation personnel need to

be well versed in the operating characteristics of
such systems.
Operator skill is minimized.
First acquisition of such a machine has

disproportionate costs associated with it.
Program may be changed to allow for

machining modifications.
Table 3.4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Numerically Controlled Machines
Practice Questions
1. Shaping machines and planing machines are machining techniques
that are used to create flat surfaces. How do these techniques differ?
2. Generous quantity of a liquid is pumped onto the tool in all the
machining processes, such as turning, milling, and grinding. Explain
why.
3. Which drilling machine would be best suited to drill two holes of "
diameter on a large press body that weighs 100 tons?
3.2 Automation and Flexible

Manufacturing
3.2.1 Automation
Describe the need for implementing automation.
Automation integrates different aspects of manufacturing processes to improve quality,

and uniformity. It improves productivity by reducing manufacturing costs and reduces
human involvement and the possibility of human errors.
In manufacturing plants, automation is implemented in the following areas:
! Manufacturing processes: Machining, forging, cold extrusion, casting, and grinding

operations are examples of processes that have been automated.
! Material handling: Material and parts are moved in a plant by using

computer-controlled equipment.
! Inspection: Machine parts are automatically inspected for quality, surface finish, or
dimensional accuracy.
! Assembly: Machine parts that are individually manufactured are automatically

assembled into subassemblies and final products.
Automation is applied to the manufacturing of all types of goods, ranging from raw
materials to finished products. Consider the following before deciding to automate a
particular part:
! Type of product manufactured

! Quantity and production rate required
! Particular phase of the manufacturing operation to be automated
! Level of skill in the workforce
! Maintenance problems associated with the automated system
3.2.2 Flexible Manufacturing System

! Describes flexible manufacturing systems.
! Discusses the concept of flexible manufacturing.
Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) is a reprogrammable manufacturing system that
automatically produces a variety of products. It integrates all the main elements of
manufacturing into a highly automated system and optimizes each step of the
manufacturing process. FMS constitutes a number of manufacturing cells that contain
an industrial robot and an automated material-handling system. All these are interfaced
with a central computer.
FMS has the following benefits:
! Parts can be randomly produced at lower unit cost.

! Direct labor and inventories are reduced.
! Time required for product changes is shorter.
! Production is more reliable because the system is self-correcting.
! Quality of the product is uniform.
CNC machining centers, CNC turning centers, and robotic workstations are examples of
some of the equipment in flexible manufacturing systems. These machines can be
reprogrammed, and can accommodate a variety of tooling through tool-changer and
tool-storage systems. Several types of material-handling systems, such as robots are
used to move parts from one station to another. A robot can address one or two
machines and a load-and-unload station. A conveyor or Automatic Guided Vehicle
(AGV) system can be expanded to include miles of factory floor to help in moving parts
from one machine to another.
Case Study 1
Given a specification, identify the machining process to be used.
Health Fit Inc., which makes sports equipment, needs to supply 20 pairs of circular
pipes to the Hercules Gym. Each pipe must have " diameter holes accurately drilled at
2" intervals from end to end. Each pipe is 10 feet long (10 6 = 60 holes in each pipe).
Suggest the suitable method for creating the holes.
Analysis
The total number of holes to be drilled is 20 2 60 = 2,400. The holes are of the same
diameter and evenly placed.
Requirement
Each pipe must have accurately drilled " diameter holes at 2" intervals from end to
end.
Result
As the holes are of the same diameter and evenly placed, a small jig attached to the
radial drilling machine is the appropriate choice. Each hole may be drilled with a pilot
drill bit of " diameter, to be finished with the final drill of 15/32" diameter. This
would be followed by a reaming operation using " diameter reamer in the same
drilling machine. Reaming is required for dimensional accuracy.
Case Study 2
Given a specification, identify the machine tool to be used.
A small workshop receives an order for machining aluminum, steel, and white iron rods
6" long and 3" in diameter. The hardness of the materials is given below:
! Aluminum
75 BHN
! Steel
190 BHN
! White iron
450 BHN
Suggest the machining process to be carried out.
Analysis
The Brinell hardness of aluminum, steel, and white iron is 75, 190, and 450
respectively.
Requirement
Machining of aluminum, steel, and white iron rods 6" long and 3" in diameter.
Comparison
The machining tool is chosen based on the hardness of the material. White iron is the
hardest material. Therefore, the lathe cannot be used for machining white iron. An HC
tool bit is used for softer material, such as aluminum. Steel is harder than aluminum.
Therefore, a carbide tool bit must be used for machining.
Result
! Aluminum can be machined on a lathe using a simple HC tool bit.
! Steel can be machined on the same lathe using a carbide tool bit.
! White iron cannot be machined using the lathe because it is very hard. It has to be
machined using a cylindrical grinding machine.
Summary
! The machining processes are:
Turning
Drilling and boring
Planing and shaping
Grinding
Milling
Sawing
Broaching
Honing
Lapping
! Machining tools are:
Lathe
Drilling machine
Grinding machine
Milling machine
CNC machine
! Automation and flexible manufacturing system:
Need for automation
Flexible manufacturing system
Benefits of FMS
Homework Exercises
1. Cutting speed is important in turning operations. You need to select this speed
based on the workpiece, turning tool, and cooling. Calculate the cutting speed given
the following:
Diameter of workpiece
50 mm
Rotational speed
160 rpm
If this cutting speed is not suitable for steel, what is your suggestion?
2. In a turning operation using the lathe, the outer diameter is equal throughout the
length. However, if you want to create a tapered surface, how would you go about
it?
3. When a bolt is fixed in a metal piece through a drilled hole, the top surface of the
hole is enlarged to accommodate the bolt head. How is this enlarged portion made
on the drilled hole?
4. In a shaping machine, the tool returns much faster during the backward motion than
during the forward motion. Why?
Lab Exercises
Lab Exercises
Exercise 1
Objective
! Given a specification, identify the machining tool to be used.
Scenario
A plumbing contractor Mr. Michael needs to urgently modify ten aluminum flanges
within a day for a repair job at Hiltons. Each available flange needs to be subjected to
outside turning to reduce the diameter. In addition, each should have a 1" diameter hole
drilled at the center. There is a small workshop nearby that has a center lathe and a
drilling machine, but the drilling machine is not working. Can the above be attended to
by the small workshop with the help of only the lathe?
Procedure
Evaluate the characteristics of the hole and review how a lathe works.
Decision
Yes, the job can be done.
There is no problem in outside turning by using the lathe. The central hole can also be
drilled on the lathe by mounting the drilling tool on the tailstock and forcing it against
the aluminum flange fixed on the rotating chuck. However, the 1" diameter hole has to
be created in steps, using the " drill, " drill, " drill, and finally the 1" drill.

S. No.
Tasks
Completed
Yes
1.
No
Identified the machining tool to be used
Exercise 2
Objective
! Given a specification, identify the machining tool to be used.
Theory
Milling machines can perform a variety of cutting operations. Column-and-knee type
milling machines are the most common milling machines. The components of these
machines are as follows:
! Worktable: The table moves longitudinally relative to the saddle. The workpiece is
clamped on it.
! Saddle: Supports the table and moves in the transverse direction.

! Knee: Supports the saddle and gives the table vertical movement so that the depth
of cut can be adjusted.
! Over arm in horizontal machines: Adjustable to accommodate various arbor

lengths.
! Head: Contains the spindle and cutter holders. In vertical machines, the head may
be fixed or vertically adjustable. In universal column-and-knee milling machines,
the table can be swiveled on a horizontal plane. In this way, complex shapes are
machined to produce various parts, such as gears, drills, taps, and cutters.
Scenario
Using a milling machine, you need to create a simple spur gear with twenty teeth. How
would you do it?
Solution
To cut gear teeth using a milling machine, use an indexing attachment. The
un-machined blank is fixed to the indexing attachment. This enables rotating the blank
by exactly 1/20th of the circumference. After cutting one tooth, the blank is rotated by
1/20th of the circumference to cut the second tooth. Repeat this operation twenty times
to cut twenty teeth.

S. No.
Tasks
Completed
1.
No
Identified the machining tool to be used
Lab Exercises
Yes
Manufacturing
Processes for Metals
and AlloysMetal
Forming
4
4.1 Introduction to
Metal Forming
Identify the purpose of metal-forming processes.
4.2 Forging
Given a specification, identify the forming process to be

used.
4.3 Extrusion
Differentiate between hot forming and cold forming.
4.4 Rolling
Differentiate between the various types of forging.

Identify the types of extrusion, rolling, and drawing.
Calculate bend allowance, minimum bend radius, and
maximum bend force.
Identify the types of bending and spinning.
Identify the types of special forming processes.
4.5 Drawing
4.6 Bending
4.7 Spinning
4.8 Special Forming
Processes
4.2 Manufacturing Processes for Metals and AlloysMetal Forming
4.1 Introduction to Metal Forming

Forming is the process of changing the shape of an existing solid body, such as a plate,
rod, or tube, to convert it into a useful product. The words forming and shaping are used
together. For example, an ordinary wire coat hanger is made from a straight piece of
wire by bending and twisting the wire into the shape of a hanger. A hammer is made by
forging the hammerhead and attaching it to the wooden or plastic handle. Forming and
shaping processes are used to provide the desired shape and size to the material.
Forming processes are carried out making use of the plastic deformation property of a
material. The plastic deformation of a material is based on the ability of that material to
flow as a molten solid, without losing its properties. The deformation takes places due
to the changes in dimension, such as in the thickness or the cross-section. The shape of
a metal can be changed while it is in a hot or cold state. Metals can be shaped by using
various methods such as bending or extrusion. Figure 4.1 displays a few structures
resulting from metal forming.
In this chapter, you will learn about the various forming processes and their
applications. You will also learn about the special forming processes.
Figure 4.1: Metal Structures After the Forming Process
Manufacturing Processes for Metals and AlloysMetal Forming 4.3
4.1.1 Classification of Forming

Differentiate between hot forming and cold forming.
Based on the temperature at which the forming process is performed, it is classified as:
! Hot forming
! Cold forming
Hot Forming
The working temperature in hot forming is above the recrystallization temperature. The
product of hot forming has minimum porosity and a refined grain structure. Increased
working temperature results in the oxidation of the metal. Therefore, the product of hot
forming has scales and reduced strength.
Cold Forming
Cold forming is carried out at a temperature that is lower than the recrystallization
temperature of the metal. The product of cold forming has high strength, increased
hardness, and better finish.
Table 4.1 provides a comparison of hot forming and cold forming.
Cold Forming
Hot Forming
Carried out below recrystallization temperature
Carried out above recrystallization temperature
Heavy work hardening takes place
No work hardening takes place
High tonnage equipment is needed
Low tonnage equipment is needed
Less formability
High formability
Good surface finish
Poor surface finish
High dimensional accuracy
Low dimensional accuracy
Table 4.1: Hot Forming and Cold Forming
The processes that are used for metal forming are:
! Forging
! Extrusion
! Rolling
! Drawing
! Bending
! Spinning
In this chapter, you will learn about the various processes that are used for metal
forming.
4.2 Forging
Forging is the process of forming metal components. This process involves heating the
metal, and then hammering the metal to the desired shape and size to form a metal
component. Compressive forces can be applied manually or by using power hammers,
presses, or special machines. Forging of a metal depends on its ductility, which is the
capacity of a metal to deform without breaking. You can use forging to make ferrous
and non-ferrous metal components.
Forging is a process in which a workpiece is shaped by applying compression forces.
Figure 4.2 shows the concept of forging.
Die
Work piece
after forging
Work
piece
Die
Figure 4.2: Forging Process
4.2.1 Types of Forging

Depending on the temperature at which forging takes place, the process can be
classified as:
! Hot forging
! Cold forging
Hot Forging
Most metals are forged at elevated temperatures. High temperature improves the
plasticity of a metal, and reduces the force required for forging.
Table 4.2 lists the temperatures at which forging is carried out for various materials.
Material
Temperature Range (F)
Ferrous metals
1,7002,500
Copper, Brass, Bronze
1,1001,700
Aluminum and Magnesium alloys
5001,000
Table 4.2: Range of Temperatures for Forging Metals
Cold Forging
Cold forging is carried out at room temperature, and the metal is forged by impact.
Forging processes can also be classified based on the method used to impart the
required force:
! Hand forging
! Machine forging
Hand Forging
Hand forging is one of the earliest and simplest forging methods. In hand forging,
blacksmiths heat up a metal until it becomes red hot and then beat it with hammers into
the desired shape. When a metal is red hot, it becomes ductile. This makes it easy to
beat it into the required shapes.
Machine Forging
Machine forging uses machines to operate hammers and sledges that apply forces of
varying intensities to a heated metal. The force can be applied through impact blows,
steady pressure, or by a combination of both.
The various types of machines that are used for forging are drop hammer, pneumatic
hammer, steam hammer, counterblow hammer, upsetting machine, forging press, and
hydraulic hammer.
Forging can also be carried out using dies, which are shaped blocks made of hard
material such as metal and silicon carbide. Dies are used to shape metal solids or reduce
the diameter of wires, rods, or tubes. Based on the types of dies used, forging can be
categorized into two types:
! Open-die forging
! Closed-die forging
Open-Die Forging
In open-die forging, a heated workpiece is placed between two flat dies and is
hammered to produce the desired shape. A hot metal workpiece is softer and is easier to
change in shape. Open-die forging is a simple process, but the shapes created using this
process are usually rough and require further machining.
Open-die forging is not suitable for forming large quantities of metal because a die is
usually not strong, durable, or long lasting. It is typically used to provide a basic shape
to a metal as a preparation for further operations.
The forging force, F, in an open die is expressed as:
F = Yf r 2 (1 + 2r/3h)
Where Yf is the flow stress of the material, is the coefficient of friction, and r and h
are the radius and the height of the workpiece, respectively.
The flow stress, Yf, of a material is the stress required to produce plastic
deformation of a workpiece at a given strain.
Closed-Die Forging
Closed-die forging is also known as impression-die forging. In closed-die forging,
shaped dies are used to provide a shape to a metal. The flow of the metal in this process
is controlled.
When a metal is forged between two dies in closed-die forging, the excess metal flows
outward and forms a flash.
Figure 4.3 shows the formation of a flash in closed-die forging.

Die
Die
Workpiece
Flash
Die
Die
Figure 4.3: Formation of Flash in Cold-Die Forging
Closed-die forging is superior to open-die forging because it uses pre-shaped dies. In

open-die forging, flat dies are used. Therefore, the shape of the final product is
dependent on the skills of the person operating the forging equipment.
The forging force, F, in a closed-die forging is expressed as:
F = kYfA
In this, k is a factor that depends on the shape of the workpiece, Yf is the flow stress of
the material, and A is the area that is projected to forging.
Table 4.3 provides the range of k values for various shapes of workpieces.
Shape
Range of k
Simple shape, without flash
35
Simple shape, with flash
58
Complex shape, with flash
812
Table 4.3: Range of k for Various Workpiece Shapes
The characteristics of open-die and closed-die forging are explained in Table 4.4.
Forging Process
Open-die
Advantages
Limitations
Simple and flexible process; low cost;
Poor dimensional accuracy; limited to
available in a wide range of sizes; high
simple shapes; requires high skill
strength
level; low production rate; not

suitable for large-scale production
Closed-die
Good utilization of material; better
Requires machining; high cost
dimensional accuracy
Table 4.4: Advantages and Limitations of Open-Die and Closed-Die Forgings
Improvement in Strength
The compression of a metal under high pressure in forging considerably increases the
strength of the metal. The products of forging have a high strength-to-weight ratio. The
strength, which is along the forging direction, of the products that are formed by forging
is approximately 1.5 times more compared to the strength of the components formed by
casting.
Products of Forging
The forging process is suitable for applications that require high strength and reliability.
Most ferrous and non-ferrous metals, carbon and steel alloys, aluminum and copper
alloys, and titanium alloys can be formed by forging. Forging is widely used in the
automotive, aerospace, marine equipment, turbine, and mining industries.
The products of forging include connecting rods, turbine rotors, generator shafts, gear
blanks, and anchor rails.
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is used to automate the forging process.

CIM involves automation of the design, manufacture, and final inspection of the
product. CIM uses sophisticated software to manage and store the data at every
stage. CIM reduces human intervention, improves the quality and precision of the
product, and reduces the defect rate.
Practice Question
1. A metallic cylindrical piece is 4 inches in diameter and 6 inches in
height. This is to be forged using open-die forging so that the final
height and diameter are 4.5 inches and 2 inches respectively.
Calculate the forging force. The coefficient of friction is 0.5 and the
flow stress of the material is 100 ksi.
4.3 Extrusion
The extrusion process involves compressing a metal inside a chamber and forcing it
through a small opening called a die. The presses that are used for extrusion are
operated hydraulically. The product of the extrusion process has a reduced but constant
cross-sectional area. Extrusion is used to produce non-ferrous metals and alloy parts.
Figure 4.4 shows the concept of extrusion.
Metal
Die
Die
Figure 4.4: Extrusion
The extrusion process can be classified into hot extrusion and cold extrusion. Both these
processes are described below.
4.3.1 Types of Extrusion

Identify the types of extrusion.
Hot Extrusion
The hot extrusion process is carried out at high temperatures at the point when metal
turns ductile. As the extruded metal leaves the die, it gradually cools down while
passing through a conveyor. It is then cut to desired length. Hollow shapes, such as
tubes, can be easily formed by extrusion using a mandrel.
Hot extrusion is well suited to high quality production requiring extremely accurate
dimensions. Because the process is performed at high temperature, hot extrusion results
in excessive wearing of dies. For example, a steel tube that is 6 inch in diameter and 50
feet long is extruded in 10 seconds.
Table 4.5 lists the extrusion temperatures for various metals.
Metal
Aluminum and its alloys
Copper and its alloys
Lead
Extrusion Temperature Range(F )

705885
1,2051,790
390485
Refractory alloys
1,7853,995
Steels
1,6102,375
Table 4.5: Extrusion Temperatures of Various Metals
The extrusion force, F, is expressed as: F = A 0 k ln (A 0 /A1 )

In the above expression, A0 is the billet area, and A1 is the product of extrusion area.
The variable k is the extrusion constant for a metal.
The value of k varies with the temperature, as shown in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5: Variation of k with Temperature
Cold Extrusion
Cold extrusion is also referred to as cold impact extrusion. It is a combination of
extrusion and forging. Unlike hot extrusion, cold extrusion is used to produce individual
shaped components rather than continuous lengths of sections. The process is carried
out below the recrystallization temperature of the material being extruded. The unheated
metal is forced through a shape-forming die and the metal is deformed under
compression. Cold extrusion of material results in a work-hardened product.
Cold extrusion provides good dimensional tolerance and requires less finishing. The
production rate of forming in cold extrusion can be as high as 2,000 parts per hour.
Gears, rods, camshafts, and hexagonal nuts are products of cold extrusion.
Application of Extrusion
Extrusion is suitable for all ductile metals and alloys, such as lead, copper, aluminum,
and steel. Extrusion is primarily used to make pieces of objects used in building
construction and factories, such as railings for sliding doors, door and window frames,
and tubes.
Practice Question
1. Many homes and offices have aluminum-framed sliding glass
windows. How is this frame manufactured? How is the aluminum
handle fixed to the sliding glass window?
4.4 Rolling
The rolling process is used to convert heavy sections such as ingots and slabs into
thinner sections. In the rolling process, a metal is passed between two revolving rolls
and is squeezed. The crystals elongate in the direction in which the metal gets rolled.
The material emerges at a faster rate than it enters, and has a reduced cross-section.
When the metal is squeezed between the rolls, it gets elongated because it is
incompressible. To accomplish this, the rolls have to apply both normal squeezing and
frictional drawing pressures. The normal pressure of the rolls is usually one to several
times the amount of yield stress of the metal. Pressures up to several hundred thousand
pounds per square inch may be used. The product of the process has a fine-grained
structure and improved strength, ductility, and shock resistance.
Figure 4.6 shows the concept of rolling.
Roll
Metal
Metal
Roll
Figure 4.6: Rolling
4.4.1 Types of Rolling

Identify the types of rolling.
Hot Rolling
In hot rolling, the metal ingots are held, heated in a soaking pit to a uniform
temperature, and then rolled into blooms or slabs. The ends of the blooms are sheared
away to remove cavities or pipes carried over from the ingot. At the same time, the
bloom is cut to the required length for later operations.
Flat plates, sheets, and strips are rolled in continuous mills from slabs or directly from
ingots. Structural shapes are rolled from blooms. For bars, rods, or wires, the blooms are
customarily reduced to billets. If the temperature drops too low during processing, the
blooms can be reheated.
Table 4.6 lists the temperature ranges for the hot rolling process for various metal
alloys.
Metal Alloy
Rolling Temperature (F)
Aluminum alloys
845
Alloy steels
2285
Refractory alloys
3005
Table 4.6: Temperature Ranges for the Hot Rolling of Various Metal Alloys
Cold Rolling
Cold-rolled sheets and strips are an important part of the total steel production and are
the main raw material for some high-production consumer goods industries, such as
household appliances.
The two main reasons for cold rolling of metals are to obtain a good surface finish and
to improve mechanical properties. Sheet steel less than about 0.050 inches thick is cold
rolled because it cools too rapidly for practical hot rolling. Cold rolling results in
uniform thickness, workability in sheets, and close tolerance on bar sizes. The ability to
use steel in machines is improved by cold rolling. Therefore, cold-rolled or drawn stock
is widely used in fast automatic machining operations.
The roll force, F, is expressed as: F = LwYav
In the above expression, L denotes the contact length of a roll strip, w denotes the width
of the strip, and Yav denotes the average stress of the roll strip.
In the formula for the roll force, it is assumed that the rolling process takes place in
a frictionless situation. The value of the roll force provided by the formula is lower
than the actual roll force. As the friction between the rolls and the strip increases,
the deviation between the actual roll force and the calculated roll force, F, also
increases.
In hot rolling, the crystals start to reform after leaving the zone of stress, but in cold
rolling, they retain the shape given to them by the action of the rolls.
4.4.2 Application of Rolling

Identify the components that are formed by rolling.
Rolling finds many applications in the manufacturing industry in which metal pieces are
rolled to form beams, angles, channels, and plates. The process is used for steel,
aluminum, copper, titanium, and super alloys. The products of rolling include plates,
sheets, rods, I-beams, and tubing.
Figure 4.7 shows shapes of some components that are formed by rolling.
Slab
I-Section
Round
T-Section
Hexagonal
L-Section
Channel beam
Rail
Figure 4.7: Component Shapes Formed by Rolling
4.5 Drawing
Drawing is a process of plastic deformation and is used to reduce the diameter of bars,
wires, and tubes by pulling them through a die.
Figure 4.8 shows the concept of drawing.
Metal
Gripper
Gripper
Metal
Die
Die
Figure 4.8: Drawing
Drawing is done on a draw bench. To be drawn through the die, the size of one end of a
material is initially reduced using a shaping process called swaging. This reduced
portion of the material is attached to the drawing mechanism, which can be chain
driven. To control the inside diameter during tube drawing, usually a mandrel is used.
Tube drawing can also be performed without a mandrel, by using a round die. This
process is called sinking.
The drawing process can be categorized into hot drawing and cold drawing.
4.5.1 Types of Drawing

Identify the types of drawing.
Hot Drawing
The hot drawing process is used to form relatively thick-walled parts. Because the
material used in the hot drawing process is hot, there is considerable reduction in the
thickness of the material. The drawing force, F, is expressed as:
F = YavAf ln (A0/Af)
In the above expression, Yav is the average stress of the material in the die gap, A0 is the
cross-sectional area of the input material, and Af is the output product of the drawing
process. The above formula does not consider the frictional force between the material
and the die. The force required for the drawing process increases as the frictional force
increases.
Cold Drawing
Cold drawing can be used for obtaining a wide range of shapes. Sections of metals that
are formed by the cold drawing process are relatively thin. Because cold drawing takes
place at lower temperatures, the thickness of a metal does not reduce significantly
during the process. The cold-drawing process is used to produce rods, bars, and tubes.
4.5.2 Application of Drawing

Identify the components that are formed by drawing.
Drawing is used to manufacture wires, pipes, rods, and strips of varying thickness or
diameter. Using the drawing process makes automotive components such as panels and
sections.
4.6 Bending
A metal sheet or a plate stock is bent into a particular curvature by a method known as
roll bending or roll forming. The bending process involves passing a metal sheet
through a series of three rolls of equal diameter. Two rolls are fixed in a particular
position, and the third roll is adjustable. The adjustable roll controls the degree of
curvature of an object.
Figure 4.9 shows some sample bends.
Figure 4.9: Sample Bends
The rolls used in the bending process are generally made of carbon steel or gray
iron. They can be chromium-plated to increase their wear resistance.
Bending is usually used to re-form continuous sheets and sections of metal. Although
the bending process is mainly used for carbon steel sheets, it is also used to form
stainless steel and aluminum components.
4.6.1 Parameters of Bending

Calculate bend allowance, minimum bend radius, and maximum bend force.
Figure 4.10 shows various bending parameters.
Bend allowance
Bend radius R
Figure 4.10: Bending Process
Bend Allowance
The bend allowance is the length of the neutral axis in the bent part of the material. The
bend allowance, Lb, is expressed as:
Lb = (R + kT)
In the above expression, is the bend angle, T is the thickness of the material, R is the
bend radius, and k is a constant. The value of k ranges from 0.33 to 0.5. The value of k
is 0.33 when R < 2T and is 0.5 when R > 2T. In ideal cases, the value of k is taken as
0.5.
Minimum Bend Radius

The strain experienced during the bending process (e), is given by:
e = 1/{(2R/T) + 1}
T is the thickness of the material, and R is the minimum bend radius.
As the ratio of the bend radius to the thickness increases, the strain on the material
increases. At a particular value of strain, the outer surface of the bent material cracks.
The ratio, R/T, at which the material cracks is called the minimum bend radius. The
minimum bend radius is expressed in multiples of T. If the minimum bend radius of a
material is 2T, the material can be bent two times its thickness without causing a crack
in the outer surface of the material.
The approximate value of the minimum bend radius, R, is expressed as: R = T{50/(r1)}
In the above expression, r is the tensile reduction of the area of the material.
Table 4.7 lists the minimum bend radius, at room temperature, for various materials.
Material
Minimum Bend Radius
Aluminum alloys
6T
Beryllium copper
4T
Low-lead brass
2T
Magnesium
13T
Stainless steel
6T
Low-carbon steel
4T
Titanium
4T
Table 4.7: Minimum Bend Radius for Various Materials
Maximum Bending Force

The maximum bending force, FB, of a rectangular beam of thickness, T, and the bend
length, L, is expressed as:
FB = kYLT2/W
In the above expression, Y is the yield strength, W is the width of the die opening, and k
is a constant.
4.6.2 Types of Bending

Identify the types of bending.
Bending processes can be classified as:
! Roll bending
! Tube bending
Roll Bending
Roll bending uses a three-point bending to provide the desired curvature to plates,
sheets, and rolled shapes.
Figure 4.11 shows the roll bending process.
Figure 4.11 Roll Bending
The roll bending machine has three rolls arranged in the form of a pyramid. The two
lower rolls are driven, and the position of the upper roll is adjusted according to the
desired curvature. Roll bending machines are available in various sizes and can bend a
plate with a thickness of up to 6 inches.
Tube Bending
Bending a tube improperly can cause the tube to collapse or become oval. To obtain a
uniform cross-section of a tube after bending, the tube is filled with a low-temperature
ductile alloy, such as lead. After the tube is bent, the tube is heated so that the filling
flows out. Alternatively, a tube can be filled with sand before bending. The sand is
removed after the bending process is complete.
Stretch forming is another process that is used for forming metal sheets. The
process works on the principle of stretching the material beyond its elastic limit
while the metal is shaped. In the process, the metal sheet is firmly gripped at both
ends and stretched to create a flat or level sheet. The product can be used for
furniture and cabinet manufacture. The automobile industry also makes extensive
use of stretch forming.
Application of Bending
Bending is applicable mostly in the manufacture of furniture and in packaging
industries, in which metal sheets and tubes are extensively used and from which various
shapes are created.
Practice Questions
1. A metal sheet is bent with a bend angle of 45 and bend radius of 5
inches. Calculate the bend allowance, if the thickness of the sheet is 1
inch.
2. Calculate the minimum bend radius of a thick sheet of metal that has
30% tensile reduction of area.
3. If you try to bend a metal pipe or a tube by 90, it will crack and
break. However, many furniture items have tubes that are bent this
way. How is this possible?
4.7 Spinning
Spinning is a process similar to forming a clay pot on a potters wheel. This process
shapes a rotating sheet of metal. As the spinning tool is gradually pressed against the
rotating sheet, the sheet starts taking the desired form.
Spinning tools can be operated manually or by using a hydraulic mechanism. The
process is usually performed at room temperature, although spinning can also be carried
out at high temperatures. In this process, the tool is not subjected to high pressure. To
reduce the friction of the spinning tool, lubricants such as soap, bees wax, white lead,
or linseed oil can be used.
4.7.1 Types of Spinning

Identify the types of spinning.
Spinning processes can be classified as:
! Conventional spinning
! Shear spinning
! Tube spinning
Conventional Spinning
The conventional spinning process uses a circular blank of sheet metal and holds it
against a mandrel. The mandrel is rotated, and a rigid tool is used to shape the material
over the mandrel. The tool is driven manually or by a hydraulic mechanism. The
process is repeated to attain the desired shape.
Figure 4.12 shows the conventional spinning process.
Blank
Mandrel
Tool
Figure 4.12: Conventional Spinning
Conventional spinning is used for forming conical and curvilinear shapes. Spinning is
carried out at room temperature for most materials. However, metals with high strength
or low ductility require the process to be carried out at elevated temperatures.
Shear Spinning
The shear spinning process uses a roller in addition to the mandrel and the rigid tool
used in the conventional spinning. The process maintains the maximum diameter of the
component while reducing its thickness. Sometimes, two rollers are used to balance the
forces acting on the mandrel.
Figure 4.13 shows the shear spinning process.
Blank
Mandrel
Tool
Figure 4.13: Shear Spinning
The shear spinning process is fast and wastes little must be material; however, the
process generates heat. Water-based fluids are used as coolants during shear spinning.
The typical products of shear spinning are motor casings and missile nose cones.
Tube Spinning
The tube spinning process uses a cylindrical mandrel to reduce the thickness of hollow
cylindrical components.
Figure 4.14 shows the tube spinning process.
Roller
Workpiece
Mandrel
Figure 4.14: Tube Spinning
Tube spinning is used to form pressure vessels, car and truck wheels, and rocket and
missile components.
Application of Spinning
Spinning is used to produce axi-symmetric parts, such as lamp reflectors, cooking
utensils, bowls, and balls of musical instruments from a single sheet of metal, which is
usually in a flat circular form. The spinning process is suitable when you are producing
a limited number of objects and you want to keep tool costs down.
4.8 Special Forming Processes

4.8.1 Introduction to Special Forming
Processes
Identify the need for special forming processes.
The forming processes described in the previous sections can create most of the shapes
required by industries. However, these processes cannot always replicate the desired
shape, and production costs become too high. To overcome the limitations of the
conventional forming methods, special processes can be used.
4.8.2 Special Forming Processes

Identify the types of special forming processes.
The following special processes are used for metal forming:
! Cold heading forming

! Explosive forming
! Electroforming
! Magnetic pulse forming
Cold Heading Forming

The cold heading method is also known as cold upsetting or axial flow forming. This
method is used to form components in large volumes because it is very fast and
economical. Cold heading makes nails and heads on bolts and rivets. The scrap
generated by the cold heading process is only 1% to 3% as compared to 70% to 75% in

a conventional forming and machining processes.
Explosive Forming
The conventional methods of forming metals use a pair of dies to obtain the desired
shape of a workpiece. The explosive forming method requires only one die. An energy
transfer media, such as water, performs the task of the other die half. The shape of the
workpiece is formed by a high-pressure shock wave created by the detonation of an
explosive. The tolerances that are obtainable from the explosive forming process are
0.010 in/in.
Electroforming
The electroforming process is a low-cost process that is used to form large volumes of
components. It is used for specialized, complex, and thin-walled components. The
components are formed by the electrolytic deposition of metal on a conductive mold.
The mold is placed in an electrolytic solution that contains a bar of pure metal. The bar
acts as an anode and deposits the metal on the mold. The process provides an accuracy
of 0.010 inches. A major advantage of the process is that the components can have a
very smooth surface finish, on the order of 2 inches. Electroforming can be used to
form a wide range of components, such as the printing plates in the printing industry
and the metal stampers in the phonograph record industry. The process is also used for
making radar waveguides, aircraft wing tips, propeller blades, lenses, mirrors, computer
cams, and toys.
Magnetic Pulse Forming

Magnetic pulse forming is one of the fastest methods of making a metal workpiece or
assembly. The process uses a pulsating magnetic field that lasts for only a few
microseconds. The process assembles tubular parts to each other or to other
components. Examples of assemblies produced by the magnetic pulse forming method
include steering gears, drive shafts, shock absorbers, coaxial cables, and electric motors.
Case Study 1
Given a specification, identify the forming process to be used.
Scenario
Ten thousand aluminum alloy flanges are required for supply within 60 days by a
refrigerator manufacturing company. Machining from bar stock is very expensive and
the shape is not suitable for extrusion. The other two possibilities are casting and
forging. Pattern equipment for either of the casting processes, including the dies for hot
forging requires 30 days. Which of the above do you recommend, and why?
Analysis
Based on the following parameters, you can decide the process:
! Time
! Cost
! Quality
Requirement
Ten thousand aluminum alloy flanges in 60 days.
Constraints
Machining from bar stock will be expensive. Shape achieved from extrusion is not
suitable.
Comparison of Processes
Forging
Hot forging results in quality product. The quality and production rate of 400 per
working day, which totals to 12,000 in 30 days, of the hot forging machine would easily
meet the requirement. In addition, aluminum is suitable for forging.
Casting Process
Sand casting, though inexpensive, is low on volume of production. In addition, the
surface finish and strength of the product are inadequate. Permanent mold casting and
pressure die casting are very expensive due to the high cost of die. A minimum order of
fifty thousand pieces would be economical because the die cast would be amortized
over the large number of pieces.
Recommendation
Therefore, forging is the recommended process for manufacturing aluminum flanges.
Summary
! The processes in metal forming can be classified as:
Forging
Extrusion
Rolling
Drawing
Bending
Spinning
! Forging is the process in which a workpiece is given a desired shape by applying

compression forces.
! The extrusion process involves forcing material through a die. The product of the
extrusion process has a reduced, but constant, cross-sectional area.
! In the rolling process, a metal is passed between two revolving rolls and is squeezed
to form the final shape.
! Drawing is a process of plastic deformation and is used for reducing the diameter of
bars, wires, and tubes by pulling them through a die.
! Stretch forming is a process of stretching a material beyond its elastic limit for
shaping.
! Bending is used to bend a metal sheet or a plate or pipe stock into a particular
curvature without damaging the metal.
! Spinning is the process used to shape a sheet of rotating metal by pressing it against
a tool.
! Special forming processes, such as cold heading forming, explosive forming,

electroforming, and magnetic pulse forming are used to overcome the limitations of
the conventional forming methods.
Homework Exercises
1. You have been handling pennies and other coins for many years. Can you guess
how are these produced?
2. In a metal testing laboratory, a broken forging was tested for the strength of the
material of the forging. In one direction, the strength was 80 kg/mm2, but in a
perpendicular direction, the strength was only 70 kg/mm2. Is this possible?
3. Differentiate between hot extrusion and cold extrusion based on their advantages
and disadvantages.
4. A metal sheet has 1-inch thickness. Calculate the following:
The bend allowance if the sheet is bent with a bend angle of 30 and bend
radius of 5 inches.
The minimum bend radius if it has 25% tensile reduction of area.
5. Explain the need for special forming processes.
Lab Exercises
Objective
Given a specification, identify the appropriate technique to manufacture aluminum
cables.
Theory
The extrusion process involves compressing a metal inside a chamber and forcing it
through a small opening called die. The presses that are used for extrusion are mostly
hydraulically operated. The product of the extrusion process has a reduced but constant
cross-sectional area. Extrusion is typically used to produce non-ferrous metals and alloy
parts.
Cold drawing can be used for a wide range of shapes. The metals that are formed by the
cold drawing process are relatively thin. As cold drawing takes place at lower
temperatures, the thickness of a metal does not significantly reduce during the process.
The cold-drawing process is used to produce rods, bars, and tubes.
Scenario
Aluminum cables have replaced copper cables for electric transmission. The increasing
demand for aluminum cables, in diameters varying from one-sixteenth inch to half inch,
has led to mass production. Suggest the most appropriate technique to manufacture
aluminum cables.
Procedure
You need to review the processes for manufacturing aluminum cables. List the
characteristics of each manufacturing process and compare them.
Lab Exercises
Exercise 1
Solution
Extrusion and cold drawing are two suitable processes to manufacture aluminum cables.
Extrusion is an efficient process, but it produces single pieces of short length and snaps
wires of thin diameters. Alternatively, the method of wire drawing is free of these
limitations and is used globally to manufacture wires and cables. However, the cold
drawing method offers several advantages and is most economical.

S. No.
Tasks
Completed
Yes
1.
Identified the appropriate technique to

manufacture aluminum cables
No
Exercise 2
Theory
Forging is a useful process of forming metal components. The forging process forms a
metal component by heating the metal, and then hammering the metal to the desired
shape and size. The compressive forces can be applied manually or by using power
hammers, presses, or special machines. Forging of a metal depends on its ductility, that
is, the capacity of a metal to get deformed without breaking. The process of forging can
form both ferrous and non-ferrous metal components.
Scenario
A metallic cylindrical piece of low-carbon steel is four inches in diameter and two
inches in height. This is to be cold forged using open die forging so that the final height
is one inch. Forging presses with five hundred, one thousand, and two thousand tons
capacity are available in the factory. What would be your choice with the given
parameters? Flow stress for low-carbon steel is 100 ksi, and the coefficient of friction is
0.25.
Procedure
Identify the formula used for calculating the forging force. The formula is: Forging
force = Yf r 2 [1+2 r/3h]
F = Forging Force
Yf = Flow stress of the material being forged (100 ksi for low carbon steel)
r = Radius of the forged component
h = Height of the forged component
= Coefficient of friction (0.25 in this case)
Lab Exercises
Objective
Decision
Forging force = Yf r 2 [1 + 2 r/3h]
Equating the volumes of the cylinder before and after forging,
22 2
= r 2 1
r = 2.83"
Hence, forging force
F = 100 1003 2.832 [1+(20.252.83/31)]

= 1,592 tons
Therefore, select a cold forging press with a capacity of 2,000 tons.

S. No.
Tasks
Completed
Yes
1.
Differentiated among various types of forging
No
Manufacturing
Processes for Powder
Metals and
Nonmetals
Differentiate between thermoplastic and thermosetting

plastics.
Identify the manufacturing processes for plastics.
Identify the properties and applications of advanced

plastics.
Identify the types of ceramics and their applications.
Identify the manufacturing processes for ceramics.
Identify the manufacturing processes for powder metals.
Based on the reinforcement technique, differentiate

between the types of composite materials.
Identify the stages of manufacturing composites.
Identify the techniques of fabricating composites.
Given the specifications, identify the appropriate

materials, and processes to be used.
5.1 Introduction to
Nonmetals and
Powder Metals
5.2 Introduction to
Ceramics
5.3 Introduction to
Powder Metals
5.4 Introduction to
Composites
5.2 Manufacturing Processes for Powder Metals and Nonmetals
5.1 Introduction to Nonmetals and

Powder Metals
In certain cases, metals are not suitable for making components, therefore, and it is
appropriate to use nonmetals and powder metals. Nonmetals can be classified as organic
and inorganic. Organic materials, such as plastic, wood and paper, are made from
animal or vegetable cells. Inorganic materials contain silicates, oxides, nitrides, and
carbides. Examples of inorganic materials are cement and glass.
Powder metals are useful as a raw material because they do not have a predefined
shape. Powder metals are generally used in cases in which a component cannot be
shaped from actual metals, such as casting.
In this chapter, you will learn about the manufacturing processes for plastics and
ceramics. You will also learn about powder metallurgy and the advantages and
disadvantages of powder metallurgy. In addition, you will learn about the types of
composites and the manufacturing processes for composites.
5.1.1 Introduction to Plastics

Differentiate between thermoplastic and thermosetting materials.
Plastics entered the engineering industry much later than metals and ceramics. The
production and use of plastics is increasing rapidly. Plastics can be classified as:
! Thermoplastic
! Thermosetting
Thermoplastic and thermosetting materials are broad categories of plastics.

Advanced plastic materials cannot be classified under these categories. You will
learn about advanced plastics in the Advanced Plastics section later in this chapter.
Manufacturing Processes for Powder Metals and Nonmetals 5.3
Thermoplastic Materials
Thermoplastic materials soften when heat is applied to them and harden when they are
cooled. These materials lose their shape when heated. Once cooled, they retain a shape.
Thermoplastic materials are like wax in that they can be melted and reshaped several
times. Examples of thermoplastic materials are nylon, acrylic, polycarbonate, and
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). When you reheat a thermoplastic repeatedly, only its
physical properties change. There is no change in the chemical properties. The physical
properties govern the shape of the thermoplastic.
Properties of Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics have the following properties:
! Thermoplastics are composed of a long chain of molecules. The molecules can be

in a straight line or can be arranged in branches. These molecules are joined
together by weak forces. As a result, the chain of molecules breaks easily when
heated. The breaking of the chain leads to the deformation of the shape of these
materials.
Figure 5.1 shows the structure of thermoplastic materials. Notice that some
molecules are straight whereas others are branched.
Figure 5.1: Structure of Thermoplastic Materials
! These materials can be easily molded into any shape because the molecules in
thermoplastics are joined by weak forces.
! Thermoplastics lose and regain their shape whenever you heat and cool them.
Thermosetting Materials
Thermosetting materials do not melt when heated. On the contrary, these materials
harden when heated. To provide a shape to these materials, you need to apply a
combination of heat and pressure. Once the shape of these materials is set, it cannot be
changed. Examples of thermosetting plastics are polyesters, epoxy, and
phenol-formaldehyde.
Properties of Thermosetting Materials

Thermosetting materials have the following properties:
! Thermosetting materials have a three-dimensional (3-D) structure. When these

materials are heated for the first time, the constituent molecules join to form a
strong bond. In the 3-D structure, the molecules of these plastics are joined with
strong bonds in contrast to thermoplastics, which are joined with weak bonds.
Figure 5.2 shows the structure of thermosetting materials.
R
Figure 5.2: Structure of Thermosetting Materials
! These materials have high compression strength because of the strong bonds among
the molecules. After the material is set once, it becomes heat-resistant. Therefore,
once set, thermosetting materials cannot be melted. As a result, plastics are good
insulators because heat does not travel easily through plastics.
! You can also modify the properties of plastics by adding polymers to them. For
example, adding polymer elements, such as carbon and glass, improves the strength
of plastics.
Table 5.1 compares thermoplastic and thermosetting materials.

Thermoplastic Material
Thermosetting Material
Softens when heated
Hardens when heated
A structure in which molecules are connected
A 3-D structure in which molecules are connected by
by weak forces
strong forces
Can be easily molded
Once set, cannot be molded
Table 5.1: Comparison Between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Materials
To know how plastics are made, refer to the Web site

http://www.plasticsresource.com.
Applications of Plastics
Plastics are used in many areas because of the benefits that they provide, such as low
cost, lightweight, and resistance to corrosion. Plastics are used for creating:
! Equipment, such as boat hulls, surfboards, canoes, rackets, golf clubs,

snowmobiles, bicycle parts, automotive components, and sails
! Telephone and other communication equipment

! Computers and computer parts
! Packaging materials, such as wrappers
! Medical equipment, such as artificial limbs and x-ray machines
! Aircraft, missile, and rocket components
! Toys
Figure 5.3 shows some products created from plastics.
Figure 5.3: Products Created from Plastics
5.1.2 Advanced Plastics

Identify the properties and applications of advanced plastics.
In the preceding section, you learned about the types of plastics. Advanced plastics are
derived from plastic. The following materials are advanced plastics:
! Nylon
! PVC
! Polycarbonates
! Acrylics
! Rexolites
! Polystyrene
Nylon
Nylon is a type of thermoplastic and is one of the most commonly used polymers.
Nylon is a form of polyamide that has good mechanical properties and creep resistance.
Nylons are used for making seals, bearings, and sports equipment.
Properties of Nylon
Nylon has the following properties:
! It has high tensile strength.

! It is resistant to corrosion and other abrasives.
! It is a good insulator at low temperatures. The insulating properties of nylon
decrease with increase in temperature and humidity.
! It is resistant to organic solvents, such as oils and fuels. In addition, nylon is

resistant to most inert gases and bleaching agents. Therefore, nylon can be safely
used to manufacture electrical connectors, cables, and clothing.
Applications of Nylon
Nylon is used for the following:
! In the textile industry for manufacturing clothes, carpets, bags, ropes, and tents.
Nylon is commonly used in the textile industry because it has a high tensile
strength.
! In fisheries, to manufacture fishing nets and fishing lines.

! At home, in the form of products such as mosquito nets, scrubbers, sieves, and
brushes.
! In the automobile industry, to manufacture gears, bearings, belts, and pulleys.

Nylon is also used to create speedometers and windshield wipers.
Figure 5.4 shows some products made of nylon.
Figure 5.4: Nylon Products
PVC
PVC is a thermoplastic. It has many diverse properties and is an extremely popular
material. PVC is commonly used in manufacturing because it is relatively inexpensive
and tough. Rigid PVC is used for applications such as tubing and piping. Flexible PVC
is used for many products such as wire coatings, hosing, and footwear.
Properties of PVC
PVC has the following properties:
! It is rust and corrosion-resistant.

! It is lightweight and strong.
! It is inert, and does not react when combined with other materials.
! It is a good insulator.
Applications of PVC
PVC is used in the following fields:
! In plumbing, to create pipes, hoses, and fittings

! In the field of medicine, to create intravenous containers and respiratory masks
! In electrical circuits because it is a good insulator
! In home dcor, to create furniture and frames for doors and windows. In addition, it
is used in flooring as a replacement for wood
! In the automobile industry, to manufacture various parts such as dashboards,

armrests, door panels, and window seals
! In manufacturing toys, bottles, and lids

Figure 5.5 shows some products made of PVC.
Figure 5.5: PVC Products

Polycarbonates
Polycarbonates are strong thermoplastic polymers. Polycarbonates can withstand a large
amount of force and heat. Therefore, they are commonly used to manufacture airplane
windows, helmets, and bulletproof windows.
Properties of Polycarbonates
Polycarbonates have the following properties:
! They are extremely strong and have the ability to withstand high temperatures.
! They are scratch-resistant.
! They are corrosion-resistant.
Applications of Polycarbonates
Polycarbonates are used for the following purposes:
! To manufacture eye lenses, spectacles, helmets, and face shields because

polycarbonates are strong and scratch-resistant.
! To manufacture electrical insulators and connectors, because of their resistance to

high temperatures.
! To manufacture windows that can withstand high pressure, such as bulletproof

windows and jackets, and windows for airplanes and space shuttles.
Figure 5.6 shows some products made of polycarbonates.
Figure 5.6: Polycarbonates Products
Acrylics
Acrylics are thermoplastic materials. These materials look similar to glass, but they do
not break easily. Acrylics are transparent, hard, and firm. They have a high resistance to
weathering. Acrylics are used in windshields and automobile components.
Properties of Acrylics
Acrylics have the following properties:
! They are transparent, hard, and rigid.

! They have a high resistance to weathering. As a result, they are used in windshields
and other components such as lights in automobiles.
! They are resistant to water and alkalis.

! They can be shaped easily.
! They are light and do not break easily.
Applications of Acrylics
Acrylics are used for the following purposes:
! To create light bulbs because they do not break easily

! To create windshields because they are resistant to weathering and water
! In gramophone components because they do not break easily
Rexolites
Rexolite is a thermosetting plastic that is produced through polymerization. Rexolite is a
form of polystyrene.
Properties of Rexolites
Rexolites have the following properties:
! They do not melt upon heating.

! They can withstand high voltages. In other words, rexolites have a high dielectric
strength.
! They have high electrical resistivity.

! They are resistant to alkalis, alcohols, and mineral acids.
Applications of Rexolites
Rexolites are used for the following purposes:
! To create microwave lenses because they do not melt upon heating

! In coaxial cable connectors due to their high electrical resistivity
! To create television satellite dishes, surveillance equipment, and radar windows due
to their high dielectric strength.
Polystyrene
Polystyrene is a polymer made by combining hydrogen and carbon molecules.
Polystyrene is commonly used as an insulating and packaging material.
Properties of Polystyrene
Polystyrenes have the following properties:
! It is extremely lightweight.
! It is a good insulator. In addition, it can maintain the temperature of food.
! It is an inexpensive product.
! It is a disposable product, therefore, there is no maintenance required in the use of
polystyrene.
Applications of Polystyrene
Polystyrene is used in the following areas:
! To create packaging material because it is light in weight and easily disposable

! To create products such as foam plates, cups, trays, and office accessories because
they are inexpensive to produce and easily disposable
! To pack food materials because of its insulation properties

! To make toys and household goods such as television cabinets and Compact Disc
(CD) cases because they are light in weight
5.1.3 Manufacturing Processes for Plastics

Identify the manufacturing processes for plastics.
Specialized processes are used to form plastics into desired shapes. The processes used
for shaping plastics are:
! Injection molding
! Compression molding
! Blow molding
! Transfer molding
! Vacuum forming
! Extrusion
! Thermoforming
! Machining and joining of plastics
Injection Molding
In this process, the plastic is placed in a syringe-like apparatus, where heat is applied to
melt the plastic. After the plastic melts, it is injected into a cold mold, which has a
cavity in the shape of the final object to be created. As the molten plastic cools, it
solidifies into the shape of the cavity.
Injection molding is used to manufacture products such as toys, medical devices, bottle
crates, pipe fittings, and dental care products. Injection molding is also used in the
electronic and automotive industry for creating objects that have complex shapes. The
equipment for injection molding consists of the mold assembly, heater, and the
mechanism to inject the molten plastic under pressure into the mold cavity.
Compression Molding
In compression molding, the material to be molded is poured into the mold cavity. The
mold is then heated and pressure is applied to soften the polymer and force it to take the
shape of the cavity. As the polymer cools, it hardens into the final shape. It is then taken
out of the cavity.
Compression molding is ideal for thermosetting plastics because thermosetting plastics
require a combination of heat and pressure to be set. This process is commonly used to
create automobile parts, such as roofs and fenders.
Blow Molding
Blow molding is used to manufacture plastic products in a variety of shapes and sizes.
For example, bottles and toys of different shapes and sizes are created using blow
molding. To perform blow molding,
1. Melt the selected quantity of plastic by using the heater.
2. Pass the molten plastic through a die, where it forms a tube-like structure called
parison.
3. Collect the parison in the mold, which consist of two halves. Both the halves close
after a sufficient amount of parison collects in the mold.
4. After the mold closes, apply hot air under pressure to the parison through a pin
known as the blowing pin. The parison expands to a balloon-like form and settles
against the walls of the mold because of the pressurized hot air.
5. Take out the molded material and cool the material.
Blow molding is used for producing large plastic components, particularly for domestic
applications.
For more details about the process of blow molding, visit the Web site
http://www.ferris.edu and search on blow molding.
Transfer Molding
Transfer molding is a process in which articles are formed in a closed mold. The
thermosetting material is fed to the mold under pressure from an auxiliary chamber. The
material is placed in a heated pot from which it is injected into the mold cavity.
Figure 5.7 shows a transfer mold used to produce a plastic component.
Plunger
Plastic
Die
Figure 5.7: Transfer Molding
Transfer molding is preferable to compression molding for producing components with

varying thickness. Such parts require preheating to be formed accurately, and preheating
is part of the transfer molding process. Transfer molding provides good dimensional
tolerance and is used to form complex parts, in which flash removal is difficult. This
method of molding is widely used in the automobile and aerospace industry.
Vacuum Forming
In the vacuum-forming process, a plastic sheet is heated until it softens. The molten
plastic is then placed over a mold of the required shape. The mold is connected to a
vent. As the molten plastic is placed over a mold, air between the molten plastic and the
mold is removed through the vent. The removal of air creates a vacuum, and the molten
plastic is pressed to the mold. This causes the molten plastic to take the required shape.
Vacuum forming is suitable for creating large objects.
To view an animation of vacuum forming, visit the Web site http://www.bpf.co.uk.
Extrusion
Figure 5.8 shows the extrusion process.
Hopper
Heaters
Extruded
material
Pressure
screw
Figure 5.8: Extrusion
In the extrusion process, thermoplastic molding powders are fed through a hopper to a
heated cylinder. A rotating screw drives the powders through a die of the appropriate
cross-section. The granulated powder used for extrusion is made of materials such as
vinyl resins, cellulose derivatives, nylon, polyethylene, or polypropylene.
Products of extrusion include rods, sheets, tubes, and bars. Trim edgings, joint and
panel moldings, and gaskets are also produced by extrusion.
You may have noticed that cling film, which is used to cover the food that is stored
in refrigerators, is extremely thin. Extrusion is ideal for creating cling film and
similar materials because it can produce very thin sheets.
Thermoforming
Thermoforming is a process in which a thermoplastic sheet is heated to its melting
point. The plastic material is then forced to attain the shape of a mold while the plastic
cools. The process of thermoforming includes clamping, heating, cooling, and removal
of the thermoplastic sheet. The raw plastic sheet used for thermoforming is expensive as
compared to the raw plastic used for other manufacturing processes. Some of the
products that are created by thermoforming are windshields, toys, panels, guards,
carriers, liners, trays, and tote boxes.
Machining and Joining

Machining and joining are the secondary processes for manufacturing plastics. These
processes take materials formed using any of the molding, extrusion, or thermoforming
techniques and further refine them.
Machining
Machining is a process through which plastics are imparted specific design details by
using cutting tools. Plastic materials are machined using simple cutting tools. The two
parameters that should be considered while machining plastic materials are the heat
generation and the surface finish of the product. All conventional machine tools can be
used for machining plastics.
! Heat generation: Plastics are more sensitive to temperature than metals. Plastic
materials can heat up and clog the cutting area. The burned plastic can also deposit
on the cutting edges and interfere with the performance of the cutting tool.
Therefore, coolants such as plain water, air, or water-soluble oils should be used
during the machining of plastics. In addition, the cutting should be done at the
optimum speed and depth of cut.
! Surface finish: Machining of plastics tends to destroy the lustrous surface of plastic
products. Therefore, machining should be avoided if the product can be used in the
molded condition. Machining of plastics should be limited to surfaces or locations
that are not visible when the product is in use. The lustrous finish of some plastic
products can also be improved by polishing or buffing using a light pressure.
Joining
Plastic materials can be joined by using adhesives or by welding.
! Adhesives: Adhesive is a substance that can bind two surfaces together. Most
plastics are adhesive in nature when molten. However, a few plastics, such as
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), do not adhere to other materials under normal
circumstances. You need to use adhesives to join these plastics to other plastic
materials. Some categories of adhesives that are used for joining plastics are solvent
cements, monomeric cements, elastomeric cements, and thermosetting cements.
! Welding: The term welding is used for plastics when two plastic materials of
relatively heavy thickness are joined together. When a plastic film or foil is joined
together, it is known as sealing. The various types of welding used for plastics are
hot-gas welding, heated-tool welding, spin welding, and hot-wire welding. The
methods used for sealing plastics include heat-sealing, thermal heat-sealing, and
dielectric sealing.
Table 5.2 summarizes the various plastic-manufacturing processes, their uses, and some
products created using those processes.
Process
Injection molding
Purpose
Products
Create objects having complex
Automobile components, such as
shapes
bumpers, toys, medical devices,

bottle crates, pipe fittings, and
dental care products
Compression molding
Create thermoplastics
Automobile parts
Blow molding
Create products of different
Bottles, toys, containers
shapes and sizes

Transfer molding
Create small and intricate objects
Automobile and aerospace

industry
Vacuum forming
Create products of large sizes
Boxes, car parts
Extrusion
Create thin sheets of an object
Food covering and packaging

material, bags, window frames
Thermoforming
Create thermoplastics
Windshields, toys, panels, guards,

carriers, liners, trays, tote boxes
Machining and Joining
Create Teflon and polyethylene
Automobile, packaging, pipe
products
fittings, and toys
Table 5.2: Processes, Their Uses, and Sample Products
Practice Questions
1. What is styrofoam made of? Why are Styrofoam blocks lightweight?
2. Polycarbonates are used to manufacture airplane windows. Explain.
3. Electric wires and cables have a metal wire inside and an insulating
plastic sheath outside. How are these wires and cables produced?
5.2 Introduction to Ceramics

The word ceramics is derived from the Greek word keramos, which means pottery.
Ceramics are popular for their outstanding physical and electrical properties. Ceramics
are resistant to high temperatures, wear and tear, and creep. In addition, they exhibit
chemical and thermal stability and compressive strength. Ceramics have a high melting
point.
The features of ceramics are:
! High heat resistance

! Electrically insulating or semiconducting with various magnetic and dielectric
properties
! Strong resistance to deformation

! Brittle fracture
Recent advancements in the development of ceramics have led to an emergence of a
family of structural ceramics. These ceramics provide enhanced mechanical properties
that make them suitable for various load-bearing applications.
5.2.1 Types of Ceramics

Identify the types of ceramics and their applications.
Different types of ceramics can be manufactured by varying their structure and

constituents. Some of the types of ceramics are:
! Oxide ceramics: Oxide ceramics are manufactured using aluminum oxide and
zirconium oxide. Oxide ceramics can be classified into two categories, alumina and
zirconia.
Alumina (Al2O3): Alumina is the most widely used oxide in the

manufacturing of ceramics. Due to its hardness and resistance to temperature
and abrasion, alumina is used for manufacturing products used in the blades of
cutting tools, such as cutting tools, abrasives, and metal inserts. In addition,
alumina is used as a thermal insulator. Sintered alumina is also a cutting tool

for high-speed metal cutting for machine tools. The useful properties of
alumina include high melting point and the ability to take on diverse shapes
and functions.
Alumina is also known as corundum or emery.
Zirconia (ZrO2): Oxide described by the formula ZrO2. It is commonly used

to manufacture engine components and other ignition devices. In addition,
because of its high resistance to abrasion, it is used to manufacture products
such as cutting tools, seals, and dies.
! Carbides: Ceramics made from carbon and other elements that can be either metal
or semi-metal. These compounds include materials with extreme hardness and very
high melting points. For example, calcium carbide comprises carbon and calcium.
Carbides are extremely hard ceramics and have high resistance to wear and tear. As
a result, their most common application is in manufacturing cutting tools. However,
carbides cannot be machined easily because they are hard.
! Nitrides: Ceramics formed from nitrogen and other metals such as boron and
silicon. Nitrides are expressed by the formula MexNy. Nitrides are extremely hard
and their most common application is in manufacturing various cutting tools.
Nitrides are also commonly used for nitriding, which involves coating the surfaces
of other materials with nitrides. Nitriding increases the hardness of materials. For
example, a steel sheet is coated with a nitride to increase the hardness of the sheet.
The life of parts that have been coated with nitrides and carbides is about 5 to 10
times longer than that of uncoated parts.
! Sialon: Ceramics made from silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and titanium carbide.
Sialon is commonly used for manufacturing cutting tools. In addition, it is used for
creating tubes used in dyes, heaters, and burners.
! Cermets: These ceramic materials are also known as black ceramics. They are made
up of aluminum oxide and titanium carbide. Cermets are manufactured in such a
way that they combine the high-temperature oxidation resistance of ceramics with
the toughness, shock resistance, and ductility of metals. Cermets are used to
manufacture products such as nozzles for jet engines and brakes for aircrafts.
Table 5.3 summarizes the properties and application of various types of ceramics.
Ceramic
Application
Alumina
Cutting tools, abrasives, metal inserts, thermal insulators
Zirconia
Components for heat engines and ignition devices, cutting

tools, seals, dyes
Tungsten carbide
Cutting tools, metal inserts for the blades of tools and dyes
Titanium carbide
Cutting tools
Silicon carbide
Heat engine components, abrasives, cutting tools
Cubic boron nitride
Cutting tools, abrasives, semi-conductor devices
Titanium nitride
Coating of cutting machines and tools
Silicon nitride
Heat engine components, semi-conductors, insulators,

bearings
Sialon
Cutting tools, tubes for dyes, heaters, and burners
Cermets
Aircraft nozzles and brakes
Table 5.3: Ceramic Materials and Applications
5.2.2 Manufacturing Processes for Ceramics

Identify the manufacturing processes for ceramics.
Most ceramic products are manufactured by first compacting the powder or particles of
the raw material into appropriate shapes and then heating the compressed powder to a
very high temperature.
The manufacturing processes for ceramics are:
! Jiggering
! Slip casting
! Extrusion
! Pressing
! Joining
Jiggering
Jiggering is an automatic process of creating ceramic products. In this process, a blank
of ceramic material is placed in a heavy mold made of plaster of paris. The inside of the
mold provides the outer shape of the ceramic product. A shaped tool is forced into the
plastic material inside the mold while the blank of ceramic material is rotated. The
shaped tool provides the outer of the ceramic product.
Slip Casting
This method is also known as drain casting. In this process, first a stable suspension
called slip is created by mixing powdered ceramic material and liquid: for example, a
slip can be created by mixing clay and water. This slip is poured into a mold, which is
made of plaster of paris. The mold absorbs the liquid portion of the slip. As a result, a
layer of semi-hard material is formed against the surface of the mold. After the layer
against the surface of the mold becomes thick enough, the casting process is interrupted
and excess slip is poured out of the mold. This interruption is called Arian casting and
leaves a thin-walled hollow slip inside the mold. The material is then dried. Finally, to
get the required structure and properties, the cast is fired at a high temperature.
Slip casting is used for casting complex shapes with uniform thickness. Products such
as dinnerware and art objects are manufactured by using this method.
Extrusion
The extrusion process is used to produce large number of ceramic products with varying
cross sections. In this process, the raw material, which is in its plastic state, is forced
through a forming die. The die provides the shape of the final product. The material
takes on the required shape in the die. Examples of products made using this process are
refractory bricks, sewer pipes, hollow tiles, technical ceramics, and electrical insulators.
Pressing
By using this method, the raw material can be pressed in a mold of required shape and
size. The raw material can be in either a dry or a wet state. Raw materials can be
pressed using two methods:
! Dry pressing: The pressed products are dried to achieve the required strength and
microstructural properties. This method is used for structural refractory and
electronic ceramic components that require high strength and heat resistance.
! Injection molding: The raw material is mixed with the binder and then sintered by
firing. This process can create objects with complex shapes, so it is used for
manufacturing high precision parts for products such as rocket engine components.
! Hot pressing: The selected ceramic powder is first pressed and then fired to achieve
the necessary property and shape. The simultaneous application of heat and
pressure cause the finished product to be extremely dense. Hot pressing is ideal for
products such as electrical fuse units.
Joining
Ceramic products are joined to metals or to other ceramic products by the process of
sealing. The types of seals used for ceramics are mechanical seals, brazed seals,
soldered seals, matched seals, and unmatched seals. A mechanical seal is the most
commonly used seal for joining ceramic products. However, miniature electronic
components are soldered or brazed.
Practice Question
1. What is White ware? Give typical examples.
5.3 Introduction to Powder Metals

Metal powders are used to produce shaped metal components. The science of forming
components from powder metals is called powder metallurgy. Powder metallurgy
creates a component by mixing powder metals and compacting the mixture in a die. The
mixture is then heated to bond the particles metallurgically.
Powder metals can be used to form metal components that are difficult to be formed by
other processes such as casting. For example, the powder metallurgy process is used to
form the tungsten filaments for the incandescent light bulbs. The melting point of
tungsten is 3400 C. Therefore, it is unsuitable for casting process. Moreover, tungsten
is too hard for the machining or deformation processes. The powder metallurgical
process was developed when the incandescent light bulb was introduced in the
beginning of the twentieth century.
One of the advantages of powder metals is that you can form complex components with
minimum machining and wastage of material. Additionally, powder metals allow you to
form components with special properties, such as porous bearings and cemented carbide
tools.
Table 5.4 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of powder metallurgy.
Advantages
Disadvantages
High-dimensional accuracy, especially with the
Metal powders expensive to produce
sizing operation
Products with varying range of density, porosity,
Limited size of products
and particle size

Minimum wastage of material
Complex methods to obtain alloy powders of steel,

bronzes, and brasses
Uses of nonmetallic material to obtain the desired
Die designs limit the types of shapes
properties
Table 5.4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Powder Metallurgy
5.3.1 Preparation of Metal Powders

Identify the methods for preparing metal powders.
Powder metals are produced with a variety of mechanical, physical, and chemical
methods, depending on the characteristics of the powder and formation method of the
final component.
Powder metals are prepared using:
! Atomization
! Reduction of metal oxides
! Electrolysis
! Pulverization
Atomization
Atomization is the most widely used method for producing powder metals. The method
involves forcing molten metal through a nozzle and breaking up the stream of liquid
metal into fine droplets with a jet of compressed air, steam, or inert gases. The metal
cools and changes the droplets of metal into solid particles. Atomization produces
powder in which 95% of the particles are smaller than 150 m.
Reduction of Metal Oxides

Metal oxides are reduced to the metallic state by using reducing agents, such as
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and coal gas. The resulting product is a spongy metallic
mass, which can be easily crushed to the particle size of less than 180 m. The method
is used for producing iron powder.
Electrolysis
Electrolysis deposits metal powders using electrolytic solutions or fused salts. The
current density, temperature, composition of the solution, and the size and arrangement
of electrodes determine the characteristics of the resulting metal powder. Around 95%
of the particles of this powder are smaller than 45 m. The method is used for producing
manganese, chromium, and copper powders.
Pulverization
Pulverization involves crushing and milling solid metal into small pieces of powder
metal. The shape of the resulting particles is angular, which is suitable for powder
metallurgy. The method is used for hard and brittle metals that can be easily broken by
impact. The resulting powder of pulverization is very fine, with average particle sizes of
less than 10 m.
5.3.2 Manufacturing Processes for Powder

Metals
Identify the manufacturing processes for powder metals.
Components can be produced from powder metals by:
! Mixing and blending

! Compacting
! Pre-sintering
! Sintering
! Secondary operations
Mixing and Blending

The mixing and blending process involves mixing the powder metal with the required
alloy elements and lubricants in proportions appropriate to their physical and
mechanical properties. A good mixture contains particles of the same size, shape, and
density.
The mixing may be done either wet or dry, and an efficient mixer produces a
homogeneous mixture. The type of mechanical mixer depends on the amount and type
of powder.
Compacting
Compacting of metal powder involves pressing the powder into a shape that is close to
the shape of the final product. This is done by pressing the powder in rigid dies at
pressures of 150 to 900 MPa. Compacting reduces voids between powder particles and
increases the density of the compact. An ideal pressed compact should have uniform
density so that it reacts uniformly to sintering, which is the next step in forming a
component by powder metallurgy. Factors such as nonuniform flow of powders and
friction between the die walls and the powder result in a compact that does not have
uniform density. Thin compacts are used to press the compact uniformly throughout its
thickness. Lubricants such as stearic acid are used to reduce the friction between the die
walls and the powder.
Figure 5.9 shows the process of compacting.
Upper punch
Powder
fill
Powder
compact
Lower punch
Figure 5.9: Compacting
Pre-sintering
Pre-sintering is the process of heating the compact to a temperature below the sintering
temperature. Pre-sintering is done to remove the lubricants and binders, which are
added during blending, and to increase the strength of the compact. Metals such as
tungsten carbide are easily machined after pre-sintering.
Sintering
Sintering involves heating the pressed compact to the temperature that is below the
melting point of all principal constituents of the compact. Sintering increases the
strength of the compact by bonding the individual powder particles. Oxidation of
individual metal particles tends to decrease the bonding between particles. Therefore,
sintering is carried out in a furnace that has a protective atmosphere, usually a reducing
atmosphere.
The factors that affect the sintering process of the pressed compact are sintering
temperature, rate of heating and cooling, and duration of sintering. The strength and
hardness of the compact increases as you increase the sintering temperature or the
duration for which the sintering takes place.
Table 5.5 provides the temperatures and durations of sintering for some materials.
Material
Temperature (F)
Time (min)
Brass
1,5501,650
1045
Bronze
1,4001,600
1020
Copper
1,5501,650
1245
Iron
1,8502,100
845
Nickel
1,8502,100
3045
Table 5.5: Sintering Temperatures and Durations
Secondary Operations
Many powder-metal parts can be used in the as sintered condition. Sometimes, the
parts produced by powder metallurgy do not have the desired surface finish and
tolerance of metal structure. These parts require additional finishing operations, such as
sizing, infiltration, and forging.
Sintering is usually followed by a sizing operation. The sizing is done by a punch-anddie setup on a press, by coining, or by broaching. Infiltration provides increased
strength, hardness, and density that cannot be obtained by sintering.
You can also perform forging on the sintered material. The components have little flash
and high dimensional accuracy. Moreover, the strength and toughness of the resulting
components are much higher compared to the components that are formed by sintered
powder metal. The sintered material is usually forged by using a single die cavity, and
requires a single impact to obtain the desired shape of the component.
Practice Question
1. What is a self-lubricating porous bearing? How is it made? What is a
forged powder-metal part?
5.4 Introduction to Composites

Composite materials, also called engineered materials, are a combination of two or
more materials that are distinct in chemical composition. The materials are blended to
create a material with superior structure and better properties than the constituent
materials. Composite materials can be a combination of various materials, such as
plastics, metals, fibers, or ceramics. However, the properties of a composite material
depend on the properties, structure, and proportion of the constituent materials.
Figure 5.10 shows how two different materials combine to form a composite material.
Figure 5.10: Combining Two or More Materials to Form a Composite Material
Composites usually consist of two parts: the matrix and the reinforcements. The matrix
holds the reinforcements, transfers the load to the reinforcements, and protects them
from mechanical and environmental damage. The reinforcements carry most of the load
and provide stiffness.
Some composite materials exhibit better properties than the constituent materials, such
as metals or plastics. As a result, composite materials are preferred over other materials
in applications such as aircraft manufacturing, space vehicles, electronics, and sporting
goods.
5.4.1 Types of Composite Materials

Based on the reinforcement technique, differentiate between the types of composite
materials.
It is difficult to categorize all the composites because with the advancement in

technology; newer and better composites are developed everyday.
Based on the reinforcement techniques used, composites can be classified as:
! Fiber-reinforced
! Laminates
! Particulates
Fiber-Reinforced
Fiber-reinforced composites consist of thin fibers of a material, suspended in a matrix of
another material. Matrix is the medium or the substance in which the fibers are
suspended. Matrix helps distribute the stress across the fibers. The thin continuous or
discontinuous fibers provide strength to the composite. Matrix also provides toughness
to the fiber-reinforced structure.
One of the most common natural fiber-reinforced composites is bamboo, in which
cellulose fibers are suspended in a matrix of lignin. One of the manmade
fiber-reinforced composites can be seen in a car tire. The nylon or steel wires are
suspended in rubber matrix. Concrete is another manmade composite: iron rods are used
as reinforcing material with sand and gravel in the cement matrix.
Some commonly used reinforcing fibers are Kevlar, graphite, and glass.
Kevlar is the trade name of aramid, which possesses high specific strength.
Figure 5.11 shows the structure of fiber-reinforced composites.
Figure 5.11: Structure of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
The properties of a composite vary with the proportion of fiber used for reinforcement.
Advanced fiber-reinforced composites may contain fiber content as high as 50%. Such
composite materials are strong, stiff, and lightweight because of the high fiber content.
The carbon or graphite tennis racket is made from lightweight and strong fiberreinforced composites. These rackets are manufactured using a composite that consists
of fibers of Kevlar and carbon or graphite suspended in a matrix.
The difference between carbon and graphite is that carbon fibers are made of
8095% noncrystalline carbon and graphite fibers are 99% pure crystalline carbon.
Depending on the varying ratio of the matrix and the fiber, the advanced
fiber-reinforced composites can be classified as:
! Metal-matrix composites
Fibers used: Graphite and alumina
Matrix used: Copper, magnesium, and nickel
Properties: Strong, ductile, tough, and nonflammable
Maximum temperature that it can withstand: 2,300 F
Applications: Automobiles industry and aircrafts industry
! Carbon-carbon composites
Fibers used: Graphite
Matrix used: Carbon
Properties: Heat resistant and strong
Applications: Jet engines, rockets, and automobile breaks
! Resin-matrix composites
Fibers used: Kevlar and boron
Matrix used: Thermoplastics
Properties: Strong and lightweight
Maximum temperature that it can withstand: 600 F
Applications: Sports goods and aerospace equipment
! Ceramic-matrix composites
Fibers used: Carbon and ceramic
Matrix used: Glass, alumina, and boron nitride
Properties: Strong, light weight, and heat resistance
Applications: Aerospace industry and turbines
Composites manufactured with more than one fiber in a reinforced plastic are
called hybrid composites. They exhibit better properties as compared to single fiber
composites, but are expensive.
Laminates
Laminate composites are formed when layers of materials bind together with the help of
special adhesives or through a joining process. Primary properties of laminate
composites are:
! Resistance to fracture
! Minimized shrinkage
! Minimized swelling
Figure 5.12 shows the structure of laminate composites.
Figure 5.12: Structure of Laminate Composites
Plywood, which is a commonly used building material, is a laminate composite.

Plywood is manufactured by bonding thin layers of wood together with adhesives and
applying appropriate pressure and heat. While bonding the layers, the orientation of the
wood grains of various sheets is kept at different angles to each other. This makes the
laminate fracture resistant and minimizes shrinkage and swelling.
Safety glass, which is commonly used in industries, is another example of laminates.
Safety glass is manufactured by bonding two layers of glass with adhesives and
applying appropriate pressure. Bonding with adhesives provides strength to glass so that
when it breaks, the fragments do not scatter.
Two metals can be bonded in a laminate, which is called a bimetallic strip. Both the
metals can have different coefficient of thermal expansion. Such composites are
used in thermostats.
Particulates
Particulate composites consist of uniform-sized flakes or particles instead of fibers,
which are dispersed in a matrix. These particles are used as filling material and not as a
reinforcement fiber. The properties of particulate composites are strength, toughness,

fire resistance, and resistance to shrinkage.
Figure 5.13 shows the structure of particulate composites.
Figure 5.13: Structure of Particulate Composites
One of the most commonly used particulate composites is concrete, which consists of
sand and gravel particles dispersed in a cement matrix.
Materials that are commonly used as fillers are ceramic, glass, tungsten carbide, and
titanium carbide. Commonly used matrix materials are aluminum, magnesium, cobalt,
and polymer.
Other Types of Composites

Composites can be differentiated based on the composition of their constituent materials
and the type of materials used in them. Other types of composite materials are:
! Prepreg: A composite manufactured by combining fibers with resin. Fiber is used

as a reinforcement material and the resin keeps the fibers bonded together. Resin
also helps in evenly distributing the stress, when applied on prepreg. Depending on
the type of resin used, a prepreg can possess properties, such as water and chemical
resistance. Prepreg is used for golf clubs, snowboards, and tennis rackets.
! Cermets: A composite manufactured by bonding ceramics and metals through a

metallurgical process. Cermets inherit the properties of ceramics and metals.
Therefore, cermets are used where material is required to be hard, strong, and tough
at high temperatures. Areas in which cermets find application include metal

machining tools, jet engines, and crucibles.
! Co-woven fabric: A fabric in which two different types of fibers are woven into a
single yarn. For example, thermoplastic fiber woven with carbon fibers adjacently
is a co-woven fabric. It can be further used for reinforcing composites.
! Braided fabric: A fabric that consists of two or more yarns woven in such a way
that they are interlocked and the load is distributed evenly over the fabric. The
braided fabric can distribute stress evenly across the yarn, and they can be further
used for reinforcing composites.
! Conductive composite: An electrically conductive composite that is made by

embedding metal fibers in a nonconductive matrix to make it usable as coating,
such as a fuel cell catalyst and a solar electrical cell.
! Creep composite: A composite that is formed when a material suffers dimensional

changes due to the physical load applied on it for a time period. Additionally, the
dimensional changes that occurred were beyond the instantaneous elastic
deformation levels of the material.
! Pot life or working life: A low-cost, reinforcing fabric that is made of continuous
filament yarn in an open-mesh construction. It is further used for reinforcing
composites.
! Space-grown composites: A composite developed in space that can be used in

computer chips or can provide repair material for a space station. This will help in
eliminating the cumbersome and expensive task of delivering repair material from
earth. However, the process for developing these composites is still being
researched.
! Pitch: A composite that is formed from residue left after the distillation of coal and
petroleum products. It is used as a main constituent or as a base material for the
production of carbon fiber, as well as a matrix precursor for some carbon-carbon
composites.
Based on the matrix material used, composites are classified as:
! Polymer matrix composites: The matrix material in polymer matrix composites is a

polymer, reinforced by ceramic, for example carbon or glass fiber reinforced with
plastics. Polymer matrix resins are epoxy, polyester, polyamide, and
thermoplastics. Reinforcements are glass, quartz fiber, and Kevlar.
! Metal matrix composites: The matrix is a pure metal or an alloy and the
reinforcement is a ceramic phase. Examples of metal matrix composites are
Al-Al2O3 and Al-SiC.
! Ceramic matrix composites: The matrix and reinforcements in ceramic matrix

composites are generally ceramics. In these composites, the stiffness and hardness
of ceramics is combined with the toughness of polymers or metals. Examples of
ceramic matrix composites are glass-fiber-reinforced and carbon-fiber-reinforced
plastics.
Application of Composite Materials

The use of composite materials depends on the type of composites and the application
of the final product.
Laminates
Laminates are used extensively in the manufacturing of houses, furniture, decorative
items, mattresses, printed wiring boards, packaging, storage tanks, gears, mixer blades,
gaskets, and reactors.
Fiber-Reinforced
Fiber-reinforced composites with honeycomb sandwich structure are used extensively in
manufacturing various parts of aircraft, such as doors, tail, propeller blades, body, and
wing box.
Other areas of application include manufacturing of military equipments, fishing poles,
turbine blades, golf clubs, and surgical equipments.
F/A-18 aircraft is an example of composite usage. More than 50% of the outer surface
of this aircraft is made of composites in addition to the parts inside the aircraft.
Particulates
Particulate composites are used to manufacture bearings, motor bushes, grinding and
cutting wheels, foundries, dies, and cutting tools.
Industry Trends
The field of composites is continuously evolving. With the advancement in technology
and the discovery of newer areas of application, composites have now become a major
area of research and development. Some of the latest developments in the field of
composites are:
! Molded magnets consisting of metallic particles and polymers developed for use in
electrical equipments
! Carbide-based ceramics developed for use in hot engine parts

High temperature polymer-matrices are developed for use in exhaust systems.
Composites manufactured with more than one fiber in a reinforced plastic are
called hybrid composites. They exhibit better properties than single-fiber
composites, but are expensive.
5.4.2 Benefits of Composite Materials

Identify the benefits of composite materials.
The benefits of composite materials depend on various factors, such as:
! The properties of each individual component of a composite

! The number of components involved in manufacturing a composite
! The dimensions of each individual component
! The strength of bonding between the components
Composite materials, being a combination of several materials, have benefits that
provide them an advantage over other pure materials. Although the benefits can vary
from composite to composite, benefits of composite materials include the following.
! Composite materials are tougher than the individual constituent materials. For
example, in fiber-reinforced composites, bonding between the matrix and the
reinforcing fiber provides toughness, beyond that of the reinforcing fiber.
! Composite materials have reduced water absorption quality. For example, laminates
can be waterproof, depending on the adhesives and the wood treatment used.
! Composite materials can withstand high temperatures. For example, carbon-carbon

composites can withstand temperatures up to 6,000 F.
! Composite materials are lightweight but strong. For example, resin-matrix

composites are lightweight and strong and are used extensively in sports goods. In
addition, composite materials can be lightweight as compared to the materials that
constitute them. Fiberglass is an example of one such composite.
! Composite materials can have creep resistance. For example, particulate composites
exhibit such benefits.
! Composite materials are more flexible as compared to their constituent materials.

Fiber-reinforced composites are an example of one such composite. Bamboo is a
natural fiber-reinforced composite that exhibits such benefits.
! The cost of a composite material is generally lower as compared to its constituent

materials. This is because an individual material cannot give the benefits equal to
that of composites.
Although several manufacturing processes can produce composites, the process of
manufacturing a particular composite material is chosen on the basis of the properties of
the constituents of the composite material.
Practice Questions
1. A composite has more than one type of fiber. Why would this be
desirable?
5.4.3 Manufacturing Composite Materials

! Identify the stages of manufacturing composites.
! Identify the techniques of fabricating composites.
Fabrication is the process of manufacturing a composite material. Various fabrication
methods have been specifically developed for manufacturing composite materials. With
the availability of a wide variety of materials and processes, designers can now design
composite materials to suit the requirements of a specific product. For instance, in
certain industries such as the aerospace and sports goods industries, there have been
demands for lightweight and strong materials. This has led to a phenomenal growth in
the use of composite materials.
Design
Design of composites plays a vital role in manufacturing a composite with desired
properties suitable for a particular application. Design can be defined as creating new
and better mechanics and improving the existing ones. To develop an efficient
composite design, the features required in the product and the performance parameters
must be kept in mind.
Some factors that need to be considered while designing a composite are:
! The properties of the constituent materials to be used for manufacturing composites

! The accuracy of the method of fabrication for composites
! The cost of fabricating composites
! The expected performance of the components to be manufactured
! The dimensions such as the shape and size of the components to be manufactured
! The distribution and orientation of the components to be manufactured
Fabricating Composites
Based on the type of composite material being fabricated, the techniques for fabricating
composites can be classified into three broad categories:
! Fabricating particulate composites
! Fabricating laminar composites

! Fabricating fiber-reinforced composites
Fabricating Particulate Composites

Particulate composites are made of polymeric or metallic matrix along with the particles
of another material. During fabrication, the particles of a material, also called filler
particles, are dispersed in the matrix by placing them in a liquid melt, or slurry, or by
blending the various components as solids. The rest of the processing follows the usual
methods of casting or forming. Some of the methods of fabricating particulate
composites are:
! Casting and molding: A molten metal is poured into a cavity. The metal acquires
the desired shape of the mold cavity after solidification. Casting processes are
commonly classified as:
Permanent mold: In this process, one mold can be used repeatedly to provide
the same shape to different molten metals.
Nonpermanent mold: In this process, a new mold is prepared for each cast.
! Forming and shearing: This process uses composite materials that have already
been cast or molded. Forming is used to modify the shape and size of the composite
materials to make it suitable for an application.
Fabricating Laminar Composites

Fabrication of laminar composites involves processes that are the result of a superior
level of bonding between different materials and their layers. The various methods of
producing laminar composites are:
! Adhesive bonding: This method is an effective way of bonding and can be applied
to both metallic and nonmetallic materials. For example, to bind polymer matrix
composites, films of unpolymerised resin are used. The resin is placed between the
layers of composites and pressed at extremely high pressure to facilitate binding.
However, when the layers are metallic in nature and can tolerate high temperatures,
brazing is preferred over adhesive bonding. Adhesive bonding is extensively used
in the shipping and aerospace industries.
! Roll bonding: The composites are produced by hot- or cold-roll bonding. In this
type of bonding, sheets of various materials are passed through the rolls of a rolling
mill. If the deformation level of the material increases, the contaminants and oxides
that reside on the surface split into pieces. As a result, the two metals are exposed
to each other, and their surfaces join by a solid bond. An example of the use of roll
bonding is the coinage system of the United States.
! Explosive bonding: This method is also known as explosive welding. It is a

practical means of bonding various layers of metals. In this process, explosives are
used to detonate the layers of the constituent metals. A small gap is maintained
between the two layers of metals to release pressure and heat. As the explosion
occurs between the layers, the pressure and temperature increases between the
layers. As a result, the surfaces of the metal layers split due to liquefaction. The
metal surfaces are forced together under high pressure to form a solid-state bond.
Explosive bonding is used to join metals, such as aluminum-beryllium and
rhenium. Such metals are difficult to join with normal joining processes.
! Sandwich method: Thin layers of a material are bonded together with a filler
material that is usually of a comparatively lighter weight than the constituent
material. This results in the formation of sandwich structures. These structures are
used in the aerospace industry and are known for their bending properties.
The sandwich method is also used to make composites with a honeycomb structure
between the layers of material. The honeycomb structure, being lightweight and strong,
has extensive application in the aerospace industry. This structure is usually
manufactured using aluminum alloys or glass reinforced phenolic polyester materials.
Fabricating Fiber-Reinforced Composites

The fabrication process for a particular fiber-reinforced composite is decided based on
the dimensions and properties of the various fibers that need to be embedded in a
particular matrix. The types of fibers are:
! Discontinuous: Fibers that are combined with the matrix to result in a random
orientation
! Continuous: Fibers aligned in a single direction in the form of rods or tapes, and
wound or woven into a three-dimensional shape
! Yarns: Twisted compounds of filaments

! Tows: Untwisted compounds of fibers
! Rovings: Untwisted compounds of yarns and tows
The reinforcement fibers that are used in composites can be produced by various
methods. For example, fibers of metal, glass, and polymers are produced by
conventional methods of wire drawings and extrusion. The brittle fibers of boron,
carbon, and ceramic are produced by deformation methods.
Combining Fibers and Matrix

To manufacture a composite material, fibers and matrix can be combined together
using:
! Casting-type processes: The matrix material is liquefied. This method is used for
coating reinforcements. Another way of using casting is to introduce liquid between
the fibers by means of capillary action or pressure casting, which will then bond the
fibers together.
! Prepregs: Woven fabric is mingled with the matrix material. Prepreg layers are
joined in several ways, such as through diffusion or rolling, to produce the required
directional properties.
! Individual filaments: Individual filaments are created and stored for later use.
Before the filaments are stored, they are coated with matrix using various
techniques, such as molten bath and vapor deposition. These coated fibers are
stored and used individually or in groups.
! Sheet-molding compounds: These compounds are created from finely cut pieces of
fibers and partially cured resin along with other additives, such as pigments and
fillers, in the form of sheets. These composites often replace sheet metal because
they are lightweight and resistant to corrosion.
Fabrication of Final Shapes from Fiber-Reinforced Composites

Several processes have been developed to produce finished products from the
fiber-reinforced composite material. Some widely used processes for producing final
products from fiber-reinforced composites are:
! Pultrusion: This process is also known as pultrudering and is one of the most
cost-effective methods used to produce composite materials. It is a continuous
process and produces very little waste material. It is used to produce simple shapes
of uniform cross section. Bundles of continuous reinforcing fibers are drawn
through a bath of thermoset polymer resin, and then the impregnated material is
gathered to produce a desired cross-sectional shape. After giving it a required
shape, the material is further used for manufacturing products for general use, such
as poles.
! Filament winding: Continuous filaments or tapes coated with resin are made from
materials, such as glass or graphite. The filaments generated are strong and light
weight. These filaments are wound over a form, and after curing the resin, the
filaments are split from the form.
! Spray molding: This process is used when woven or continuous fibers are not used.
In this process, a mixture of chopped fibers and catalyzed resin is sprayed over the
mold. Rollers are used to remove the blocked air and combine the resin with the
reinforcement. Special torches are required to form the metal spray and to control
the velocity of the spray. This process is suitable for most metals and alloys, but
needs very sophisticated controls.
! Injection molding: Continuous or chopped fibers are placed in a mold cavity. This
cavity is then injected with a resin. In some cases, the chopped fibers used are
extremely thin and are mixed with the heated thermoplastic before the process of
injecting resin begins. This method results in increased rigidity and, in turn, impacts
the strength of the product. By using this method, the fibers retain their stability
even at extremely high temperatures and have a remarkable surface finish. These
are used extensively in the aircraft industry.
Practice Questions
1. What are the major factors that weaken composites?
2. Identify the fabrication techniques used to manufacture plywood and
concrete.
Case Study 1
Figure 5.14: Sample Tennis Racket
Given the specifications, identify the appropriate materials and processes to be used.
Product Details
IBG Inc. wants to improve the quality of the tennis rackets they are producing. Based on
the feedback received from the tennis professionals using their rackets, the company
wants to produce an improved tennis racket.
Requirements
The improved tennis racket should:
! Be strong, durable, and comfortable

! Provide more control
! Be light in weight
! Be less stiff
! Have a narrow frame
! Have a small head
! Have strings with high expansion and retention capability

! Have strings that can absorb and reduce vibrations
Analysis
Based on the product requirements you can use the following materials and processes
for manufacturing the desired tennis racket.
Materials Used
A composite material made of carbon/graphite and Kevlar fibers reinforced in matrix,
such as thermoplastics, can be used for manufacturing the frame.
Multiple layers of polyester fiber can be used, which can absorb vibrations and provide
flexibility for faster ball return.
Processes Used
Casting-type process can be used to bond the Kevlar and carbon/graphite fibers with the
matrix. Further layers of the composite material can be bonded using adhesives, which
can be used for the frame to provide flexibility and strength.
Interweaving the yarns of polyester fiber over a core yarn running in between makes the
strings for the racket.
Alternative Materials
A composite that is made up of titanium or titanium alloy can be used for the frame and
a high-strength polymer fiber can be used for strings. Carbon or graphite scores can be
used over other material because they are lightweight and strong.
Alternative Processes
Fibers can be diffused and rolled into the matrix to produce composites. The fibers that
are used in composites have reinforcements and can be produced by various methods.
Several processes have been developed to produce finished products from the
fiber-reinforced composite material.
Possible Defects
Bubbles in the casting process or uneven distribution of fibers can make the material
weak at various points. This can lead to fracture in the frame when pressure is applied.
Usage
A tennis racket that meets the preceding specifications is ideally preferred by tennis
professionals to gain more control, power, and speed, and to facilitate better serves and
return shots.
Case Study 2
Given the specifications, identify the appropriate material to be used.
Product Details
EarthenWares is an organization that produces a wide range of kitchen products, such as
utensils, saucepans, and crockery.
Requirements
EarthenWares wants to introduce multipurpose containers. Following are the
specifications for the containers:
! Must be able to store both raw and cooked food and liquids and keep the food fresh
! Must be nontoxic and should not react with food
! Must be able to sustain weight
! Must be durable
! Must be reasonably priced
! Must be available in a variety of shapes and sizes, and should be attractive
! Must be able to withstand high temperatures, so that they can be used in microwave
ovens
Creating the Container

Figure 5.15 shows the process that can be used to create containers.
Identify the material
Select the material
Create the container

Figure 5.15: Process
Analysis
Materials Used
You need to decide on a material for creating the container. Depending on the
requirements, you can use any of the following materials to create the container:
! Plastic
! Polystyrene
! PVC
Plastic
The following features of plastic make it suitable for use as a multipurpose container:
! It is resistant to toxics.
! It is strong. Therefore, it is able to sustain heavy weights.
! It is durable.
! It can be easily given any shape.
! It is inexpensive.
! It does not react with or contaminate food.
! It can withstand high temperatures.
However, the disadvantage of using plastic for containers is that plastic is not immune
to atmospheric moisture. Some amount of moisture may enter the container and cause
the food to become soggy and smelly if it is kept for too long in the container.
Polystyrene
You can consider polystyrene for creating storage containers because of its following
properties:
! It is strong.
! It is inexpensive.
! It keeps food fresh.
! It maintains the given temperature of the food for a long time.
! It does not react with food.
However, the disadvantage of polystyrene is that it cannot withstand too much weight
and is easily crushable. Therefore, it is more suitable for products that can be disposed.
PVC
The following properties of PVC make it suitable for containers:
! It is strong.
! It is nontoxic.
! It keeps food fresh.
! It withstands weight.
Although PVC is nontoxic, some food contained in it can contaminate when heated. In
addition, PVC cannot withstand high temperatures. It is also more expensive than
plastic and polystyrene.
Case Study 3
Analyze the plot of stress against elongation for a rubber piece.
Scenario
Universal Testing Lab in Charlotte regularly tests metals using tensile testing machines,
and plots Stress vs. Elongation diagrams. The lab received a request to test rubber
pieces in tension. Describe the plot of stress against elongation for a rubber piece.
Requirement
Plot of elongation against stress for a rubber material.
Analysis
Initially, the stress of rubber increases slowly with elongation. After a particular point of
elongation, the stress increases rapidly. The fracture stress is reached between 800% to
1000% elongation.
Result
The plot takes an S curve.
Figure 5.16 shows the graph for stress versus elongation for rubber.
Stress
Elongation
Figure 5.16: Stress vs. Elongation for Rubber
Summary
! Plastics can be classified into two categories:
Thermoplastic
Thermosetting
! Thermoplastic materials soften when heat is applied to them and harden when they
are cooled.
! Thermosetting materials do not melt but harden when heated.

! The processes used for plastics are:
Injection molding
Compression molding
Blow molding
Transfer molding
Vacuum forming
Extrusion
Thermoforming
Machining and joining
! The types of ceramics are:
Oxide ceramics
Carbides
Nitrides
Sialon
Cermets
! The manufacturing processes for ceramics are:
Jiggering
Casting
Extrusion
Pressing
Joining
Mixing and blending
! The science of forming components from powder metals is called powder

metallurgy.
! The methods for preparing powder metals are:
Atomization
Reduction of metal oxides
Electrolysis
Pulverization
! The processes involved in producing components from powder metals are:
Mixing and blending
Compacting
Pre-sintering
Sintering
Secondary operations
! Composites can be classified into the following categories:
Fiber-reinforced
Laminates
Particulates
! Depending on the various permutations of the matrix and the fiber within the
composite, the advanced fiber-reinforced composites can be classified into the
following types:
Resin-matrix
Metal-matrix
Carbon-carbon
Ceramic-matrix
! Fabrication techniques can be classified into three broad categories:
Fabrication of particulate composites
Fabrication of laminar composites
Fabrication of fiber-reinforced composites
! Some of the methods of fabricating particulate composites are:
Casting and molding
Forming and shearing
! Some of the methods of fabricating laminar composites are:
Roll bonding
Explosive bonding
Adhesive bonding
Sandwich method
! The processes for combining fibers and matrix are:
Casting-type processes
Prepregs
Individual filaments
Sheet-molding compound
! Some important techniques for producing final products from

fiber-reinforced composites are:
Pultrusion
Filament winding
Spray molding
Injection molding
Homework Exercises
1. Why is it easier to mold nylon as compared to polyester?
2. How is compression molding suitable for manufacturing thermosetting plastics?
3. You use self-sticking tape for many applications at home and at office. What are
these tapes made of? How long do they keep sticking?
4. Thermoplastics can be welded to each other in the same way metals can with gas
welding. Can you use the same gas welding equipment for welding plastics?
5. Why is nylon suitable for manufacturing electrical connectors?
6. AB Corp. specializes in the quick execution of construction jobs. Other firms use
normal cement, such as Portland cement, for construction. This cement requires 30
days of curing to reach its full strength. AB Corp. does not wait that long and claims
to use fast-setting cement instead. What is fast-setting cement?
7. What is the purpose of pre-sintering in preparing powder metals?
8. List the advantages of powder metallurgy over other processes.
9. How do you reduce the porosity in a powder metal part? How can it be used to
introduce advantageous materials?
10. List five products that you have purchased or used that are made of composite
materials.
11. Based on the matrix material used, composites are classified into metal matrix
composites, polymer matrix composites, and ceramic matrix composites. Give one
example and one application for each of the above.
Lab Exercises
Objective
! Identify the properties and applications of advanced plastics.
Theory
Thermoforming is a process in which a thermoplastic sheet is heated to its melting
point. The plastic material is then forced to attain the shape of a mold while the plastic
cools. The process of thermoforming includes clamping, heating, cooling, and removal
of the thermoplastic sheet. The raw plastic sheet used for thermoforming is expensive
when compared to the raw plastic used for other manufacturing processes. Some of the
products that are created by thermoforming are windshields, toys, panels, guards,
carriers, liners, trays, and tote boxes.
Scenario
The windshield in your car is made of glass less than " thick. Imagine the wind force
against it when your car travels at 100 mph. Your dining table top, made of " thick
glass, is not so strong. How do you explain this?
Procedure
Review the features of composites. Safety glass is a laminate composite.
Decision
Windshield glass, known as safety glass, has two or more plate glasses with transparent
vinyl plastic between the layers. The vinyl acts as reinforcement, and prevents the
splintering of the glass layers, if broken. The glass is tempered to provide additional
strength.
Lab Exercises
Exercise 1

S. No.
Task
Completed
Yes
1.
Identified the properties and applications of

advanced plastics
No
Exercise 2
! Identify the benefits of composite materials.
Theory
Composite materials, also called engineered materials, are a combination of two or
more materials that are distinct in chemical composition. The materials are blended to
create a material with superior structure and better properties than the constituent
materials. Composite materials can be a combination of various materials, such as
plastics, metals, fibers, or ceramics. However, the properties of a composite material
depend on the properties, structure, and proportion of the constituent materials.
Composites consist of two parts: the matrix and the reinforcements. The matrix holds
the reinforcements, transfers the load to the reinforcements, and protects them from
mechanical and environmental damage. The reinforcements carry most of the load and
provide stiffness.
Some composite materials exhibit better properties than the constituent materials, such
as metals or plastics. As a result, composite materials are preferred over other materials
in applications, such as aircraft manufacturing, space vehicles, electronics, and sporting
goods.
Scenario
Norton Inc. produces small metal parts for autos and machines. The company has heard
about composites, and wants to switch from metals to composites. List at least six
advantages of composites over metals.
Lab Exercises
Objective
Sample Solution
! Composites have high stiffness to weight and strength to weight ratios.
! Corrosion and stress corrosion problems are minimal.
! Composites have high fatigue strength.
! There is reduction in structural mass in composites, resulting in cost saving.
! There is good control of surface contour and smoothness.
! Composites have improved properties over metals at elevated temperatures.

S. No.
Task
Completed
Yes
1.
Identified the benefits of composite materials
No
Exercise 3
! Given the specifications, identify the composite material to be used.
Scenario
A firm that manufactures a military helmet wishes to manufacture a helmet that is
strong, lightweight, bullet proof, and covers more head area. Suggest appropriate
materials and processes to be used for manufacturing the helmet.
Procedure
Step 1
First, state the type of composite material that would be used to manufacture such a
helmet.
The type of composite material that may be used to manufacture a helmet for the
military is reinforced resin-matrix fiber.
Step 2
List the materials that would be used as reinforcing material and matrix material in the
composite.
Materials that may be used as reinforcing and matrix material respectively in the
composite are:
! Kevlar, boron
! Thermoplastics
Step 3
State the type of process that would be used to manufacture the military helmet and give
a rationale for each. Casting is used to manufacture the helmet for the military because
it gives a smooth finish to the final product.
Step 4
List the alternative materials that can be used to manufacture military helmets.
Lab Exercises
Objective
Metals and aluminum alloys are the alternate materials that can be used to manufacture
helmets for the military.
Step 5
State the alternative process that can be used to manufacture the helmet.
The alternate processes that can be used to manufacture the helmet are forming and
shaping.

S. No.
Task
Completed
Yes
1.
Identified the composite materials to be used
No
Heat Treatment,
Cleaning, and
Finishing Processes
Identify the heat treatments and the changes in properties

and structure caused by heat treatment
Identify steps in the various cleaning processes
Identify the steps in the various finishing processes
Given a specification, identify the heat treatment process

to be used
Given a specification, identify the finishing process to be

used
6
6.1 Introduction to
Heat Treatment
and Finishing
Processes
6.2 Heat Treatment of
Ferrous Alloys
6.3 Heat Treatment of
Non-Ferrous Alloys
6.4 Cleaning
6.2 Heat Treatment, Cleaning, and Finishing Processes
6.1 Introduction to Heat

Treatment and Finishing
Processes
The properties and behavior of metals and alloys are determined by their composition
and structure. However, the properties of different metals and alloys can be modified by
controlling their processing and heat treatment. Processing focuses on improving the
surface properties of an object, whereas the objective of heat treatment is to improve the
intrinsic properties of an object by changing the internal structure of a material.
Depending on the application, you can modify properties such as strength, hardness,
ductility, and toughness by using heat treatment processes. The objectives of cleaning
and finishing processes are:
! Cleaning the surfaces of the product

! Removing the defects such as scratches, pores, and blemishes, introduced during
processing or handling
! Improving the resistance of the product to wear or corrosion

! Improving the appearance of a manufactured product
! Creating the desired surface finish on products made from cheaper materials
This chapter covers the types of heat treatment processes and their effect on the changes
in properties and structure of metals and alloys. In addition, the chapter covers the
various cleaning and finishing processes in detail.
Heat Treatment, Cleaning, and Finishing Processes 6.3
6.2 Heat Treatment of Ferrous

Alloys
Most manufacturing processes are directed towards changing the shape of the selected
materials for producing a product. However, inherent material properties, such as
strength, fracture resistance, and surface finish, are seldom modified during these
processes. The heat treatment, cleaning, and finishing processes are directed towards
imparting desired properties and creating surface texture to the produced object.
Heat treatment is the process of controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their
physical and mechanical properties without changing the product shape. Almost all
solid metals have a definite cell structure at a particular temperature. The process of
adding or removing heat to change the properties of metals or alloys is called heat
treatment. This process involves heating and cooling of metals or alloys in the solid
state to impart desired properties.
Heat treatment is sometimes a part of manufacturing processes such as welding, cutting,
or forming. Heat treatment is commonly used to increase the strength of the material,
but it can also be used to alter properties, such as improving machining, modifying, and
restoring the ductility after a cold working operation. Therefore, heat treatment is an
enabling manufacturing technique.
For example, after cold working, internal stresses build up in a material. These stresses
make the material brittle and reduce ductility. This results in resistance to machining
processes such as turning. Additionally, reduced ductility makes it difficult to draw
wires from the material. Improving material properties through heat treatment makes
processing of materials easier and more economical.
Heat treatment can be applied on both ferrous alloys and non-ferrous alloys.
Objects made of ferrous alloys are heat-treated for several reasons, such as for
hardening or strengthening a metal object, relieving internal stresses, changing the
microstructure by refining the grain size, or for producing uniform grain throughout an
object. A uniform grain size in ferrous objects results in a smooth surface finish and
better machining. Additionally, this helps in cost savings by reducing the amount of
surface finishing required for the object.
Changing the internal structure of a ferrous metal, such as steel, is accomplished by
heating the object to a temperature above its upper critical point, maintaining it at that
temperature for a sufficient time, and then cooling the object under controlled
conditions.
At high temperatures, the carbon in steel is dissolved in the mixture as a solid solution
called austenite. The carbide particles reappear after cooling. If the cooling is slow, the
carbide particles are relatively coarse and few. In this condition, the steel is soft. If
cooling is rapid, as by quenching in oil or water, the carbon precipitates as a cloud of
very fine carbide particles, imparting hardness to the steel.
The fact that the carbide particles can be dissolved in austenite is the basis of the heat
treatment of steel. The temperatures at which this transformation takes place are called
the critical temperatures or critical points. These temperature points vary with the
composition of the steel. The carbon content in steel has the largest influence on the
properties of the steel.
Heat treatment of ferrous alloys can be broadly classified as:
! Heat treatment of steel

! Heat treatment of cast iron
6.2.1 Heat Treatment of Steel

Identify different heat treatments and the changes in properties and structure caused
by heat treatment.
At ordinary temperatures, the carbon in steel exists in the form of iron carbide scattered
throughout the iron mixture known as ferrite. The number, size, and distribution of
these ferrite particles determine the hardness of the steel. The hardness of steel should
be appropriate for a particular application. For example, steel with high hardness is
required for making cutting tools, whereas a lesser harness steel is appropriate for
making coiled springs.
Steel responds well to heat treatment. Steel is heat treated for one the following
objectives:
! Softening heat treatments

! Hardening heat treatments
Softening Heat Treatments

Softening heat treatments are done to restore ductility, improve toughness, modify
strength or hardness, remove residual stresses, refine grain size, or change the
electromagnetic properties of the steel. Hardening of steel is done to modify strength
and wear properties. Sufficient carbon and alloy content in the steel object is a prerequisite for the hardening process. The carbon content in steel facilitates hardening.
Restoring ductility or removing residual stresses is an essential operation when a large
amount of cold working is to be performed, such as in a cold-rolling operation or wire
drawing. Softening heat treatments for steel are:
! Annealing
! Normalizing
! Tempering
Annealing
When metals are heated, internal stresses are created. Annealing is used to remove these
stresses. This involves raising the temperature of the metals being heated through the
critical point and then cooling gradually. If the cooling is not gradual, internal strain is
generated in the metal, causing it to be brittle. When large articles are annealed,
sufficient time must be allowed for the heat to penetrate the metal. If heating is done for
inadequate time, the heating is restricted to the metals surface, leaving the core of the
metal at a lower temperature.
Steel is usually subjected to the annealing process for:
! Increasing ductility by reducing hardness and brittleness

! Refining the crystalline structure and removing residual stresses. Steel that has been
cold worked is usually annealed to increase its ductility
If the object to be annealed is heated to the proper temperature, slow cooling is essential
to complete the annealing effectively.
Generally, cold-worked steels are annealed in order to increase ductility, reduce

hardness and brittleness, remove residual stresses, and refine the crystalline
structure.
Normalizing
Normalizing involves a slightly different heat treatment cycle, but it is similar to
annealing. This process removes all strains that are caused by machining, forging,
bending, and welding processes. The steel objects are then heated in a furnace to a point
above the critical temperature. After the objects have been maintained at the critical
temperature for a sufficient time to allow the heat to penetrate to the center of the
section, they must be removed from the furnace and cooled in still air. This results in a
grain structure of fine pearlite. As a result, the material becomes soft; the degree of
softness depends on the cooling conditions. This process is more economical than
annealing because there is no added cost of controlled furnace cooling.
The main difference between annealing and normalizing is that the fully-annealed
objects are ductile and soft. Normalized objects are not as soft as fully-annealed
materials but have uniform grains and higher strength.
Tempering
Steel that has been hardened by rapid cooling from a point slightly above its critical
range is often harder than necessary and too brittle for most purposes. In addition, it has
high internal strain. To relieve this strain and reduce brittleness, the metal is tempered.
Tempering is performed in the same types of furnaces that are used for annealing. The
objective of tempering is to obtain the desired combination of hardness, ductility,
toughness, strength, and structural stability.
Tempering is done after the quench hardening process has been completed.
Hardening Heat Treatments

Hardening heat treatments can be studied based on the type of quenching used, the type
of heating process used, and the source of heating. The types of hardening are:
! Direct hardening
! Diffusion hardening or case hardening
! Selective hardening
Direct Hardening
Steel with high carbon content is hardened by heating the metal above the critical
temperature and then rapidly cooling it by immersing it in a quenching medium. This
treatment changes the crystal structure of the metal, thus inducing hardness in the metal.
The change in structure depends on the carbon content or the alloy composition of the
steel.
Hardenability, which is the measure of the depth of full hardness achieved, is related to
the type and amount of alloying elements in the steel.
For obtaining maximum hardness, it is necessary to raise the temperature of the steel
object to the upper critical point. Steel that has been heated to its upper critical point
hardens completely if rapidly quenched. At this critical point, also called austenitic
level, martensite is formed.
Hardening of steel requires a change in structure from the body-centered cubic structure
that commonly exists at room temperature to the face-centered cubic structure feasible
in the austenitic region. If steel is heated and suddenly quenched, very hard and brittle
structure with increased hardness is formed.
When hot steel is quenched, most of the cooling happens at the surface, resulting in the
hardening of the surface. Cooling then propagates towards the core of the material.
Alloying helps in the hardening of steel. By determining the right alloy composition, the
properties required for a particular application can be achieved. Such alloying reduces
the need for rapid quench cooling and eliminates the possibility of distortion and
cracking.
The types of media used for quenching are:
! Water: Quenching can be done by plunging hot steel in water. Water becomes a
good rapid quenching medium when it is agitated. However, water is corrosive for
steel, and the rapid cooling process can cause distortion or cracking in steel.
! Salt water: It is a better rapid quench medium than plain water because salt-water
bubbles break easily and allow for rapid cooling of the steel object. However, salt
water is even more corrosive than plain water, and therefore, must be rinsed off
immediately.
! Oil: It is used when a slower cooling rate is required. Because oil has a very high
boiling point, martensite formation is slow, and this reduces the likelihood of
cracking.
! Polymer quench: These quenches produce a cooling rate that is less than that of
water but more than that of oil. The cooling rate can be altered by varying the
components in the quench mixture. Polymer quenches can produce far more
predictable results and reduced corrosion as compared to water quenches. The risk
of a fire hazard with polymer quenches is less than that with oil.
! Cryogenic quench: This type of quench is performed at room temperature. Most

medium-carbon steels and low-alloy steels undergo transformation to form 100
percent martensite at room temperature. However, high carbon and high alloy steels
retain austenite at room temperature. To eliminate the retained austenite, the quench
temperature has to be lowered. Cryogenics, or deep freezing, ensures that austenite
is not retained during quenching. The amount of martensite formed at quenching
depends upon the lowest temperature used while freezing.
The quenching media for steel to perform hardening heat treatment are water, oil,
polymer, and cryogenics (gas).
Diffusion Hardening
Diffusion hardening is the process of increasing the hardness of steel by increasing the
carbon content in the alloy. This is done by diffusing carbon into the alloy through the
surface. The carbon content in the steel determines whether or not it can be directly
hardened. If the carbon content is low, for example less than 0.25 percent, an alternate
means exists to increase the hardness of the surface by diffusion. The diffusion
hardening methods allow hardening only at the surface, not at the core, because
diffusion increases the carbon content only at the surface. This method is useful in
making a hard surface with good wear properties, for example on gear teeth, but a tough
core that performs well under impact loading. The diffusion hardening processes are:
! Carburizing
! Nitriding
! Carbo-nitriding
Carburizing is the process of adding carbon to the surface in order to enhance its
hardness. This process involves exposing the object to a carbon-rich atmosphere at an
elevated temperature and allowing diffusion to transfer the carbon atoms into steel.
Diffusion will work only if the steel has low carbon content, because diffusion works on
the differential of concentration principle. Carburizing can be done in one of the
following three ways:
! Pack carburizing: Metal objects are packed in a high carbon medium, such as
carbon powder or cast iron shavings and heated in a furnace for 12 to 72 hours at
900 C (1652 F). At this temperature, carbon monoxide (CO) gas, a strong
reducing agent, is produced. The reduction reaction occurs on the surface of the
steel and releases carbon, which then diffuses into the surface because of the high
temperature.
! Gas carburizing: This process is conceptually the same as pack carburizing, except
that CO is supplied to a heated furnace and the reduction reaction of deposition of
carbon takes place on the surface of the object.
! Liquid carburizing: Steel objects are immersed in a molten carbon-rich bath. In the
past, such baths had cyanide (CN) as the main component. However, safety
concerns have led to nontoxic baths that achieve the same results.
Nitriding is the process of diffusing nitrogen into the surface of steel. Nitrogen forms
nitrides with elements such as aluminum, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium. The
objects are cleaned and then heated in a furnace that has an atmosphere of dissociated
ammonia, which contains nitrogen and hydrogen, for 10 to 40 hours at 500625 C
(9321,157 F). Nitrogen diffuses into the steel and forms nitride alloys, and goes to a
depth of up to 0.65 mm (0.025 in).
Carbo-nitriding process is most suitable for low carbon and low carbon alloy steels. In
this process, both carbon and nitrogen are diffused into the surface. The objects are
heated in an atmosphere of hydrocarbon, such as methane or propane mixed with
ammonia (NH3). The process is a mix of carburizing and nitriding.
For steel, there are two critical temperatures at which the changes in structure take
place. These are called lower and upper critical temperatures. You can get the
values of critical temperatures from handbooks for different types of steel.
Selective Hardening
The objective of selective hardening is to increase the hardness of specific areas of a
metal object. For example, the teeth of gears are selectively hardened to ensure that the
teeth have good wear resistance, while maintaining the loading strength in the core of
the gear. Steel objects that have a minimum carbon content of 0.4%, or alloy steels with
0.1% carbon content, can be selectively hardened in specific regions by applying heat
and quench only to those regions.
Examples of metal objects that can be processed through selective hardening include
gear teeth and bushings.
The common selective hardening processes are:
! Flame hardening
! Induction hardening
! Laser beam hardening
Flame hardening: A high intensity oxy-acetylene flame is applied to the target

region. The temperature is raised high enough for change to occur in the
crystal structure of the metal. The heat transfer is restricted to the area covered
by the torch. Therefore, the core of the object does not reach the required
temperature. The heated region is then quenched to achieve the desired
hardness. The hardened object can be tempered to eliminate brittleness. The
core of the object can be hardened by increasing the heating time. By
increasing the heating time, a depth of up to 6.3 mm (0.25 in) can be
hardened. In addition, large objects that normally do not fit in a furnace can be
heat-treated by this process.
Induction hardening: The steel object is placed inside an electrical coil that
carries alternating current through it. This energizes the steel object and raises
its temperature. Depending on the frequency and current in the coil, the rate of
heating as well as the depth of heating can be controlled. Quenching is done
after heating in a process that is similar to flame hardening.
Laser beam hardening: This process is another variation of flame hardening.

In this process, a phosphate coating is applied over the steel object to facilitate
absorption of the laser energy. The selected areas of the object are exposed to
laser energy, causing them to heat. By varying the power of the laser, the
depth of the heat absorption can be controlled. The objects are then quenched
and tempered. This process applies heat selectively to the areas that need to be
heat-treated. Further, this process can run at high speeds while ensuring
reduced distortion.
Electron beam hardening: This process is similar to laser beam hardening

except that in this process, the heat source is a beam of high-energy electrons.
This beam is controlled using electromagnetic coils. The process needs to be
performed in vacuum because the electron beams dissipate easily in air. As in
laser beam hardening, the depth and location of a hardened surface can be
controlled with precision.
The types of hardening processes are direct hardening, diffusion treatment, and
selective hardening.
6.2.2 Heat Treatment of Cast Iron

Identify the heat treatments and the changes in properties and structure caused by
heat treatment.
Cast iron is an industrially important alloy of iron and carbon, with the carbon content
in cast iron ranging from 2.2% to 4.5%. Commercial grades of cast irons differ widely
in properties and composition.
The heat treatments applicable to gray cast iron are classified as:
! Stress relieving
! Annealing
! Normalizing
Stress Relieving
Stress relieving is done in gray cast iron to relieve residual stresses introduced during
solidification. The residual stresses are introduced due to different cooling rates at
various sections of castings. Residual stresses adversely affect strength and cause
distortion. In some cases, these can even result in the cracking of the material. To
achieve maximum stress relief without changing the microstructure, the temperature
range of 538565 C must be maintained during the process.
In this range of temperature, while holding time is maintained at one hour, almost 80
percent of residual stresses are removed. At a temperature of 590 C, more than 85
percent of the stresses can be removed.
The holding time for heat treatments, such as stress relieving and annealing, is the
time during which the object being heat treated is held at an elevated temperature.
Annealing
The purpose of annealing is to soften the gray cast iron and to improve its
machinability. This treatment reduces the tensile strength of gray cast iron. The extent
to which the properties are modified depends on the annealing temperature, holding
time, and the alloying elements present in the iron.
The machinability of a metal object is defined as the ease with which machining
operations, such as turning and shaping, can be performed on the metal object.
Three types of annealing treatment are applied to gray cast iron:
! Ferritizing annealing
! Full annealing
! Graphitizing annealing
Normalizing
The purpose of normalizing for gray cast iron is to improve its mechanical properties,
such as hardness and tensile strength. This treatment also helps restore properties that
have been modified by other heating processes, such as graphitizing or pre-heat
treatment of welded joints. For normalizing, the temperature is maintained above
885925 C. This range is also known as the transformation range. The holding time
recommended for gray cast iron at normalizing temperature is around 1 hour per 25 mm
of maximum section thickness. Alloying elements, such as chromium, molybdenum,
and nickel, enhance the increase in strength caused by normalizing.
The heat treatments normally applicable to gray cast iron are stress relieving,
annealing, and normalizing. The hard and brittle white cast iron can be converted
into ductile and strong malleable iron through heat treatment.
Practice Questions
1. An industry manufactures paper-cutting machines. They use a large
steel plate in which one of the four edges, the cutting edge, needs to
be much harder than the other three edges. How can this be achieved?
2. Many automobile parts are heat treated to increase the hardness, and
then machined using a grinding machine. Do you expect the hardness
to disappear upon machining?
6.3 Heat Treatment of NonFerrous Alloys

The objectives of heat treating nonferrous objects are to relieve internal stress resulting
from forming, brazing, or welding. In addition, this process gives a uniform structure to
castings by allowing diffusion to take place throughout the metal object. In this section,
heat treatment processes for different alloys are discussed.
The heat treatment processes common to non-ferrous alloys and ferrous alloys are
annealing and stress relieving. In addition, precipitation heat treatment is used for some
non-ferrous alloys. This process results in increasing the hardness as well as the strength
of non-ferrous alloys.
6.3.1 Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys

heat treatment.
Aluminum is a white, lightweight, lustrous, and corrosion-resistant metal. It is ductile,

malleable, and nonmagnetic. Aluminum, when combined with various percentages of
other metals, such as copper, manganese, and magnesium, form the aluminum alloys
that are used in aircraft construction. Aluminum alloys are lightweight and strong, but
they are not the corrosion-resistant of pure aluminum.
The two types of heat treatments applicable to aluminum alloys are:
! Solution treatment and natural aging

! Precipitation hardening
Solution Treatment
The solution treatment consists of heating the metal to the temperature required for the
alloy constituents to go into a solid solution. To complete the formation of the solid
solution, often the metal is held at a high temperature for a sufficient time, and then
quenched rapidly in cold water to retain this condition. The temperature for
heat treating is usually chosen as high as possible without danger of exceeding the
melting point of any element of the alloy. This is necessary to obtain the maximum
improvement in mechanical properties. If the maximum specified temperature is

exceeded, eutectic melting will occur. The consequence will be inferior physical
properties, and usually a severely blistered surface. If the temperature of the heat
treatment is low, maximum strength will not be obtained. The alloy is quenched to
complete the solution treatment process. The methods of quenching are categorized as:
Cold water quenching: Small objects made from sheet, extrusions, tubing, and
small fairings are normally quenched in cold water.
Hot water quenching: Large forgings and heavy sections can be quenched in
hot or boiling water. This type of quench is used to minimize distortion and
cracking, which are produced by the unequal temperatures obtained during the
quenching operation. The hot water quench reduces residual stresses, which
improves resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
Spray quenching: Water sprays are used to quench objects formed from sheets
and large sections of most alloys. The main advantages for using this method
are minimum distortion and reduced quench cracking.
Precipitation Hardening
Heat treatable non-ferrous alloys exist in a two-phase structure. If this alloy is heated to
a high temperature, below the melting point of the alloy, a solid solution of the metal is
created. All the atoms of the alloying element are dissolved in this solution. The alloy
can now be quenched to room temperature to form a super-saturated solid solution. This
solid solution is however, unstable, and the atoms of the alloying element tend to
precipitate. This leads to a significant increase in the strength and hardness of the alloy.
A fine scale precipitation occurs in a period of few days to few months or even years at
room temperature. This phenomenon is called natural aging. After quenching, instead of
permitting time for natural aging, if the alloy is reheated to a temperature of about 1250
C, the increase in hardness and strength takes place in a few hours. This process is also
known as artificial aging. The initial phase of heating and quenching is known as
solution treatment and the entire process is called precipitation hardening.
Apart from the processes discussed above, aluminum alloys do not lend themselves
to any other heat treatment.
Certain alloys develop their full strength from the solution treatment, while others
require precipitation hardening for maximum strength.
Table 6.1 lists the different temper designations assigned to aluminum alloys
subsequent to heat treatments.
Temper Designations
T1
Description
Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and naturally aged to a
stable condition. This designation applies to products that are not cold worked
after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process, or in which cold
work in flattening or straightening has no effect on mechanical properties.
T2
Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process, cold worked, and

naturally aged to a stable condition. This designation applies to products that are
cold worked to improve strength after cooling from an elevated temperature
shaping process, or in which cold work in flattening or straightening does have
an effect on mechanical properties.
T3
Solution heat treated, cold worked, and naturally aged to a stable condition. This
designation applies to products that are cold worked to improve strength after
solution heat treatment, or in which cold work in flattening or straightening does
have an effect on mechanical properties.
T4
Solution heat treated and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition. This
designation applies to products that are not cold worked after solution heattreatment or in which cold work in flattening or straightening does not affect
mechanical properties.
T5
Cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process and then artificially aged.
This designation applies to products that are not cold worked after cooling from
an elevated temperature shaping process or in which cold work in flattening or
straightening does not affect mechanical properties.
T6
Solution heat treated and then artificially aged. This designation applies to
products that are not cold worked after solution heat treatment or in which cold
work in flattening or straightening does not affect mechanical properties.
T7
Solution heat treated and over aged/stabilized. This designation applies to

products that are artificially aged after solution heat treatment to carry them
beyond a point of maximum strength to provide control of some significant
characteristic other than mechanical properties.
Table 6.1: Heat Treatment Designations for Aluminum Alloys
6.3.2 Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys

heat treatment.
Magnesium (wrought and cast) alloys are commonly used in aerospace industries
because of their low density (1.8 gm/cc), high strength to weight ratio, good damping
capacity, machinability, and relatively high thermal and electrical conductivities. These
alloys are given the shape of the final product by using the casting, forging and
extrusion processes.
Wrought forms of magnesium alloys are used in aircraft fuel tanks, ducts, wings and
flaps in the form of sheets. The extrusions are used in seat frames. Forgings are used in
applications such as aircraft engine-bearing caps, housings and arm supports.
Heat treatment of magnesium alloys is done to improve mechanical properties or to
relieve internal stresses produced during solidification. Internal stresses are generated
during cold and hot working, shaping, and forming of wrought alloys. The heat
treatments commonly carried out for wrought and cast magnesium alloys are:
! Annealing and stress relieving

! Solution heat treatment
! Precipitation hardening
Solution treatment improves the strength of the alloys and gives very good toughness
and shock resistance to several magnesium alloys. Precipitation hardening after solution
treatment of magnesium alloys further improves hardness and strength, while toughness
is decreased by a marginal extent. Annealing of wrought products is beneficial because
it improves the plasticity of the alloy while reducing the strength. This makes the alloy
suitable for fabrication operations. The temper designation for magnesium alloys is the
same as the one adopted for aluminum alloys.
6.3.3 Heat Treatment of Copper and its Alloys

heat treatment.
Copper and its alloys find wide uses, such as electrical conductors, fuel and oil lines,
bearings, automobile radiators, and pressure vessels. They are good electrical
conductors, have reasonable strength, good corrosion resistance, and are nonmagnetic.
Heat treatment processes, which are relevant to copper, and copper alloys are
homogenizing, annealing, and stress relieving.
Homogenizing is carried out at high temperatures for 310 hours. Alloys exist as super
solutions that undergo slow freezing to result in a homogeneous, stable structure.
Homogenizing is required particularly for alloys that need a long time to freeze.
Examples of such alloys are tin bronzes, copper-nickel, and silicon bronzes. Alloys need
a long time to freeze because they have a partially frozen structure, which results in
non-uniformity of properties in different parts of the alloy. Therefore, homogenization
brings uniformity in the structure of the alloy and improves the hot and cold ductility of
the alloys.
The purpose of annealing is to achieve the original ductility and softness in cold-worked
copper. Annealing is carried out at around 600 C. After holding the object at this
temperature for an adequate time, copper is quenched in cold water. Although annealing
above 600 C does not have any significant effect on copper, it causes grain coarsening,
which is undesirable because it reduces ductility.
Stress relieving is carried out below annealing temperature; it relieves internal stresses.
In general, for wrought copper alloys, stress-relieving temperatures vary from 190 C to
260 C.
The heat treatments applicable to copper alloys are homogenization, annealing, and
stress relieving.
6.3.4 Heat Treatment of Nickel Alloys

heat treatment.
Nickel is a metal having good resistance to corrosion and oxidation. The electrical
conductivity of nickel is low when compared with copper and aluminum. Nickel finds
wide application in applications where high resistance to corrosion and oxidation is
required.
The following heat treatment processes are commonly applied to nickel and its alloys:
!
!
!
!
!
Annealing
Stress relieving
Stress equalizing
Solution treating
Age hardening
Annealing
This treatment is applied to nickel alloy objects to produce a recrystallized grain
structure. Annealing is also done to soften the work hardened nickel alloys. Annealing
temperature for nickel alloys varies from 700 C to 1,200 C, depending on alloy
composition and extent of work hardening.
Stress Relieving
Stress relieving is applied to work hardened and non-age hardenable nickel alloys to
remove or minimize residual stresses. This treatment does not produce a recrystallized
grain structure. Stress relieving temperature varies from 430 C to 870 C. This depends
on the composition and degree of work hardening.
Stress Equalizing
This is a low-temperature heat treatment process and is applied to nickel and its alloys
to balance stresses in cold-worked metal or alloy without appreciably affecting the
mechanical properties of the cold-worked material.
Solution Treating
This heat treatment is applied to age hardenable nickel alloys (only some nickel alloys
are age hardenable) before aging. Age hardening constituents and carbides diffuse into
solid solution because of this treatment.
Age Hardening
This treatment is done on those nickel alloys in which natural aging takes a very long
time. Age hardening is carried out at a temperature between 430 C and 870 C to
obtain maximum strength in the minimum time possible by precipitation of a dispersed
phase in the matrix.
Heat treatments applicable to nickel alloys are annealing, stress relieving, stress
equalizing, solution treating, and age hardening.
6.4 Cleaning
Cleaning operations are performed before and after the finishing operations. They are
primarily used to remove surface contaminants that affect the life of the product.
Examples of contaminants are pigmented drawing compounds, unpigmented oil, grease,
chips, cutting fluids, rust, scale, polishing compounds, and buffing compounds.
Cleaning a surface before applying a finishing process is vital to ensure a clean surface
so that the finish can adhere. There are a number of different cleaning techniques and
processes available. The selection of a cleaning process is mainly influenced by the type
of contaminants, degree of cleanliness required, allowable metal loss, shape and size of
workpieces, production requirement, available equipment, and cost involved.
Cleaning processes can be broadly classified as:
! Mechanical cleaning
! Chemical cleaning
6.4.1 Mechanical Cleaning

Identify the steps in various mechanical cleaning processes.
Mechanical cleaning is performed by physically loosening and segregating

contaminants from the metal surface through abrasive action. Chemical cleaners are
used to assist mechanical cleaning to remove all classes of rust and scale from
mill-products, forged objects, casting products, weld remains, and heat-treated objects.
Mechanical cleaning can also be used for decorative purposes, such as polishing.
Basic cleaning processes include mechanical cleaning and chemical cleaning

processes.
The methods of mechanical cleaning include:
!
!
!
!
!
Abrasive blast cleaning

Tumbling
Barrel rolling
Power brushing
Mechanical polishing and buffing
Abrasive Blast Cleaning

This method is widely used for removing all classes of scale and rust from forgings,
castings, weld remains, and heat-treated objects. At times, blasting is used to remove the
major portion of scale, and pickling is employed to remove the remainder.
In this process, the objects are cleaned by the use of abrasives such as sand, steel grit, or
shot, by propelling them against the surfaces to be cleaned. First, the abrasive is fed
from an overhead storage hopper to the center of a rotating wheel, then the metallic shot
or grit is hurled in a controlled stream upon the work to be cleaned. All traces of sand,
scale, oxides, and other material are removed down to the virgin metal, providing an
excellent surface for bonding final finishes.
Some cleaning is performed by means of a high-velocity air blast. In many cases, an
airless blast machine may be used to clean by impact. Another machine used for scale
removal is the airless blast machine. This machine is used to clean engine blocks,
crankshafts, castings of different shape and size, railroad cars, car wheels, oil and gas
pipes, and steel strips.
Tumbling
Tumbling is an economical process for removing rust and scale. The configuration and
size of metal objects to be cleaned are primary limitations of the process. Tumbling in
dry abrasives is effective for removing rust and scale from small objects of simple
shapes. However, objects with complex shape, deep recess, and other irregularities
cannot be de-scaled uniformly by tumbling. It may require several hours of tumbling to
remove the rust and scale from the complex-shaped metal objects. The addition of
de-scaling compounds during tumbling often decreases the tumbling time by 75 percent.
The operation is accomplished by placing workpieces in a drum or barrel, together with
stars, jacks, slugs, or abrasive materials. The abrasive materials can be sand, granite
chips, slag, or aluminum oxide pellets. In operation, the barrel is rotated; the movement
of the workpieces and the friction between the accompanying slugs or abrasive material
together produces a fine cutting action that removes the fins, flashes, and scale from the
products.
Barrel Rolling
Barrel rolling and tumbling are quite similar operations, except that the barrel is loaded
only to 40 to 60 percent capacity; in tumbling, a drum is generally packed nearly full. In
barrel rolling, abrasives, such as cinders, slag, granite chips, sharp sand, or
carborundum, are placed in the barrel with the workpieces, along with water or a dilute
acid solution. This is also called wet rolling. Sometimes, mineral matter or scrap
punchings are added to the wet rolling to increase the abrasive action.
Power Brushing
Brushing is commonly used to remove light rust or loosely adhering scale. This process
is better suited for workpieces formed from tubing and is not preferred for objects made
from casting and forgings. Power brushing methods are also used for metal finishing
operations. An advantage of the power brush is its flexibility, as it can be used in
manual, semiautomatic, and integrated methods.
Machine Polishing and Buffing

Polishing usually makes metal smoother and produces a uniform surface. The function
of the buffing operation, on the other hand, is to produce a smooth, uniform surface
with a brilliant luster.
Semiautomatic machines are commonly used for machine polishing and buffing. These
machines carry a series of polishing and buffing wheels that can be adjusted to different
positions so that all surfaces of the object can either be polished or buffed as required.
The compounds and wheels selected are governed by the shape of the object, the
material used to fabricate the product, and the appearance of the product.
Commonly used polishing wheels are made of canvas, muslin, felt, and leather, whereas
buffs are flexible wheels made of cotton cloth, canvas, linen, flannel or wool discs.
Buffing compounds can either be greaseless or have a grease base. A greaseless
compound consists of a mixture of glue base, a softening agent, and a mineral. Grease
buffing compounds use oil, tallow, and other bonds.
Mechanical cleaning processes are abrasive blast cleaning, tumbling, barrel rolling,
power brushing and, polishing & buffing.
6.4.2 Chemical Cleaning

Identify steps in various chemical cleaning processes.
Chemical cleaning, such as alkaline pickling, acid pickling, emulsified solvent cleaning,
electrolytic cleaning, vapor degreasing, and ultrasonic cleaning are generally used to
ensure clean objects and surfaces before the finish is applied. They may be used
individually or in combination, depending upon the materials to be cleaned and the
effects required.
Alkaline Cleaning
Alkaline cleaning is the most commonly used cleaning process. In this process, oil and
grease are removed by using alkali. For example, mineral, lard, and unpigmented
compounds are easily removed by alkaline cleaners.
In this process, a bath is prepared from cleaning agents such as caustic soda or sodium
metasilicate. These materials are added to soap to aid emulsification. This mixture
produces an alkali, which serves as the cleaning agent. This process is used on all
metals except zinc, lead, tin, brass, and aluminum. This is because these metals are
corroded by alkali. On assemblies comprising dissimilar metals, the presence of alkaline
solution in crevices may result in galvanic corrosion and even contamination of the
paint and phosphate coating. Therefore, metal objects are rinsed thoroughly after
cleaning.
Acid Pickling
Acid pickling is a common method of removing unwanted pigments of metal oxides. In
this method, diluted sulfuric, hydrochloric, or phosphoric acid is sprayed on the object,
or the object is dipped into a tank. The contents of the tank are then agitated, washed,
and rinsed thoroughly. Alkaline cleaning of the object must be done to remove all dirt
and oils and to uniformly remove oxides during the pickling process. Sometimes, it is
necessary to add pickling inhibitors, such as detergents, liquid glycol, and ether to
decrease the effect of acid upon the metal.
Acid pickling is also used to remove oil, grease, and light rust. Acid cleaners, on the
other hand, are chemically limited in their ability to remove polishing and buffing
compound. Soaps and other acid-hydrolyzable materials present in these compounds are
decomposed by acid cleaners into insoluble materials. The presence of these materials
prevent the use of acid pickling in most instances.
Acid cleaning of steel objects creates hydrogen, which is absorbed by the steel and
causes hydrogen embrittlement. The hydrogen in the steel is reduced by heating the
object after pickling. The maintenance cost is high and working conditions are
unhealthy because splash and vapors from the acid solution corrode equipment and
tanks.
Emulsified Solvent Cleaning

Solvent cleaning is used on metals such as zinc, lead, and aluminum because their
surfaces are susceptible to alkaline cleaner attacks. Solvent cleaning is primarily done to
remove oil and grease. In this process, an organic solvent is mixed with a hydrocarbonsoluble emulsifying agent. The agent may be a soap and kerosene mixture with a small
amount of water or mixture of sulfonated castor oil and water. Cleaning is performed by
dipping the workpiece in the solution and then rinsing. Workpieces with heavy deposits
of oil and grease are soaked in this solution or the solution is swabbed on heavily
contaminated areas. The workpiece is then rinsed in hot water, preferably by the means
of pressure spray, allowing the solvent to be flushed away.
Workpieces that need to be electroplated should be treated with alkaline cleaner to

remove any residual organic material.
Electrolytic Cleaning
Electrolytic cleaning is an effective final cleaning process for removing oil and grease
from machined surfaces when a high degree of cleanness is required. Electrolyte
cleaning is usually done as final cleaning of steel objects before electroplating.
In electrolytic cleaning, an alkaline cleaning solution is used and electric current is
passed through the bath in which the steel object an anode or cathode that is to be
cleaned is immersed. Oxygen is emitted at the positive pole and hydrogen at the
negative pole of the electrolytic cell. The material from which the object is made and
the type of cleaning action desired determine whether the object should be made the
anode or cathode. Objects made of soft metals, such as lead, zinc, and tin, must
necessarily be cleaned using a cathode. This is because these objects can become badly
etched if cleaned anodically. Steel may be cleaned anodically or cathodically. Anodic
cleaning of steel is preferred because there is no embrittlement or smut deposition. A
grater amount of gas is liberated at the cathode than at the anode, and the hydrogen
causes a reducing action on the oxides present on the metal surface. The electrolytic
action, however, breaks up the oil film adhering to the metal surface and results in a
chemically clean surface, which is suitable for plating.
During electrolytic cleaning, chlorides must be carefully avoided and the soap
content must be low otherwise there can be excessive foaming and the danger of an
explosion.
Vapor Degreasing
Vapor degreasing is an effective and commonly used method of removing a wide
variety of oils and greases. Vapor degreasing is especially effective for removing
soluble material from crevices, where other cleaners may be permanently entrapped.
Vapor degreasing is particularly useful in cleaning oil-impregnated objects such as
bearings and for removing solvent or soluble oils from storage tanks.
In the vapor degreasing process, a trichloroethylene solution is heated to its boiling
point. A vapor is produced, and the object to be cleaned is suspended in this vapor. The
condensation of the vapor on the object removes the grease and oil.
Ultrasonic Cleaning
In this process, ultrasonic vibrations are transmitted in a liquid stored in the cleaning
tank. A typical ultrasonic cleaning facility has a generator for producing electric energy,
a transducer for converting the electric impulses into high frequency sound waves, and a
tank for holding the cleaning fluid into which transducer transmits its sound energy. The
metal objects to be cleaned are placed in this cleaning tank. The ultrasonic vibrations
break down the dirt and grease clinging to solid metal objects. This phenomenon is
called cavitation. After the dirt and grease particles are broken down, they are
emulsified and removed. For emulsification, a detergent or solvents such as
cyclohexane and trichloroethylene are added to the water in the tank.
Ultrasonic vibrations commonly have frequencies in the range of 30,000 Hz. Ultrasonic
cleaning is, however, more expensive than other methods because of the initial cost of
equipment and higher maintenance cost. Consequently, this process is largely restricted
to applications in which other methods have proved inadequate or unsuitable.
Chemical cleaning processes are alkaline cleaning, acid pickling, emulsified

solvent cleaning, electrolytic cleaning, vapor degreasing, and ultrasonic cleaning.
6.4.3 Finishing
Identify the steps in the various finishing processes.
The objective of the finishing process is to provide the desired surface texture, luster,
and color to the final product. The design of a product includes the specifications of the
surface finish of the final product. For example, the product can have paint as the
surface finish. The finish required for a product decides the pre-manufacturing
processes that the product must undergo. For example, if the final product requires a
fine enamel finish, the manufacturing process needs to ensure a smooth surface of the
product. Metal finishing usually involves a combination of metal cleaning operations,
metal deposition operations and numerous finishing operations. Mechanical, chemical,

and electrochemical processes are used to finish metal workpieces.
Various types of finishes are applied to metal products. The common types are
discussed in this section.
Metallic Coatings
Metallic coatings can be applied by electroplating, or by using hot dipping processes,
such as galvanizing, colorizing, phosphate coating, or anodizing and spraying of molten
metal. Metallic coatings are used to provide a decorative finish, protection against
corrosion, and resistance to wear. They also serve as a base for painting to provide
reflectant surface, and to provide a thermally or electrically conductive surface.
Electroplating
Electroplating is described as a process of covering a surface or object, usually metallic,
with a thin adherent coating of the same or other metal by electrolysis. The form and
details of the original object are retained.
Essential elements of a plating process are the cathode, anode, electrolyte, and direct
current at low voltage. The workpieces are connected electrically to the cathode bar.
The anode bars are suspended plates of metal that is to be deposited on the metal object.
The solution contains dissolved salts of the metal used for plating. The surface coating
metal contained in the anode passes through the electrolyte and is deposited on the
metal object, which forms the cathode.
As the electric current is passed through the circuit, metallic ions migrate to the cathode.
These ions, on losing their charge, are deposited as metal on the cathode. The current
density largely determines the rate at which the metal is deposited. Plating metals are
chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, and tin. Precious metals, such as silver, gold,
platinum, and rhodium are also applied by plating. Chromium plating is widely used
because of its mirror-like finish and its resistance to corrosion and wear.
The technique of electroplating is the same for all metals, although there are certain
variations. Since electro-deposited metal adheres firmly only to a clear surface, the need
for thorough cleaning of the objects to be plated is of fundamental importance.
Hot Dipping
Hot dipping is a rapid, economical process used to form a coating of corrosion-resistant
metals into base metals by dipping them in a molten bath. The process is widely used
for coating zinc on iron and steel. Occasionally, tin, lead, and aluminum coatings are
also used as coating metals. Galvanizing, tin coating, and calorizing are examples of hot
dipping process.
Anodizing
The objective of anodizing is to oxidize the surface layer of metals, such as aluminum.
This oxide layer forms a chemically inert coating on the metal object, thus providing it a
stable, lasting finish. Anodizing requires the presence of an electrolyte that allows the
flow of electrons between the two electrodes. The electrolytes are usually aqueous
solution of sulfuric acid, oxalic acid, and chromic acid. The cathode is made of either
lead or graphite. The anode is an aluminum workpieces to be coated or anodized.
The coatings, or oxide film, formed on the surface of aluminum is made due to the
reaction of the anode and electrolyte. When the current is applied through the
electrolyte, oxygen is liberated at the surface of the anode, and bubbles rise up to the
surface of the electrolyte. The released oxygen impinges on the aluminum and causes
the formation of an oxide. The oxide layer has a cellular structure created as a direct
result of the oxidation process. Unlike electroplating, the oxide layer is a part of the
metal object and the finish is a permanent part of the original base material.
Metal Spraying
Metal spraying is the process of treating, coating, or impregnating the workpiece with a
metal. Metal spraying includes the preparation of the base metal, spraying the finish
metal on the workpiece, and applying a finish on the surface by methods, such as
grinding.
Metal spraying involves melting the coating metal using an oxy-gas flame. The molten
metal is then sprayed on the metal object from the nozzle of a spray gun. This molten
metal is accelerated to a high speed by a jet of compressed air, atomized and hurled
against the workpiece. When the tiny particles of the molten metal touch the cool
surface, the particles flatten out and freeze quickly, forming a surface coat on the metal
object.
The sprayed metal adheres to a surface by mechanical bonding, so it is important that
the application surface is roughened and is free of dirt, oil and grease. The surface can
be roughened by machining coarse grooves on it and breaking these grooves using a
knurling tool. Additionally, a course thread can be put on a round piece. In addition,
screws or studs can be inserted anchors in the application surface. Large, flat surfaces
can be roughened by blasting with steel grit.
Spraying modifies the physical property of a surface. For example, the combustion
chamber of a jet engine is sprayed with stainless steel to improve corrosion resistance.
A coat of high carbon steel is applied to impart abrasion resistance and heat resistance is
improved by applying a layer of zirconium oxide on the metal surface. Metal spraying
can also be done to restore the correct dimensions of metal objects that have worn out or
eroded with use.
Plastic Coatings
Metal surfaces that need protection from corrosion can be coated with plastics because
of the anticorrosive characteristics of plastic. Chemical plant equipment, tanks,
pipelines, valve bodies are the common applications that are coated with plastic to
protect them from corrosive environment. Some applications of plastic-coated metals
are beverage cans, water-treatment plants, and decorative metal furniture.
The methods employed for coating the plastics on metals are:
Dipping
Spraying
Depositing
Dipping
The different methods of dipping are:
! Liquid plastisol method: This method forms a coat of Poly-Vinyl Chloride (PVC)
on the metal object by cross-linking. The article to be coated is heated and then
dipped into a tank of cold liquid PVC. The heat causes the plasticizer and polymer
to cross-link and form a gelatinous deposit. A coating thickness of 12 mm can be
achieved by this method.
! Fine powder method: The heated object is dipped into a gas-agitated bed of fine
powder. The object is further heated to fuse the coated particles to obtain a smooth
layer. This method is used for coating a large variety of plastics, such as polythene,
nylon, and some grades of PVC.
Spraying
The different methods of spraying are:
! Electrostatic spraying: Powder spray gun employed in this method is applied with a
high-voltage source so that particles impelled at a high velocity acquire a high
charge. The object to be coated is earthed so that it attracts the charged particles.
The powder produces an envelope on the entire object as soon as it is earthed, and
as a result, the layers of the deposit increase. The coated object is then heated to
form a continuous film.
! Flame spraying: A powder of 60-mesh size is agitated and forced through a flame
in front of a spray gun that is surrounded by an inert gas shield. The powder is
heated by convection instead of a passage through the flame itself. This avoids
denaturing of the powder. The molten globules of plastic fall on the surface to be
coated.
Depositing
This process involves the method of vacuum coating. In this method, vacuum is used to
draw the powder on to the surface of the preheated articles. The powder forms a
fluidized bed. Vacuum is created in this fluidized bed. The absence of air during this
process yields a coating having no air entrapped in it. Penton and nylon powder can be
used in this method.
Organic Finishes
An organic finish consists of coating a surface with a continuous film of an organic
material. This film is applied for protecting the surface from corrosive influences, for
enhancing the appearance, or a combination of both. This finish does not allow the
holding of close-dimensional tolerance and has low resistance to abrasion. This family
of organic coatings includes paints, enamels, varnishes, lacquer, shellac, and rubber
base coatings, used along with synthetic resins, rubber, and linseed oil.
Organic finishes are applied by brushing, spraying electro-coating, and dipping, and
through the centrifugal process. In all these methods, a prime coat is first applied
followed by a light sanding to form a surface for good cohesion.
Practice Question
1. Many metal surfaces that you see in restaurants and show rooms have
mirror-like finishes. How is this finish obtained?
Case Study 1
Analyze the impact of using a specific metal in a given situation.
Carl Abraham bought a heat treatment shop and invited heat treatment contacts. Home
Need Inc., a department store, wanted 100 pieces of lamp shades made of pure
aluminum to be heat treated for increasing their strength. Can Carl take up the work and
get the strength enhanced?
Analysis
The task involves analyzing the impact of using pure aluminum to make lampshades.
Requirement:
! 100 pieces of aluminum lamp shades

! Heat treated for increasing strength
Characteristic of Pure Aluminum

Pure aluminum is not amenable for any heat treatment. However, if an alloy of
aluminum is used, there is a possibility of increase in strength through heat treatment.
Result
Carl should not take up the job because the strength of pure aluminum cannot be
enhanced by heat treatment.
Case Study 2
Analyze the cause of failure and identify an appropriate solution.
An automotive shop in Pittsburgh buys cast iron cylinder liners, machines them, and
sells the machined parts. The buyer insists on a hardness of 200 BHN on the machined
surfaces. In one batch, the average hardness was only 170 BHN. Therefore, the foreman
performed a hardening heat treatment, which involved soaking the parts at 750 C and
quenching in water. All the castings developed cracks. What has gone wrong and what
is the solution?
Analysis
The task involves analyzing the cause of cracking during heat treatment and identifying
a solution.
Heat Treatment
Hardening heat treatment is meant only for ductile materials, such as steel. Cast iron is
brittle, which means that it has zero ductility. Therefore, quenching develops stress,
which leads to the cracking of the object.
Solution
To ensure that the stress does not lead to cracking, you need to apply a stress-relieving
process after quenching. This requires holding the cast iron object at the temperature
range of 538 to 590 C.
Case Study 3
Given a situation, identify the cause of failure and an appropriate solution.
ABC surface textures Inc. use metal spraying for final finishing of steel objects after
completing all the cleaning processes. Recently, they are experiencing complaints of
surface cracks and finish chipping off. Identify the cause of problem and an appropriate
solution.
Analysis
The sprayed metal adheres to a surface by mechanical bonding, so it is important that
the application surface is roughened and is free of dirt, oil and grease. In case the
application surface is smooth, the applied finish does not adhere strongly to it. The
surface finish forms a separate layer that might chip off or crack after some time.
Solution
ABC surface textures Inc. needs to prepare the application surface before applying the
surface finish. The application surface can be roughened by machining coarse grooves
on it and breaking these grooves using a knurling tool. Additionally, a course thread can
be put on a round piece. In addition, screws or studs can be inserted anchors in the
application surface. Large, flat surfaces can be roughened by blasting with steel grit.
Summary
! Heat treatment processes are classified into seven categories based on the object
that they are used on:
Heat treatment processes for steel
Heat treatment processes for nonferrous alloys
Heat treatment processes for cast iron
Heat treatment processes for aluminum alloys
Heat treatment processes for magnesium alloys
Heat treatment processes for copper alloys
Heat treatment processes for nickel alloys
! The heat treatment processes for steel are classified as:
Softening treatments
Hardening treatments
! The heat treatment processes for cast iron are classified as:
Stress relieving
Annealing
Normalizing
! The heat treatment processes for aluminum alloys are classified as:
Solution heat treatment
Precipitation heat treatment
! The heat treatment processes for magnesium alloys are classified as:
Annealing and stress relieving
Solution heat treatment
Precipitation hardening
! The heat treatment processes for copper alloys are classified as:
Homogenizing
Annealing
Stress relieving
! The heat treatment processes for nickel alloys are classified as:
Annealing
Stress relieving
Stress equalizing
Solution treatment
Age hardening
! The types of cleaning processes are:
Mechanical cleaning
Chemical cleaning
! The types of mechanical cleaning processes are:
Abrasive blast cleaning
Tumbling
Barrel rolling
Power brushing
Polishing and buffing
! The types of chemical cleaning processes are:
Alkaline cleaning
Acid pickling
Emulsified solvent cleaning
Electrolytic cleaning
Vapor degreasing
Ultrasonic cleaning
! The types of metal finishing processes are:
Metallic coating
Plastic coating
Organic coating
Inorganic coating
Homework Exercises
1. Age hardening denotes a heat treatment applied to non-ferrous alloys, in which the
hardness increases with age, that is, with time. How does this occur?
2. Plastics cannot be heat treated like steels. Why?
3. Do you agree that vibratory finishing is superior to barrel finishing for fine finishing
of parts?
4. While performing heat treatment for steel parts, technicians make use of TTT
diagrams. What is a TTT diagram?
5. Belt finishing is a simple process, but has few drawbacks. What are these
limitations?
Lab Exercises
Objective
! Identify the steps in the various cleaning processes.
Theory
It is efficient and economical in removing oil and grease by saponification,
emulsification, or both. Mineral, lard, and unpigmented compounds are easily removed
by alkaline cleaners. Silicones, paraffin, and sulphurized, oxidized or carbonized oils
are difficult, but can be removed by alkaline cleaners.
In this process, a bath is prepared from cleaning agents, such as caustic soda or sodium
metasilicate. These materials are added to some type of soap to aid in the
emulsification. The mixture produces an alkali, which serves as the cleaning agent. This
process is used on all metals except zinc, lead, tin, brass, and aluminum. On assemblies
comprising dissimilar metals, the presence of an alkaline solution in crevices may result
in galvanic corrosion; even a trace of alkali will contaminate paint and phosphate
coating. Therefore, metal parts are thoroughly rinsed after cleaning.
Scenario
Sun Controls Inc. uses an alkaline cleaning method for final cleaning of steel gears,
pinions, and nuts. They wish to extend this to aluminum forgings and copper castings.
Do you think this is a good idea?
Analysis
Alkaline cleaning is unsuitable for aluminum and copper because it spoils the surface of
aluminum and copper objects.
Lab Exercises
Exercise 1
Solution
To clean aluminum and copper castings, you can use air blast or power brushing. This is
because both these metals cannot withstand vigorous abrasive actions or chemical
cleaning.

S. No.
Task
Completed
Yes
1.
Identified the steps in the various cleaning

processes
No
Exercise 2
! Identify the steps in the various cleaning processes.
Theory
It is efficient and economical in removing oil and grease by saponification,
emulsification, or both. Mineral, lard, and unpigmented compounds are easily removed
by alkaline cleaners. Silicones, paraffin, and sulphurised, oxidized or carbonized oils are
difficult, but can be removed by alkaline cleaners.
In this process, a bath is prepared from cleaning agents, such as caustic soda or sodium
metasilicate. These materials are added to some type of soap to aid in the
emulsification. The mixture produces an alkali, which serves as the cleaning agent. This
process is used on all metals except zinc, lead, tin, brass, and aluminum. On assemblies
comprising dissimilar metals, the presence of an alkaline solution in crevices may result
in galvanic corrosion; even a trace of alkali contaminates paint and phosphate coating.
Therefore, metal parts are thoroughly rinsed after cleaning.
Scenario
ABC Inc. manufactures gears. On receiving complaints that the gear teeth were wearing
out too fast, they decided to increase the hardness of the gears by heat treatment.
However, this increase led to further complaints that the gears were brittle and cracked
when put under load. Analyze this problem and suggest solutions.
Procedure
Step 1
First, you list the impact of heat treatment.
Heat treatment increases the hardness but makes the metal brittle.
Step 2
Next, list the properties that a gear must exhibit. The properties that gear teeth must
exhibit are:
! Good wear resistance

! Good loading strength
List the features of the possible treatments used for achieving these properties.
Lab Exercises
Objective
Diffusion and laser beam hardening processes are possible heat treatment methods.
Diffusion hardening is the process of increasing the hardness of steel by increasing
carbon content in the alloy. This is done by diffusing carbon into the alloy through the
surface. This method is desirable because it allows for a hard surface with good wear
properties.
In this process, a phosphate coating is applied over the steel object to facilitate
absorption of the laser energy. The selected areas of the object are exposed to laser
energy, causing them to heat. By varying the power of the laser, the depth of heat
absorption can be controlled. This process is very precise in applying heat selectively to
the areas, such as gear teeth, that need to be heat-treated.
Decision
To produce gears that have good wear resistance and good loading strength, you need to
selectively harden the teeth while maintaining the property of the core. For selective
hardening, you need to use laser beam hardening.

S. No.
Task
Completed
Yes
1.
Identified the steps in the various cleaning

processes
No
Inspection and
Quality Control
Identify the basic principles of the types of inspection
Discuss the concepts of tolerances and fits
Identify the common measurable variables for

controlling quality
Identify the applicability of common measuring

instruments and systems
Identify the applicability of common inspection gauges
Identify the basic principles and applications of

nondestructive testing methods
Given a situation, select an appropriate solution
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Basics of Inspection
and Quality Control
Processes
7.2 Inspection and Quality Control
7.1 Introduction
Objects made from a variety of materials must conform to design and quality
specifications. For example, machine components are useless if their dimensions are not
exact and if the materials with which they are constructed do not meet requirements.
Inspection and quality control enable you to ensure that the production process delivers
products per standards. Quality control inspectors use mathematical statistics to control
the dimensions in a production process. The measurement for inspection and quality
control can be based on either measurable variables or attributes of the product. You
will learn about these processes in subsequent sections.
In this chapter, you will learn how to ensure quality through inspection and
measurement and about the common methods used for measuring and controlling
quality.
Inspection and Quality Control 7.3
7.2 Basics of Inspection and

Quality Control Processes
7.2.1 Inspection
Identify the basic principles of the various types of inspection.
Inspection of finished parts is very important in industry. As equipment loads and

operating speeds are increased, fatigue cracks and other flaws in parts need to be
detected before they result in equipment failure, expense, delay, and possible injury to
operating personnel. The type of inspection varies depending on the nature of the
product, the degree of accuracy required, and the type of equipment used. Inspection
can be done either by measuring the variables or by inspecting the attributes. Inspection
by variables involves the measurement of dimensions or surface finish to ensure that
measured values fall within the range of fitness and tolerance specifications. Inspection
by attributes assesses inherent material characteristics, such as chemical composition,
presence of flaws, and internal stresses.
Inspection by Variables (Measurement)

Inspecting by variables is done directly. For example, the diameter of a pipe is
measured using a vernier caliper.
Inspection by Attributes (Gauging)

Inspecting by attributes ensures that an objects height, length, or diameter meet
requirements. For example, the angles of some objects are inspected. The base unit of
angular measurement is the degree, which is the angle formed by two radii subtending
an arc of length 1/360 of the circumference of a circle. Although degrees may be further
subdivided by fractions, the usual smaller subdivisions are minutes and seconds.
Common angular measuring instruments read the degrees directly from a circular scale
scribed on the dial or the circumference. There are also devices that require the aid of
other measuring instruments and calculations to obtain the result.
While inspecting by attributes, the behavior functionally related to object properties is

measured. This observation is used to deduce the values to be evaluated. For example,
the sine bar is used for establishing values of angles that are within close limits, hence it
cannot be measured directly.
7.2.2 Tolerance and Fits

Discuss the concepts of tolerances and fits.
Tolerance
Dimension tolerance is the difference between the maximum and minimum size limits,
or the variation of size tolerated to cover reasonable imperfections in workmanship.
Tolerance varies with different grades of work.
There are two ways of specifying tolerance:
! Bilateral tolerance
! Unilateral tolerance
Bilateral Tolerance
Bilateral tolerance is used where the size of parts may vary in size either direction from
the desired or nominal size. A bilateral system allows some tolerance on either side of
the nominal size.
For example,
1.5 + .002
.002
In this example, +.002 is the higher limit and .002 is the lower limit.
Unilateral Tolerance
Unilateral tolerance is used where dimensions may vary in only one direction, as in a
drilled hole.
For example,
1.5
+ .000
.003
In this example, the total tolerance of .003 is given on one side only.
Fits
A fit is the relation between two parts where one is inserted into the other with a certain
degree of tightness or looseness. Depending upon the actual limits of the hole or the
shaft, fits may be divided into three main classes:
! Clearance fits
! Interference fits
! Transition fits
Clearance Fits
In a clearance fit, there is a positive allowance between the largest possible shaft and the
smallest possible hole. With such fits, the minimum clearance is greater than zero.
Running clearance in crankshaft and main bearings are examples of clearance fits.
Interference Fits
In an interference fit, there is a negative allowance or interference between the largest
hole and the smallest shaft, the shaft being larger than the hole.
Transition Fits
Transition fits cover cases between the first two classes. The use of transition fits does
not guarantee either interference or a clearance. Parts mating with a transition fit may
have an interference fit or a clearance fit.
7.2.3 Measurement Variables

Identify the common measurable variables for controlling quality.
The different measurable variables used for controlling quality are:
! Linear parameters: Refer to the distance between two points on an object, such as
the length of a glass rod or its diameter.
! Angle: Measured in degrees or radians. Angular measurements are commonly

required for designs in which two edges or lines meet each other.
! Coordinates: Determine dimensional characteristics of mechanical parts.

Coordinate measurement analyzes 3-dimensional point data from part surfaces.
! Surface roughness: Measured for accuracy of a surface or the quality of surface

finish. The roughness of a surface is commonly expressed in micro inches or
micrometers. Most surface roughness measurements are carried out using a surface
plate on which the object is laid out and examined.
7.2.4 Measuring Instruments and Systems

Identify applicability of the common measuring instruments and systems.
A measuring instrument is any device that may be used to obtain a dimensional or

angular measurement. Some instruments, such as a steel rule, may be read directly.
Others such as the caliper are used for transferring or comparing dimensions. Measuring
instruments enable you to gauge:
! Linear measurement
! Angular measurement
! Surface roughness measurement
Linear Measurement
The common instruments used for linear measurement are:
! Rule and combination set

! Depth gauge
! Vernier calipers
! Micrometer
! Optical instruments
Rule and Combination Set

The combination set consists of a steel rule with a square head, a center head, and a
bevel protractor, as shown in Figure 7.1. The rule is made of tempered steel. It is twosided with ground edges. One face is typically graduated in eighths and sixteenths of an
inch, and the reverse face in thirty-seconds and sixty-fourths. With the square head
mounted on the blade, it serves as a T-square and it can be adjusted for use as a marking
gauge. Placing it on the end converts the tool into a height gauge. The head alone may
be used as a level. When the center head is mounted on the blade, the centers of all
cylindrical work can be determined.
Figure 7.1 displays the rule and combination set.
Figure 7.1: Rule and Combination Set
Depth Gauge
In this gauge, narrow steel scales are mounted on a head, which has a straight edge at
right angles to the scale. This forms the depth gauge with a scale that can be adjusted
and clamped to extend a given amount below the straight edge.
Vernier Calipers
A vernier caliper consists of a main or a beam scale with a supplementary sliding jaw,
as shown in Figure 7.2. This device consists of a main scale and a vernier scale. The
main scale is divided into inches and each inch is subdivided into tenths. Each tenth is
divided into 4 divisions, such that the smallest increment on the scale is equivalent to
1
/40 or 0.025 inch. For convenience in reading, every fourth division is numbered 1, 2,
3, 4, etc. The vernier scale that slides along the edge of the main scale is divided into 25
divisions. These 25 divisions are equal to 24 divisions on the main scale. Each division
on the vernier scale is equal to 1/25 (24*0.025) = 0.024 inch, which is 0.001 inch less
than each division of the main scale. Aligning zero lines of both scales would cause first
lines on each scale to be 0.001 inch apart, and the second lines 0.002 inches apart.
A measurement on a vernier is designated by the positions of the zero line of the vernier
and the line on the vernier that coincides with a line on the main scale. Figure 7.2 shows
a reading of 1.206 inches. The zero index of the vernier is located beyond 1.20 on the
main scale, and the sixth line on the vernier scale coincides with a line on the main scale
indicating that the zero index is 0.006 inches beyond the 1.200 line.
Thus 1.200 + 0.006 = 1.206 inches
10
15
20
25
Figure 7.2: Vernier Reading Calculation
Figure 7.3 shows a vernier caliper.
Graduated Beam
Clamp Screws
Fine Adjustment
Jaws
Nibs
Figure 7.3: Vernier Caliper
The vernier caliper is a precision instrument that measures lengths to an accuracy of

0.05 millimeters (mm). In a vernier caliper, there are two scales in combination with a
slight difference between them. This makes it possible to measure dimensions with
accuracy equal to the difference between the two scales. There are two types of vernier
calipers:
! Outside vernier caliper: The outside vernier caliper is used for measuring outside
dimensions of an object, such as the diameter of a solid sphere. The main scale is
engraved on an L-shaped frame with a fixed jaw at one end. A sliding jaw is
coupled on the main scale. When the two measuring surfaces are in contact with
each other, the scale reads zero.
! Inside vernier caliper: The inside vernier caliper is used for measuring the inside
dimensions of an object, such as the internal diameter of a steel pipe. The inside
vernier caliper is constructed similar to an outside vernier caliper, except that it has
the measuring surfaces on the outer side of the fixed and movable jaws.
Micrometer
The micrometer is a precision instrument that measures linear dimensions. This
measuring instrument makes it possible to inspect tapered parts more efficiently than
with older methods. A micrometer consists of a screw and a nut, both with accurately
cut threads. The screw advances, with respect to the nut, by a distance equal to the
length of the thread after a complete rotation of the thimble.
A micrometer caliper is shown in Figure 7.4.

012
Figure 7.4: A Micrometer Caliper
Depending on the type of dimension measured, the micrometers may be of two types:
! External micrometer: Has a U-shaped frame with an anvil on one end and a barrel
or a sleeve at the other end. A thimble surrounding the barrel is attached to the right
end of the spindle. The unattached faces of the anvil and the spindle form the
measuring faces of the micrometer. The barrel has the main scale with markings in
millimeters. The vernier scale is in the form of a circular scale on the thimble.
The least count of a micrometer is given by:
Least count = Distance moved by the screw for one revolution of the thimble
The number of divisions on the circular scale
The screws of a standard micrometer have a lead of 1/40 or 0.025 inch, so that one
complete revolution of the thimble produces a spindle movement of this amount.
The graduated scale on the barrel of the instrument is divided into tenths of an inch
and each tenth is further divided into four equal parts so that the smallest linear
division is 1/40 or 0.025 of an inch. Thus, one revolution of the spindle causes the
beveled edge of the thimble to move through one small division on the barrel scale.
The periphery of the beveled edge of the thimble is graduated into 25 equal
divisions. The space between two divisions represents 1/25 of a complete
revolution of the thimble or a movement of 0.001 inch.
Reading on a micrometer is obtained by adding the thimble division that is aligned

with the longitudinal barrel line to the largest reading obtained on the barrel scale.
! Inside micrometer: Used to measure internal dimensions, such as the inner diameter
of a hollow tube. This type of micrometer is available in two designs. The first
design has jaws similar to those in a vernier caliper but with the scale reading
backwards. The second design has a straight bar with a micrometer barrel. This
design permits the use of interchangeable rods that allow a wide range of
measurements.
Optical Instruments
Optical instruments are devised for inspection and measurement because they enable
you to measure parts accurately without pressure or contact. In optical gauging and
inspection instruments, you use light to make measurements. The advantages of using
optical instruments for gauging and inspection are as follows:
! No physical contact occurs between gauging elements and the inspected material.
! Two or more simultaneous measurements are possible.
! Several properties, such as dimensions, angularity, and surface quality, can be
inspected at one time.
! The accuracy of optical instruments is higher than that of physical contact

instruments.
Fiber optics can be used as an inspection tool by lighting hard-to-see places and by
viewing through a flexible probe. The Bausch and Lomb Flexiscope has a fiber optic
probe equipped with a light and a viewing head.
Angular Measurement
The common instruments used for angular measurement are:
! Protractors
! Sine bars
! Dividing heads
Protractors
The plain or universal bevel protractor measures in degrees and is used in all kinds of
work where angles are involved. The universal protractor is graduated in degrees. It also
includes a vernier scale for fine measurements. Protractors can ordinarily measure up to
5 minutes or 1/12th of a degree.
Sine Bars
A sine bar is a simple device used for accurately measuring angles. Mounted on the
centerline are two buttons of the same diameter at a known distance apart. The distance
on most sine bars is either 5 or 10 inches. For purposes of accurate measurement, the
bar must be used in connection with a true surface.
The operation of a sine bar is based on the trigonometric relationship that the sine of an
angle is equal to the opposite side divided by the hypotenuse. Measurement of the
unknown side is accomplished using a height gauge or precision blocks.
Dividing Heads
Indexes or dividing heads were originally developed for milling machines, but their use
has been extended to inspection work for checking angles around a common center.
Surface Roughness Instrument

Stylus profiles instruments, such as profilometers, measure surface roughness and are
used for the inspection of surface finish. The stylus profile instrument consists of a
stylus or a fine probe that stays in contact with the inspected surface. As the probe is
moved through the areas on the surface, the roughness in surface finish causes a vertical
movement of the stylus. This movement is then amplified electromagnetically and
recorded to measure the roughness of the inspected surface.
Figure 7.5 shows a profilometer. This is a direct reading instrument that measures the
average roughness height in micro-inches by passing a fine tracing point over the
surface. The tracer converts the vertical movements of the tracing point into a small
fluctuating voltage that is related to the height of the surface irregularity, and plotted
through a motor-driven tracer. An amplimeter receives the voltage from the tracer,
amplifies it, integrates it, and then reads it directly onto the micro-inch meter, or records
it in curve form on a recorder.
Figure 7.5: Profilometer Roughness Values
In a continuous process, the instrument shows the variation in average roughness from a
reference line, as shown in the magnified profile of a surface in Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6 displays a magnified surface profile.
Figure 7.6: Magnified Surface Profile
Figure 7.7 displays comparative surface roughness.

Roughness Height, micro-inch
Process
2000 1000 500 250
125
Flame Cutting
63
32
16
0.5
Usual Application
Occasional Application
Snagging
Sawing
Planning, Shaping
Drilling
Chemical Milling
Elect. Discharge mach.
Milling
Broaching
Reaming
Boring, Turning
Barrel Finishing
Electrolytic Grinding
Roller Burnishing
Grinding
Honing
Polishing
Lapping
Superfinishing
Figure 7.7: Comparative Surface Roughness
7.2.5 Inspection Gauges

Identify the applicability of the common inspection gauges.
Gauges are measuring devices that provide the quick measurements required in
production work. Gauges have fixed shapes or sizes to correspond to the manufactured
parts they are measuring. Gauges measure one dimension and no adjustments are
required, so inspecting a part requires little time.
Inspection gauges are of two types:
! Go and No-Go gauge

! Dial indicator
Go and No-Go Gauge

A tolerance-limit gauge is often referred to as a go and no-go gauge. Use of these
gauges is generally accepted as the most practical, accurate, and economical method of
inspecting production tolerances. Using the go and no-go gauge, you can check the
given dimensions by direct physical contact. Go and No-go gauges are always used in
pairs. One of them represents the positive side of tolerance and the other represents the
negative side. These are usually used for rapid inspection of accurately machined inside
surfaces of cylindrical and other shapes. They can also be used for tapered surfaces and
contoured surfaces. The most common go and no-go gauges are:
! Snap gauges
! Plug gauges
! Ring gauges
Snap Gauges
A snap gauge, used in the measurement of plain external dimensions, consists of a
U-shaped frame having jaws equipped with suitable gauging surfaces, as shown in
Figure 7.8. One jaw is marked Go and corresponds to the maximum allowable diameter.
The other jaw is marked No-Go and corresponds to the minimum allowable diameter.
Figure 7.8: Snap Gauge
Plug Gauges
A plug gauge is one of the most common types of fixed gauges. Plug gauges are
accurately ground cylinders used to gauge internal dimensions, such as holes. The
gauging element of a plug gauge has a single diameter. To control the minimum and
maximum limits of a given hole, two plugs are required. There are three types of plug
gauges: plain cylindrical, cylindrical taper, and thread.
The taper plug gauge measures both the angle of the taper and its size. Thread plug
gauges come in go and no-go types. The go gauge can be screwed into the threaded
holes, whereas the no-go gauge does not enter threaded holes.
Ring Gauges
Ring gauges are used to measure shafts. These are of go and no-go types. Go ring
gauges have plain knurled exteriors, but no-go ring gauges have a circumferential
groove and can be easily distinguished.
Dial Indicator
A dial indicator has a graduated dial, spindle, pointer, and a means for supporting or
clamping. Most dial indicators have a spindle travel equal to 2.5 revolutions of the
indicating pointer and are read in either 0.001 or 0.0001 in or 0.02 or 0.002 mm. The
dial is rotated by a knurled bezel ring to align the zero point with any position of the
pointer. Dial indicators should be checked often to determine if their gauge capability is
lost through wear in the gear train. A dial indicator is used as either a measuring device
or a gauge. As a measuring device, it measures inaccuracies in alignment and deviations
on surfaces meant to be parallel. In gauging, it gives a direct reading of tolerance
variations from the exact size.
7.2.6 Nondestructive Testing

Identify the basic principles and applications of the nondestructive testing methods.
Nondestructive testing does not make any change in the object being tested.
Nondestructive testing is commonly used for inspecting manufactured objects for
ensuring quality. For example, boilers are inspected using ultrasonic testing. This
ensures that the boiler conforms to specifications and can be safely used.
The following techniques are used for nondestructive testing:
! Radiography (X-rays and gamma rays)

! Ultrasonic testing
! Magnetic particle inspection
! Dye penetrant test
! Excitation test
! Photoelasticity
Radiography (X-ray and Gamma ray)

Radiographic inspection is based on the same principles and techniques as those of
medical X- rays. Shadow patterns are created when certain types of radiation penetrate
an object and are differentially absorbed due to variations in thickness, density, or
chemistry.
Various types of radiation are used for inspection. X-rays, which are a short wavelength
form of electromagnetic radiation, penetrate many materials that reflect or absorb
visible light. These rays are generated by high-voltage electrical apparatus. Gamma rays
are also electromagnetic radiation but are emitted during the disintegration of
radioactive nuclei. Many radioactive isotopes can be selected as the radiation source.
Neutron beams for radiography are derived from nuclear reactors, nuclear accelerators,
or radioisotopes. The absorption of X-rays and gamma rays depends on the thickness,
density, and atomic structure of the material being inspected. The higher the atomic
number of the material, the greater the reduction of the beam.
Figure 7.9 shows how gamma rays are used to inspect a casting.
Gamma ray source
Specimen
Film holder
Figure 7.9: Use of Gamma Rays to Inspect a Casting
Radiography has several important advantages. It:
! Probes the internal regions of a material

! Provides a permanent record of the inspection
! Can be used to determine the thickness of a material
! Is sensitive to density changes
However, it also has the following disadvantages. Radiology:
! Involves expensive equipment, film, and processing

! Is dangerous to human health
! Requires time for film processing
! Requires a high degree of operator training
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic inspection involves sending high-frequency vibrations through a material and
observing the reaction. At an interface, part of the ultrasonic wave will be reflected and
part will be transmitted. If the incident beam is at an angle to an interface between two
materials, the transmitted portion of the beam is bent to a new angle by refraction. By
receiving and interpreting the transmitted or reflected signals, ultrasonic inspection can
detect flaws within the material.
An ultrasonic inspection system begins with a pulsed oscillator and transducer. The
transducer transforms electrical energy into mechanical vibrations. The pulsed oscillator
generates alternating voltage with a principle frequency, duration, profile, and repetition
rate. This is then applied to a sending transducer, which uses a piezoelectric crystal to
convert the electrical oscillations into mechanical vibrations.
Ultrasonic testing has the following advantages:
! Can reveal internal defects

! Can be performed rapidly and produce instant results
! Can be automated and recorded
! Can penetrate dense materials
Some of the disadvantages of ultrasonic testing are:
! Difficult to use with complex shapes

! Covers a small area
Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection is based on the principle that ferromagnetic materials,
when magnetized, have distorted magnetic fields near material defects. Magnetic
particles are strongly attracted to surface regions where the flux is concentrated. This
type of inspection is simple, fast, and can reveal both surface and subsurface flaws.
However, all the parts must be clean. It requires a high current source. The material to
be inspected must be ferromagnetic.
By inducing a magnetic field within the part to be tested and applying a coating of
magnetic particles, surface cracks are made visible, the cracks in effect forming new
magnetic poles. A magnetic field is set up electrically within any part or piece of metal,
as shown in Figure 7.10. When fine particles of magnetic iron are blown (dry method)
or floated in liquid suspension (wet method) on the part, many of them are attracted or
cling to the crack and form a definite indication of its exact location, extent, and
shape.
Figure 7.10: Magnetic Particle Inspection
Dye Penetrant Test

In this test, a fluorescent or a dye penetrant is employed for locating cracks, pores, or
other surface defects in metals and nonmetals. It is suitable for nonmagnetic materials.
The surfaces of a part are brushed or sprayed with a liquid penetrant that is allowed to
enter the openings in the part. After the surplus penetrant is completely removed and the
part is dried, a developer is applied to the surface. It may be a dry powder or a liquid
that shows up the penetrant seeping put of the flaws. A fluorescent penetrant is viewed
under black light and a dye under visible light.
Excitation Test
Excitation tests are specialized testing methods used for assessing the damping capacity
and elastic properties of metals and alloys. Piezoelectric crystals are used to generate
waves for excitation. Elastosonic instruments are based on the above principle.
Although their accuracy is rather limited, they represent quick testing methods for
comparing elastic properties and for flaw detection.
Photoelasticity
Photoelasticity is a nondestructive technique used to assess materials under stress. In
this technique, stress is applied on the sample and polarized light is used to capture the
stress patterns in the sample. This test is based on the principle that under stress, a
fringe pattern is created in a photoelastic material. The pattern is similar to a Moire
pattern. The pattern of distortion depends on the material and the stress applied to it. By
recording these patterns, the stress behavior of the sample can be determined.
Table 7.1 displays the types of nondestructive tests.
Type of Nondestructive
Features
Common Applications
Test
Radiography (X-ray and
Gamma ray)
Probes the internal regions of a material

Provides a permanent record of the
inspection
Can be used to determine the thickness
of a material
Is sensitive to density changes and
involves expensive equipment, film, and
processing
Suitable for portable inspection

tool for construction site working
Used for inspection of machines
and parts, such as industrial
boilers, welding joints, and ships
Can be used for inspection of
almost all types of materials, such
as welds, castings, and
composites
Is dangerous to human health

Requires time for film processing
Requires a high degree of operator
training
Ultrasonic testing
Reveals internal defects

Can be performed rapidly and produces
instant results
Used for testing in-process,

semi-finished products, and formed
pieces
Used for inspecting tube and
Can be automated and recorded
bar- shaped parts
Can penetrate dense materials

Magnetic particle inspection
Simple and fast
Used for inspecting ferromagnetic
Can reveal both surface and subsurface

flaws
gears, forgings, castings,

broaches, machinery ways, and
Requires all the parts to be clean
landing gear struts
Requires high voltage source of
Effective method for inspection of
electricity
high volume parts, such as bolts

and screws, connecting rods, and
Can only be used for ferromagnetic
spindles
materials
Dye penetrant test
parts, such as large shafts, rods,
Simple, inexpensive, and applicable to
Effective method of detecting
complex shapes
surface defects in metals and other

nonporous material surfaces
Can detect only flaws that are open to

the surface
Excitation test
Produces results in less time
Used for assessing damping

capacity and elastic properties of
Shows limited accuracy

Photoelasticity
metals and alloys
Provides an estimate of stress behavior
Used to assess the behavior of
without destroying the sample
materials under stress
Table 7.1: Types of Nondestructive Tests
Practice Questions
1. How is a screw thread inspected?
2. Many inspection shops use a Projection Comparator. How does this
function?
3. What are precision gauge blocks and what is their use in a
manufacturing plant?
Case Study 1
Given a situation, select a suitable solution.
Scenario
A new worker in a machine shop finds the following situation.
Diameter of the shaft
2" +0.01"
0.00"
Diameter of the bearing
2" +0.02"
(To accommodate the above shaft)
0.03"
The shaft is to be fitted into the above bearing. You need to help the worker in finding a
method to fit the larger shaft into the smaller sized bearing.
Analysis
The task requires the larger shaft to be fitted into a bearing.
Constraint
To fit a shaft into a smaller bearing, the shaft should have a reduced diameter or the
bearing should be of increased size. When the size of the bearing is greater than that of
the shaft, the shaft can be fitted into the bearing. Additionally, the fit between the shaft
and the bearing should be tight enough to withstand the forces encountered at high
speeds.
Comparison
Metals expand with increase in temperature and this principle can be used to fit the shaft
into the bearing. Either the shaft should be cooled to reduce its diameter or the bearing
should be heated to increase its size. When the size of the bearing is greater than that of
the shaft, the shaft can be fitted into the bearing.
Result
In assemblies where permanency and rigidity are required, the external part should be
smaller than the internal part. The two mating parts should be assembled using high
pressure. Alternatively, the shaft should be frozen at a low temperature. When the
diameter of the shaft reduces, it fits into the bearing resulting in a tight fit at room
temperature.
Case Study 2
Given a situation, select a suitable solution.
Scenario
A company specializes in mass production of accurately machined parts. It delivered
10,000 circular rings of diameter 4.00" +/ 0.05" in July 2002. However, one month
later it was learned that 50% of the output did not meet tolerance limits. Records
indicated that two different technicians created the pieces, each using two different
vernier calipers. Analyze the possible reason for the part failure.
Analysis
The testing and inspection process for the circular rings had approved the dimensions of
the rings. The inspection process involves measurement of dimensions of the circular
rings using vernier caliper. The task requires analysis of the testing and inspection
process to determine the cause of the error.
Hint
Each measuring instrument needs to be calibrated for accuracy.
Conclusion
Every part of the workpiece needs to be inspected and measured. The outside diameter
is measured using vernier calipers. It is possible that either instrument had a zero error
and was not calibrated. Therefore, although the measurement indicated dimensions
within tolerance limits, all the dimensions varied by an amount equal to the zero error.
Summary
! Through inspection and quality control, you can ensure that the production process
delivers products per the defined standards. Quality control inspectors use
mathematical statistics to control the dimensions in a production process.
! There are two types of inspection:
Inspection by variables (measurement)
Inspection by attributes (gauging)
! There are four measurement variables:
Linear parameters
Angle
Coordinates
Surface roughness
! Measuring instruments and systems can be classified as:
Rule and combination set
Depth gauge
Vernier caliper
Micrometer
Optical instruments
! The different types of inspection gauges are:
Go and No-Go gauge
Snap gauge
Plug gauge
Ring gauge
Dial indicator
! Nondestructive tests include:
Radiography (X-ray and gamma ray)
Ultrasonic Testing
Magnetic particle inspection
Dye penetrant test
Excitation test
Homework Exercises
1. Briefly explain why you cannot use magnetic particle inspection in the aluminum
industry.
2. What does a profilometer measure in an inspection shop?
3. Differentiate between precision and nonprecision measuring instruments.
4. What is the difference between tolerance and clearance?
5. Which instrument is used to measure the roughness of a surface? Briefly explain
how that instrument works.
6. Distinguish between an inside and an outside vernier caliper.
Lab Exercises
Objective
! Identify the basic principles and applications of nondestructive testing methods.
Theory
Radiographic inspection is based on the same principles and techniques as those of
medical X-rays. Shadow patterns are created when certain types of radiation penetrate
an object and are differentially absorbed due to variations in thickness, density, or
chemistry.
Various types of radiation are used for inspection. X-rays are a short wavelength form
of electromagnetic radiation. These rays penetrate many materials that reflect or absorb
visible light. X-rays are generated by high-voltage electrical apparatus. Gamma rays are
also electromagnetic radiation but are emitted during the disintegration of radioactive
nuclei. Many radioactive isotopes can be selected as the radiation source. Neutron
beams for radiography are derived from nuclear reactors, nuclear accelerators, or
radioisotopes. The absorption of X-rays and gamma rays depends on the thickness,
density, and atomic structure of the material being inspected. The higher the atomic
number, the greater is the reduction of the beam. Radiography has several important
advantages, listed below:
! It probes the internal regions of a material.

! It provides a permanent record of the inspection.
! It can be used to determine the thickness of a material.
! It is sensitive to density changes.
Lab Exercises
Exercise 1
Scenario
In the automobile industry, randomly selected parts are tested using X-rays or
Ultrasound. However, in the aircraft industry, every component undergoes X-ray
testing. This is known as radiographic quality. Justify the need for this in the latter case.
Analysis
Testing a sample from a population enables the statistical calculation of the most
probable value in the population. However, individual items from the population might
differ from the estimated value. Although random inspection is adequate, it does not
represent a foolproof system. If a car stalls on the road, it causes inconvenience. When
an aircraft develops snags, it may lead to catastrophic failure.
Decision
Therefore, all components of an aircraft need to be cleared by radiography because each
item in the population needs to be tested for failure-proof accuracy.

S. No.
Task
Completed
Yes
1.
Identified the basic principles and applications of

No
Exercise 2
! Identify the basic principles and applications of nondestructive testing methods.
Scenario
M/s. Marshal Boilers Manufacturing Company has to select the apparatus for inspecting
boilers that operate at high temperatures. You need to help in selecting a nonintrusive
method that is safe and suits the shape of the boilers.
Procedure
1. Identify the nondestructive methods that are suitable for testing boilers that usually
operate at high temperatures. On the basis of your requirements, you can use either
of the following inspection methods:
Radiation
Ultrasonic
2. List the features of the two methods:

Radiography: A nondestructive method of inspection. A radiography inspection
apparatus consists of an emission unit and a collection unit that are placed at a small
distance from each other. Radiographic inspection needs access from both sides of
the part to be tested. Access is required from one side of the object for the source of
radiography and other side for the film. When using this method, it is important to
take precautions for protection from the harmful X-rays.
Radiography is usually used for identifying cracks, impurities, or other irregularities
in the material.
Ultrasonic: A nondestructive method inspection. In ultrasonic inspection it is
sufficient to have access from one side, from which both emission and collection of
ultrasonic rays may be accomplished. The process of ultrasonic inspection involves
transmitting sound through the object being tested and measuring the changes in the
sound wave patterns.
Lab Exercises
Objective
Ultrasonic inspection is used to detect irregularities in materials that change

properties to reflect sound.
3. Based on the features listed and the stated requirements, fill the comparison details
as shown in Table 7.2:
Requirements
Radiation
Ultrasonic
Safe
Test boilers operating at high
Nondestructive
Test without accessing the inside
temperature
of the boiler
Table 7.2: Comparison of Radiation and Ultrasonic Inspection Methods
Decision
From the preceding table, identify the best inspecting method. Based on the information
in the comparison table, ultrasonic inspection is a suitable method.

S. No.
Task
Completed
Yes
1.
Identified the basic principles and applications of

No
Overview of
Corrosion and
Protective Coatings
Differentiate between anode and cathode reactions
Calculate the corrosion rate of a material
Identify the units used to measure corrosion in a metal
Identify the types of corrosion
List the environments that cause corrosion
Identify the methods to control and protect against

corrosion
Identify the various types of finishes
Distinguish between various metallic coatings
8.1 Basics of Corrosion

8.2 Protective Finishes
and Coatings
8.2 Overview of Corrosion and Protective Coatings
8.1 Basics of Corrosion

Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which the surface of a metal reacts with the
environment and deteriorates. For example, the rust on iron or the tarnish on silver is
due to corrosion. Although corrosion is common in metals, it also occurs in ceramics,
plastics, wood, and rubber.
Research has proved that a large percentage of cars and domestic appliances are
damaged due to corrosion. To avoid corrosion, you need to understand its nature and
learn how different materials react to it. In this section, you will learn about the basics
of corrosion.
8.1.1 Anode and Cathode Reactions

Differentiate between anode and cathode reactions.
The types of corrosion reaction do not depend on speed. A corrosion reaction may be
fast, such as the disintegration of zinc in an acidic atmosphere, or slow, such as the
formation of rust on the rear of an automobile panel. The two types of reactions in the
process of corrosion are:
! Anode reactions
! Cathode reactions
Anode Reactions
Anode reactions are the reactions that release electrons. These reactions take place when
a metal combines with a solution, such as an ion, and corrodes. For example, zinc and
iron release electrons and lead to an electric potential.
Zn Zn 2+ + 2e
Fe Fe 2+ + 2e
Overview of Corrosion and Protective Coatings 8.3
In general, the anode reaction for metals is:
M M n + + ne
where M, n, and e stand for the metal atom, number of electrons, and electron,
respectively.
Cathode Reactions
Cathode reactions are reactions that consume electrons. These reactions involve the
transfer of an electron to the ion.
The general equation is:
M m + me M o
Consider the example of rust formation. Generally, rust is formed due to the chemical
reaction between iron and moisture. During this process, the electrons produced as a
result of the oxidation of iron are conducted through the metal. Iron ions diffuse through
the water layer to another point on the metal surface where oxygen is available. This
results in an electrochemical cell in which iron serves as the anode, oxygen gas as the
cathode, and the aqueous solution of ions serve as a salt bridge.
Figure 8.1 displays the formation of rust.
Rust
O2
Water
Fe+2 and Fe+3
Anode
Cathode
Fe = Fe+2 + 2eFe+2 = Fe+3 + e-
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- = 4OHIron
Figure 8.1: Formation of Rust

The presence of water accounts for the fact that rusting occurs more rapidly in moist
conditions than in dry environments, such as a desert.
8.1.2 Cell Potential

Define cell potential.
When a piece of iron is immersed in a polar solvent, such as water, metal ions leave the
iron. The ions form bonds with polar water molecules and mix with the solution. As
iron continues to dissolve, a negative charge builds up in the metal due to the presence
of excess electrons, and a positive charge builds up in the solution due to the presence
of excess positive ions. This opposes the electrical layers, which restricts the flow of
metal ions into the solution.
The cell potential is measured in standard conditions with a pure metal as an electrode
and an electrolyte containing ions of the same metal. The potential of an electrode is
determined with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode with zero potential.
For example, copper or nickel can be oxidized to release two electrons each, and
magnesium can be oxidized to release one electron.
Figure 8.2 displays the potential values of copper, nickel, and magnesium.
Oxidized metal
Reaction
Potential
(wrt H2)
2+
Copper
Cu = Cu + 2e
Nickel
Ni = Ni + 2e
Magnesium
Mg = Mg + 2e
2+
0.3419
0.257
2.7
Figure 8.2: Potential Values
Figure 8.3 shows a half cell for the measurement of potential.
Zn
Pt
Zn
at concentration
H
at concentration
H2
Figure 8.3: Half Cell for Measurement of Potential
8.1.3 Corrosion Rates

Calculate the corrosion rate of a material.
The corrosion rate of various materials is different. It is measured as follows:

Weight of metal dissolving (g) = kIt
Where k = atomic weight of metal / number of electrons transferred *96,500 A-sec
I = current (A) and t = time (sec)
For example, in a copper-zinc cell, zinc acts as an anode. When the current density
increases, the emf of zinc tends to become more cathodic. Copper tends to become
anodic with the increase in the density of current. The two emfs intersect, resulting in a
corrosion emf of less than 1.10 volts. The corresponding current density determines the
corrosion rate.
To lower the corrosion rate, you need to decrease the current density of the cell.
8.1.4 Corrosion Units

Identify the units used to measure corrosion in a metal.
In standard corrosion tests, samples of a metal are measured and weighed before and
after immersion for a given period. The common units used to measure and weigh
sample metals are:
! mdd: Indicates milligrams lost per square decimeter per day

! ipy: Indicates inches corroded per year
! mpy: Indicates mils corroded per year (1mil = 0.001 inch)
The ipy and mpy units apply to uniform corrosion and are used to visualize the
long-range effect. These may be used only if nonuniform corrosion such as pit corrosion
is not present.
8.1.5 Types of Corrosion

Identify the types of corrosion.
A number of corrosion situations or phenomena are encountered in daily life. These are:
! Galvanic corrosion
! Selective leaching (dezincification)
! Hydrogen damage
! Oxygen-concentration cell and water-line attack
! Pit and crevice corrosion
! Combined mechanical-corrosive effects. These include:
Stress
Corrosion fatigue
Liquid velocity: corrosion, erosion, and cavitation
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two materials of different potentials are in contact.
The more reactive material is used as an anode and the less reactive one as a cathode.
For example, galvanized steel or wire is coated with zinc either by dipping it into
molten zinc or by electroplating. When uncoupled, both zinc and steel corrode in the
solutions, but when coupled, zinc protects steel and corrodes at an accelerated rate as a
sacrificial anode.
A tin can is composed of steel and is covered with a thin layer of tin. If a cut section is
allowed to corrode, usually the steel part corrodes rather than the tin portion. Cans are
not made of galvanized steel because food contains a large number of ions that can
combine with the steel. Although zinc can protect steel, tin cans have soldered joints
and are lacquered to avoid contact between steel and food. The corrosion rate for tin or
lacquer is generally low.
When copper rivets are used in a steel sheet, there is a large anode area; galvanic action
does not take place. However, when steel rivets are used in a copper sheet, the galvanic
action is concentrated in a small anodic region and there is a large area for cathode
reactions. This corrosion is catastrophic.
Instances of galvanic action are not limited to high-alloy steels. An interesting case in
plain-carbon steel piping is called ringworm corrosion. Circular corrosion takes place
near the junction of the two regions at the end of a pipe that has been especially treated
with heat to forge the flange portion. This results in a spheroid iron carbide structure
with a different solution potential than the untreated parts of the pipe.
Selective Leaching
Selective leaching includes classifications such as dezincification and dealuminization.
For example, a brass pipe exposed to fresh or salt water develops copper-colored layers
or plugs of material. Spongy regions of copper are formed under pressure in the pipe at
a point where zinc has leached out. Usually brass dissolves slightly and copper ions are
displaced by more zinc. This can be dangerous because the brass pipe will eventually
crumble to pieces.
Most sensitive alloys contain 40 percent zinc and have a second phase () that causes
the problem. In severe cases of corrosion in which 30 percent zinc is the cause of the
trouble, the problem can be alleviated by adding tin and arsenic (1%Sn, 0.04%As),
using the copper nickel alloy, or reducing the proportion of zinc to below 20 percent.
In gray cast iron pipes, the iron matrix is slowly leached, leaving insoluble graphite.
This is called graphitic corrosion or graphitization and is usually a very slow process.
Pipes in this condition may be in service for centuries.
Hydrogen Damage
In hydrogen damage, dissolved interstitial atoms lead to low ductility and impact
strength because of interaction with micro cracks. These effects are minimized with
extensive baking to remove hydrogen and to avoid couples that produce it.
Hydrogen discharged at the cathode could form bubbles or dissolve in the metal and
diffuse through it. There have been cases involving hydrogen evolution either from
applied currents, such as in electroplating, or from corrosion in acid solution. In
hydrogen blistering, the atomic hydrogen finds a void in the metal and diffuses into it. It
then forms molecular hydrogen and exerts high pressure that tends to further spread the
void.
Oxygen-Concentration Cell and Water-Line Attack

In contrast to galvanic effects, corrosion also occurs without a starting potential. A drop
of water corrodes a polished iron surface and a homogenized steel tank corrodes at the
water line.
Iron dissolves inside the drop of water, and oxygen and water react to absorb electrons.
More iron goes into the solution closer to the edges than to the center.
Figure 8.4 displays corrosion of steel by a drop of water.
Rust
Water
Steel
Figure 8.4: Corrosion of Steel by a Drop of Water
Oxygen present in water can be replaced rapidly only at the edge of the drop. A region
of high oxygen concentration develops as the cathode. For example, stains at the bottom
of cooking utensils are usually the result of concentration cells.
Domestic water heating systems are usually closed systems in which the initial oxygen
is rapidly used up. Low levels of oxygen result in a low corrosion rate. On the other
hand, in an open system, in which fresh water is regularly added, high levels of
dissolved oxygen result in a continual high corrosion rate.
Pit and Crevice Corrosion

It has been proved that a pit begins at a surface discontinuity, such as an inclusion or a
grinding mark, because an oxygen-concentration cell develops between the
discontinuity and the surrounding material. Several materials with passive surfaces
exhibit pitting because of the large potential difference between the passive and active
regions of the pit.
Crevice corrosion is similar to pit corrosion, and the crevice serves as a ready-made pit
in which the oxygen concentration is low.
In many applications, pit and crevice corrosion, rather than the corrosion rate, dictate
the choice of materials. It is important to understand the causes of pitting and to be
aware that certain well-known combinations of materials and environments are prone to
this type of corrosion. To combat pit corrosion, avoid combinations of materials and
environments known to be susceptible. For example, a gasoline storage tank that is
99.9% intact but has numerous pits that have penetrated to the surface of the exterior is
susceptible to corrosion.
Titanium forms a very stable layer under oxidizing conditions. Therefore, it is used in
chemical industry.
Combined Mechanical-Corrosive Effects

A component fails because of the combined effect of mechanical or hydraulic factors
and corrosion. Combined mechanical-corrosive effects are of three types: stress,
corrosion, and liquid velocity.
Figure 8.5 displays the stress corrosion effect in stainless steel.
Figure 8.5: Stress Corrosion Effect in Stainless Steel
8.1.6 Corrosive Environments

List the environments causing corrosion.
Corrosion of metals, compared to that of ceramics and plastics, varies in different

environments. The three important environmental conditions that lead to corrosion are:
! Atmosphere
! Water
! Chemicals
Corrosion of Metals
Metals corrode in various ways under different environmental conditions.
Atmosphere
The cost of atmospheric corrosion is very high. The annual cost of atmospheric
corrosion in the United States alone is over $2 billion. Corrosion engineers find
corrosion in industrial, marine, and rural environments.
Problems in the industrial environment arise from sulfur dioxide, which produces
sulfuric acid. Similarly, salt and other contaminants from roads produce accelerated
corrosion rates. In the marine environment, the main factor that results in corrosion is
salt spray. In the rural environment, rain and dust are the principal factors. Automobiles
dumped in the Atacama Desert in Chile fifty years ago show no signs of age.
Stainless steel is one of the metals most impervious to corrosion. However, it is very
expensive. There are two other alternatives:
! Use an alloy that forms a protective coating, such as a steel alloy with a low
percentage of copper and nickel. This alloy develops a brown surface. Copper
alloys develop an attractive green patina.
! Apply paint or plastic coatings.
Water
The reaction of fresh water on metals varies widely, depending on the dissolved salts
and gases. The principal contaminants are chloride ions, sulfur and iron compounds, and
calcium salts. However, there is a difference between plain and low-alloy steel. Cast
and ductile iron are extensively used to manufacture water pipes. At critical junctions,
such as valves in water pipes, the mating surfaces are generally made from copper
alloys.
Seawater corrodes ordinary steel and cast iron rapidly, thus protection using paint or a
sacrificial anode is necessary. For example, sea vessels have zinc sacrificial anodes at
intervals on the hull.
Chemicals
Petroleum and chemical industries face severe chemical corrosion problems. Salt water,
sulfide, organic acids, and other contaminants accelerate corrosion in the petroleum
industry. Titanium forms a very stable layer under oxidizing conditions and is
extensively used in the chemical industry.
Some materials successfully combat chemical corrosion, as listed in Table 8.1.
Corrosive Chemical
Resistant Material
Nitric acid
Stainless steels
Hot oxidizing solutions
Titanium
Caustic solutions
Nickel alloys
Concentrated sulfuric acid
Steel
Dilute sulfuric acid
Lead
Pure distilled water
Tin
Table 8.1: Material Resistant to Chemical Corrosion
Corrosion of Ceramics and Plastics

Ceramics and plastics, often in conjunction with metals, offer alternatives to corrosion
problems. They do not pit or suffer from galvanic action. In many cases, plastic parts
may be used to insulate metal parts as long as oxygen-concentration cells do not form
due to interaction in the plastic. However, ceramics lack ductility and plastics suffer due
to extreme temperatures, water absorption, and flammability.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere affects ceramics, as you can see on ancient brick and cement structures.
Weathering is caused by water that enters cracks or joints, freezes, and expands. Salt in
water also causes problems. Plastics are affected by sunlight.
Water
Nonporous ceramics are used extensively for containers and pipes. For many years,
glass-lined and enameled-steel tanks were used successfully. Plastics are generally
resistant to water and make excellent protective coatings. However, there is a minimum
water absorption in plastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene. Water absorption
causes problems in fibers, such as crepe, used for clothing.
Chemicals
The resistance of ceramics to chemicals varies. For example, the components of glass,
pure silica, and borosilicate have high resistance, but soda-lime glass is gradually
attacked by alkalis. Acids attack basic refractory, such as magnesia. Organic solvents
have no effect on ceramics.
Plastics vary in resistance to chemicals. Most are resistant to weak acids and alkalis.
However, strong acids decompose cellulose acetate. Oxidizing acids decompose
melamines and phenol formaldehyde. Strong alkalis and organic solvents also attack
certain plastics. The most resistant materials are Teflon, polyethylene, and vinyl.
Sometimes the corrosive media come from unexpected sources. For example, we often
have difficulty trying to maintain plastic eyeglass frames. A combination of body fluids,
exposure to airborne hydrocarbons, and stress often result in failure of frames after 12 to
24 months.
8.1.7 Corrosion Inhibitors

Identify the methods to control corrosion.
An important method to control corrosion is the use of chemicals known as inhibitors.

The action of these chemicals is related to polarization. The corrosion rate may be
reduced drastically by inhibiting the reaction at either the anode or the cathode. In many
cases, the role of the inhibitor is to form an insulating film of a compound at one point.
For example, chromate salts are used in automobile radiators. The iron ions liberated at
the anode surface combine with the chromate to form an insoluble coating. Another
example is gelatin that gets absorbed and limits ion reaction with the electrode.
A logical extension of inhibition is the development of a passive film on the surface of a
metal, such as iron, chromium, nickel, titanium, and aluminum alloys. For example, if a
piece of iron is placed first in concentrated nitric acid and then in dilute nitric acid, no
appreciable corrosion occurs. A thin adherent passive film of iron oxide is produced in
the concentrated acid. If the sample is scratched, the iron corrodes rapidly in dilute acid
because of a ruptured film. On the contrary, if the sample is not immersed first in the
concentrated acid, both initial and continual corrosion are rapid in the dilute acid.
8.1.8 Corrosion Protection

Identify the methods to protect against corrosion.
You can minimize corrosion by isolating a metal surface from the environment. Use a
nickel-plated surface or apply a layer of paint to separate the metal from the electrolyte.
A few methods used to inhibit corrosion are as follows:
! Select materials carefully. Avoid physical contact between dissimilar metals to

prevent the formation of galvanic cells. If such physical contact is unavoidable,
ensure that the metal forming the anode has a small area relative to the cathode. If
the anode area is small, the current density is high, which results in a high rate of
corrosion.
! Use inhibitors that form a protective layer on the surface of a metal to prevent
corrosion. For example, you can use anodic inhibitors, such as nitrites and
chromates. Nitrites form a thin passive oxide film on iron. Cathodic inhibitors form
a thick film on the surface of a metal.
! Change designs to protect from corrosion. For example, you can remove pockets
that hold corrosive fluids.
! Use cathodic protection based on an electrochemical principle. The object to be

protected is placed at the anode, a piece of aluminum, zinc, and magnesium is
attached to it to make an electrical contact, and the object is then buried in the earth
or immersed in water. For example, underground and underwater pipes are
protected by this method.
! Apply metallic, ceramic, and organic coatings, such as a layer of paint, enamel, or
nickel-plate.
Table 8.2 shows metallic, ceramic, and organic coatings and their advantages and
disadvantages.
Type
Metal
Advantages
Disadvantages
Examples
Thermally conductive and
Forms galvanic cell if
Noble metal
insoluble in organic
ruptured
electroplates
Resistant to temperature
Are thermal insulators and
Vitreous enamel and
and hard coating
brittle
oxide coatings
Easy to apply, cheap, and
Oxidizes, is soft, and has
Baked enamel paints
flexible
temperature limitations
solutions
Ceramic
Organic
Table 8.2: Protective Coatings
Practice Questions
1. What is the main difference between an anode reaction and a cathode
reaction in an electrochemical cell?
2. Brass plumbing fixtures, such as valves and water taps, are frequently
screwed on to steel pipes. Steel pipes invariably corrode. What is the
remedy for this corrosion?
8.2 Protective Finishes and

Coatings
Finishes and coatings are layers of material applied to metal surfaces to protect the
metal from abrasion, corrosion, or to improve its appearance. Finishes and coatings
protect the metal from atmospheric temperature, fire, and provide electrical insulation.
Protective finishes and coatings are divided into the following categories:
! Organic finishes
! Inorganic finishes
! Metallic coatings
! Conversion coatings
8.2.1 Organic Finishes

Identify the types of organic finishes.
An organic finish refers to the organic coating applied on the surface of a metal. The
coating forms a film over the metal surface. The surface needs to be free of impurities,
such as dirt, sand, and oil, so that the coating adheres tightly to the surface. Organic
finishing requires one or more coats. The organic coating forms a protective and
decorative sheath on the metal. You can apply organic finishes by spraying, roller
coating, dipping, or by centrifugal force.
Table 8.3 lists popular organic finishes.

Organic Finishes
Oil paint
Features
Provides protection and
Examples
Used for large structures
decorative color and hides the

metal surface
Epoxy paint
Flexible, tough, and abrasion
Electrical insulation film
resistant
Silicone paint
Alkyd paint
Varnishes and enamels
Provides thermal stability and is
Protective coatings on stoves,
resistant to moisture, fading, and
space heaters, and industrial
oxidation
equipment appliances
Resistant to moisture and
Used as a finish in washing
sunlight, and retains gloss in the
machines, furniture, curtain rods,
finish
and refrigerators
Flexible and tough
Used in marine and other

products that are exposed to
moisture and chemicals
Acrylics
Resistant to acid and alkali
Used as coatings for office
solutions
furniture, housing appliances, and

other exterior building products
Cellulose
Resistant to light, electrical
Used to finish ordnance hardware
breakdown, and heat

Vinyls
Durable and resistant to acids,
Used in automobiles, shelves,
alkalis, and chemicals
metallic furniture, tanks, and

electrical equipment
Polyurethane
Resistant to chemicals and
Used in automotive valve covers
moisture; readily adheres to the

metal surface
Lacquers
Resistant to abrasion, and dries
Used as a film coating on metals
fast
Polyesters
Phenolics
Resistant to acids and solvents,
Used as coatings in indoor and
but less resistant to alkalis
outdoor appliances
Highly durable and resistant to
Used as an automobile primer and
moisture, chemicals, and solvents
as a lining in beverage cans, used

tank cars, and metallic containers
Nylon
Resistant to impact and abrasion;
Used in electronic components,
produces a finish with a variety of
metal furniture, and decorations
colors
Polypropylene
Resistant to impact, abrasion,
Used as a lining in pipes,
acids, alkalis, and salts
containers, strainers, and other

wire goods
Fluorocarbons
Stability over a wide range of
Teflon is used as a coating on
temperature from 245 to 155 F;
handsaws, shovels, knives, and
resistant to solvents; good color
blades
retention
Table 8.3: Organic Finishes
8.2.2 Inorganic Finishes

Identify the types of inorganic finishes.
The widely used inorganic finishes on a metal are:
! Porcelain enamel
! Ceramic coating
Porcelain Enamel
Porcelain enamel consists of a glass matrix suspended in crystalline opacifiers and
coloring pigments. These are resistant to atmospheric corrosion, acids, and alkaline
solutions. Porcelain can be applied on most metals, alloys, gold, copper, aluminum, and
silver. It comes in a variety of finishes from gloss to matte, and a wide range of colors.
Porcelain finishes are commonly used in kitchenware, heating equipment, washers,
refrigerators, and water heaters.
Ceramic Coating
Ceramics, such as alumina, silica, or chromic oxide, can be used to form a ceramic
coating resistant to abrasion and chemical attack. The strength and rigidity of a metal is
enhanced by ceramic coatings. Powdered ceramic coating is sprayed on the material.
Ceramic coatings are commonly used in aircraft engines, and the steel, textile, and
chemical industries.
Table 8.4 lists the different inorganic finishes.

Inorganic Finishes
Porcelain enamel
Features
Examples
Resistant to atmospheric
Used on washers, refrigerators,
corrosion, acids, and alkaline
and water heaters
solutions
Ceramic coating
Resistant to abrasion and
Used in aircraft engines, and the
chemical attack
steel, textile, and chemical

industries
Table 8.4: Inorganic Finishes
8.2.3 Metallic Coatings

Distinguish between various metallic coatings.
Metallic coatings are applied to objects to protect them from wear and increase their
dimensions. Metallic coatings also provide decorative finishes. The following metallic
coatings are in use:
! Electroplating
! Immersion Coating
! Diffusion Coating
! Dipping Coating
! Vapor-deposited
! Metallizing
Electroplating
Electroplating is the process of depositing a coating of metal on an objects surface. The
piece of pure metal to be deposited is an anode, and the object to be plated is a cathode.
The anode and the cathode are suspended in a plating solution in a tank. Electric current
is made to pass from the anode to the cathode. The metal ions from the anode migrate to
the cathode. These ions are then deposited as a metal coating. The higher the density of
the electric current, the faster is the rate of the coating.
Figure 8.6 displays the process of electroplating.
Battery
Electrons
Object to be plated
(Cathode)
Electrons
NiCl2
in Water ionizes to
Ni++, Cl- & Cl-
Positive electrode
(Anode)
Figure 8.6: Electroplating
For example, suppose that an object made of copper or steel, which has been properly
cleaned, needs to be plated. To plate it with nickel, a wire is attached to the object, and
the other end of the wire is attached to the negative pole of a battery. A red wire is
attached to the positive pole of the battery. The other end of the red wire is connected to
a rod made of nickel.
Now, fill the cell of the metal to be plated with a solution of a salt. It is theoretically
possible to use a molten saltand in rare cases this is donebut in most cases the salt
is simply dissolved in water. The NiCl2 salt ionizes in water to Ni++ and two parts of Cl.
Because the object to be plated is negatively charged, it attracts the positively charged
Ni++. The Ni++ ion reaches the object, and electrons flow from the object to Ni++. Two
electrons are required to neutralize each ion of Ni++ and reduce it to metallic form.
Meanwhile, the negatively charged Cl ions are attracted to the positively charged
anode. At the anode, electrons are removed from the Nickel metal, oxidizing it to the
Ni++ state. Thus, the nickel metal dissolves as Ni++ into the solution, supplying
replacement nickel for that which has been plated out, and the solution of nickel
chloride is retained in the cell.
In electroplating, metals such as tin, copper, and zinc can be deposited on the same base
metal or on different metals or nonmetals. Plated plastic products include radios,
televisions, and boats.
Impurities on the cathode must be completely removed for firm adhesion of the
plate on an object.
Immersion Coating
Immersion is another process of applying a thin coating on a metal. In this process, you
use a watery solution that contains ions of the metal to be coated. The solution is kept at
room temperature, and the object to be coated is immersed in this solution. A thin
coating is deposited on a base metal. Immersion coating is commonly used when bulk
plating is required.
Diffusion Coating
In the diffusion coating process, the coating is applied by placing the heated parts in
contact with a corrosion-resistant metal in powder, solid, liquid, or gaseous form. There
are different diffusion coatings based on the procedures for applying the coatings. These
are:
! Calorizing
! Chromizing
! Sheridizing
! Siliconizing
Calorizing
The calorizing process helps protect iron from oxidation at elevated temperatures rather
than from corrosion.
In the hot dipping colorizing process, the parts are thoroughly cleaned, fluxed in
calcium chloride, and dipped in aluminum for approximately 20 minutes. The parts are
then baked in hydrogen atmosphere at 1,650 F for 24 hrs. After being heated,
aluminum diffuses deeper into the metal and the coating becomes thicker. Calorized
coatings are quite resistant to attack by sulfurous gases used in steam heaters and
furnaces.
The key characteristics of calorizing are as follows:
! High temperature oxidation resistance

! Abrasion (erosion) resistance
! Carburization resistance
! Freedom from stress corrosion cracking
! Resistance against erosion/corrosion by molten metals (Zn, Fe, Cu etc.) and
nonmetals
! Resistance against corrosive gas, liquid, and ash

! Sticked spatter is easily removable
Chromizing
Chromizing is a process in which a chromium-containing powder compound is diffused
on the surface of steel and iron to form a coating. This type of coating is resistant to
abrasion and corrosion. Chromized parts are used in aircraft, railroads, and automobiles.
Sheridizing
Sheridizing is a process in which zinc is diffused on the surface of ferrous metals to
form a coating. This type of coating is resistant to atmospheric corrosion. The process is
used to coat castings and bolts.
Siliconizing
Siliconizing is a process that introduces silicon carbide and chlorine into low-carbon
and low-sulfur steel to form a coating. The process is used in coating pump shafts,
valves, and fittings.
Dipping Coating
Dipping is a process that forms a thin coating of aluminum, tin, zinc, or an alloy of lead
and tin. The object to be coated is dipped in a solution. The speed with which this object
is withdrawn from the solution affects the consistency in the thickness of coating. A
Terne plate, a roofing sheet made of an alloy of lead or tin, is commonly created by
dipping.
Vapor-Deposited
All metals and nonmetals can be used as a coating material in vapor-deposited coating.
There are four processes involved in vapor-deposited coatings. These are:
! Vacuum-metallized or evaporated
! Chemical vapor plated
! Ion-sputtered
! Glow discharge
Vacuum-Metallized or Evaporated
In this process, aluminum is used as a coating material and is placed with the object to
be coated in a high-vacuum chamber and heated. Vapors of aluminum condense on the
surface of the object to form a coating. A coating of lacquer is applied on the aluminum
coating to give a final finish for protection. This type of coating is commonly used on
jewelry, toys, and electronic circuits.
Chemical Vapor Plated

In this process, oxidation-resistant coatings are deposited on the objects to be coated.
This process provides a uniform coating on an object and is commonly used in
semiconductor devices.
Ion-Sputtered
In this process, the coating material is used as a cathode, and is placed in a vacuum
chamber along with the object to be coated. A high voltage, which is applied to the
cathode, disintegrates the cathode. The disintegrated atoms diffuse and condense on the
object to be coated to form a uniform coating. This type of coating is commonly used
for phonograph recording masters.
Glow Discharge
In this process, organic polymers are used as coating material and are placed with the
objects to be coated. This type of coating is used to form an insulating film for
capacitors.
Metallizing
Metallizing is a process to apply dense and strong metal coatings on both metals and
nonmetals. There are two methods involved in metallizing. These are:
! Wire metallizing
! Plasma metallizing
Wire Metallizing
The wire metallizing process is used in protecting metals from corrosion and for
repairing worn out parts in a building. In this process, the coating material is melted and
simultaneously sprayed on the surface of a material with a spray pistol. The spray
coating can be applied to plastics, wood, or paper. This type of coating is used on
machine components. Cloth and paper are coated for use in electrical condensers.
Plasma Metallizing
The plasma metallizing method is used to apply a protective coating on a material to
protect it from thermal shock and to make it resistant to high temperature. You can use
ceramics, tungsten carbide, and nickel-chromium alloys as coating materials. This
process requires a power supply, plasma spray gun, powder feeder, and gas and water
hoses. The coating powder is blown at a high velocity from a spray gun. As the powder
particles begin to melt, they form a continuous coating on the surface of an object. This
type of coating is used in dielectrics and electrical conductors.
8.2.4 Conversion Coatings

Identify the types of conversion coatings.
Conversion coatings are used to convert the surface of a metal to a compound of the
metal. They provide a silvery white or a glossy surface on the material to be coated. The
four types of conversion coatings are:
! Oxide
! Anodized
! Phosphate
! Chromate
Oxide
These coatings are widely used for iron and steel. This type of coating is produced by a
chemical reaction between the exposed metal and hot oxidizing solutions or gases. The
appearance of the coating depends on the type of metal surface. If the surface is smooth,
then the coating is attractive. Sandblasted surfaces result in dull coatings.
Oxide coatings are resistant to corrosion and provide a paint base. This type of coating
is available for aluminum, magnesium, and copper and its alloys.
Anodized
Anodized coating provides a permanent oxide coating on aluminum, magnesium, alloys,
zinc, and galvanized steel. These coatings can be clear or colored. Colored coatings are
obtained by mixing dyes to the solution. A variety of finishes are obtained by anodizing.
An anodized coating on zinc protects the surface with a layer of the metal.
This type of coating is used in automobile, jewelry, furniture, and electronic
components.
Phosphate
Based on the thickness and the resistance to corrosion, there are four types of phosphate
coatings, iron, zinc, lead, and manganese phosphate. Phosphate coatings are applied by
spraying or immersion. The surface of the metal to be coated needs to be cleaned before
applying a phosphate coating. Phosphate coating is used in refrigerators, metal
furniture, and air conditioners.
Chromate
The chromate coating consists of two components, hexavalent chromium ions and a
mineral acid. This type of coating is commonly used on non-ferrous materials, such as
aluminum, zinc, or tin. Due to its low electrical resistance, it is used in applications that
have high electrical conductivity. This coating is available in a variety of colors and can
be used as a decorative coating.
The chromate coating can be applied using the immersion process, spray, or brush.
Table 8.5 summarizes the different conversion coatings.
Conversion Coating
Oxide
Features
Examples
Resistant to corrosion and provides a
Available for aluminum,
paint base
magnesium, copper, and its

alloys
Anodized
Provides surface protection
Used in various automobile,

jewelry, furniture, and electronic
components
Phosphate
Provides surface protection
Used in refrigerators, metal

furniture, and air conditioners
Chromate
Low electrical resistance
Used as a decorative coating
Table 8.5: Conversion Coatings
Practice Questions
1. Why is the polyurethane coating the most popular organic finish?
2. Wire metallizing is a simple process for applying corrosion protection
coatings. What are the other uses of wire metallizing? Guess the
possible maximum thickness of a coating obtained using this process.
Case Study 1
Identify coatings that protect objects from corrosion and wear.
Anodizing is a surface coating process applicable to aluminum, whereas nickel plating

is commonly applied on copper parts. Analyze and compare these two surface
protection coating processes.
Analysis
Based on the following parameters you can analyze the two surface protection coating
process:
! Principle of coating
! Specific advantages of each of the above coating processes
! Limitations
! Cost of coating
Comparison
Anodizing is an oxidizing process suitable only for aluminum, whereas nickel-plating is
an electroplating process used for copper and all ferrous metals.
Anodizing is the reverse of electroplating. Anodizing is simpler and less expensive than
electroplating. Anodizing can be done in a variety of colors. Anodizing is less durable
and less effective than nickel-plating for corrosion protection.
Result
Nickel-plating is preferred for corrosion protection.
Case Study 2
Identify the chemical principles of corrosion phenomena.
Mrs. Dickenson, a housewife, had a corroded water pipe that leaked. She called a
plumber who fixed the leak by attaching a small piece of magnesium to the steel pipe
using a wire. Explain how the fix worked.
Analysis
Galvanic corrosion depends on galvanic action and occurs when two materials of
different potentials are in contact.
The more reactive material is used as an anode and the less reactive one as a cathode.
For example, galvanized steel or wire is coated with zinc by dipping the same into
molten zinc or by electroplating.
Comparison
When uncoupled, both magnesium and steel corrode in solutions, but when coupled,
magnesium protects steel and corrodes at an accelerated rate as a sacrificial anode.
Result
This is a typical case of sacrificial anode. The magnesium piece acts as the anode in the
artificial galvanic cell created and is gradually destroyed. In the process, the steel pipe is
prevented from taking part in the reaction and hence is not corroded.
Summary
! Corrosion is an electrochemical process in which the surface of a metal or any other
material deteriorates due to a chemical reaction with the environment.
! An anode reaction takes place at a point when a metal combines with a solution as
an ion and corrodes.
! A cathode reaction takes place at a point when electrons flow through a metal and
reach a point where these can be used.
! The different types of corrosion are:
Galvanic corrosion
Selective leaching (dezincification)
Hydrogen damage
Oxygen-concentration cell and water-line attack
Pit and crevice corrosion
Combined mechanical-corrosive effects
! The three important environmental conditions that lead to corrosion are:
Atmosphere
Water
Chemicals
! An organic finish refers to the organic protective coating applied on the surface of a
metal.
! Metal coatings are applied to objects to protect them from wear and corrosion.
! Conversion coatings are used to convert the surface of a metal to a protective
compound of the metal.
Homework Exercises
1. Give four practical examples of corrosion. Note that the problem of corrosion is not
confined only to metals.
2. How is corrosion prevented in automobile radiators in which cooling water
continuously circulates?
3. Both zinc plating and tin plating protect steel from corrosion. However, if the
coating is damaged, why is corrosion of tin-plated steel more severe than that of
zinc-plated steel?
Lab Exercise
Objective
! Given a situation, identify the effect of corrosion.
Theory
If a brass pipe is exposed to fresh or salt water, it develops copper-colored layers or
plugs of material. Spongy regions of copper are formed under pressure in the pipe at a
point where zinc has leached out. Usually, brass dissolves slightly and copper plates,
which come out as copper ions, are displaced by more zinc. This can be dangerous
because the brass pipe will eventually crumble to pieces.
Scenario
In the warehouse of a metal merchant, hundred brass rods of dimension, " diameter X
6 length, were stocked. There was torrential rain and water collected in the warehouse
for a few days. After a few months, the owner decided to shift the brass rods to a new
place. When he had the rods dropped at the new place, they crumbled to pieces.
Remember that brass is a high-strength copper-zinc alloy. How is such crumbling
possible without any external load?
Analysis
This is due to a special type of corrosion known as dezincification. This occurs only in
brass. During corrosion, zinc is preferentially dissolved from brass, leaving a spongy
mass of copper of little strength. This spongy mass crumbles due to its own weight.
Solution
This may be prevented by adding 0.04 percent arsenic to brass during extrusion.
Lab Exercises
Exercise 1

S. No.
Task
Completed
Yes
1.
Identified the effect of corrosion
No
Index
I.2 Index
Barrel Rolling, 6.23, 6.24, 6.37
Bauschinger Effect, 1.33

Bed, 3.23
Abrasive Blast Cleaning, 6.23, 6.37
Bench Lathe, 3.24
Abrasive Particles, 3.12
Bend Type Drill Press, 3.26
Acid Pickling, 6.26, 6.37
Bending, 1.9, 1.21, 1.25, 1.47, 4.1, 4.5, 4.21,

4.22, 4.23, 4.24, 4.25, 4.34
Acrylics, 5.7, 5.11, 8.18

Adhesive Bonding, 2.15, 2.22, 2.26, 2.33,
5.42, 5.56
Bending Stress, 1.9
Adhesives, 2.21, 2.22, 2.23, 2.34, 5.18
Bilateral Tolerance, 7.5
Age Hardening, 6.20, 6.21, 6.37, 6.38
Blending, 5.27
Alkaline Cleaning, 6.25, 6.26, 6.37, 6.39
Blow Molding, 5.13, 5.14, 5.18, 5.54
Alloys, 1.3, 1.4, 1.24, 2.1, 4.1, 4.17, 6.1, 6.4,

6.15, 6.18, 6.19, 6.20
Body-Centered Cubic, 1.37
Alumina, 5.20, 5.21, 5.22

Amorphous, 1.36
Bending Test, 1.25
Boring, 3.9, 3.20

Braided Fabric, 5.37
Angle, 7.7, 7.27
Brazing, 2.15, 2.19, 2.20, 2.26, 2.31, 2.33,

2.37
Angular Measurements, 7.7
Breaking Stress, 1.22
Annealing, 6.6, 6.12, 6.13, 6.18, 6.19, 6.20,

6.36, 6.37
Brinell Hardness Test, 1.25, 1.26
Anode Reactions, 8.3

Anodized, 8.26, 8.27
Anodizing, 6.30, 8.28
Arian Casting, 5.23
Brittle, 1.12, 5.20

Broaching, 3.6, 3.18, 3.19, 3.21, 3.36
Broaching Presses, 3.18
Buffing, 6.24
Artificial Abrasives, 3.13

Assembly, 2.23, 2.25, 3.32
Atomic Bonds, 1.36
Atomization, 5.26, 5.55
Automation, 3.1, 3.19, 3.32, 3.36
C
Calorizing, 8.22
Carbides, 5.21, 5.54
Carbo-Nitriding, 6.9, 6.10
Carburizing, 6.9
Carriage, 3.23
Band Saw, 3.17

Index I.3
Casting, 1.7, 2.1, 2.4, 2.5, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11,

2.12, 2.13, 2.27, 2.29, 2.33, 4.33, 5.23,
5.42, 5.44, 5.47, 5.54, 5.56, 5.63, 7.19
Composite Materials, 5.31, 5.39, 5.40, 5.61
Cathode Reactions, 8.3, 8.4
Compression Test, 1.24
Cemented Carbides, 3.5
Compressive Strength, 1.10, 1.22
Centrifugal Casting, 2.10, 2.11, 2.33
Compressive Stress, 1.9
Ceramic Coating, 8.19
Concrete, 1.10, 5.32
Ceramic Matrix Composites, 5.38
Conductive Composite, 5.37
Ceramics, 1.3, 1.4, 1.7, 1.16, 1.19, 1.47, 5.1,

5.20, 5.21, 5.22, 8.13, 8.19
Conductivity, 1.15, 1.16
Cermets, 5.22, 5.36, 5.54

Charpy Impact Test, 1.31, 1.32
Chemical Cleaning, 6.22, 6.25, 6.28, 6.37
Chemical Properties, 1.16
Compression Molding, 5.13, 5.14, 5.18,

5.54
Continuous Broaching Machines, 3.18

Conventional Spinning, 4.26, 4.27
Coordinates, 7.7, 7.27
Cores, 2.8
Chromate, 8.26, 8.27
Corrosion, 1.16, 1.17, 5.62, 8.1, 8.3, 8.6,

8.7, 8.8, 8.10, 8.11, 8.12, 8.13, 8.14,
8.15, 8.30
Chromizing, 8.22, 8.23
Covalent Bonds, 1.39
CIM, 4.10
Co-Woven Fabric, 5.37
Circular Saw, 3.17
Creep, 1.8, 1.14, 1.19, 1.21, 1.22, 1.33, 1.47,

1.56, 5.37
Chemical Vapor Plated, 8.24
Cleaning, 2.5, 2.9, 2.33, 6.1, 6.3, 6.22, 6.23,

6.25, 6.26, 6.27, 6.28
Creep Composite, 5.37
Clearance Fits, 7.6
Creep Resistance, 1.14
Close-Packed Hexagonal, 1.37
Creep Strength, 1.22, 1.56
CNC, 3.29, 3.30, 3.33, 3.36
Creep Test, 1.33
Coating, 5.22, 8.19, 8.20, 8.22, 8.24, 8.27
Crystal Structures, 1.39
Cold Drawing, 4.20, 4.37
Crystalline, 1.36, 1.48
Cold Extrusion, 4.14
Cubic, 1.37, 5.22
Cold Forging, 4.6, 4.7

Cold Forming, 4.4
Cold Heading Forming, 4.30
Cold Rolling, 4.17
Data Input, 3.30
Cold Water Quenching, 6.16
Data Output, 3.30
Compacting, 5.27, 5.28, 5.55
Data Processing, 3.30
I.4 Index
Density, 1.6, 1.15, 1.19, 2.29
Electroplating, 6.29, 8.20, 8.21
Depositing, 6.31, 6.32
Electrostatic, 6.31
Depth Gauge, 7.8, 7.27
Emulsified Solvent Cleaning, 6.37
Depth of Cut, 3.7
End Milling, 3.15
Destructive Tests, 1.21
Excitation Test, 7.18, 7.22, 7.23, 7.28
Dial Indicator, 7.16, 7.18, 7.27
Explosive Bonding, 5.43, 5.56
Diamond Pyramid Hardness Test, 1.27
Explosive Forming, 4.30
Dielectric Strength, 1.15, 1.16
External Broaching, 3.18
Diffusion Hardening, 6.7, 6.9, 6.42
Extrusion, 4.1, 4.5, 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 4.34,

4.37, 4.38, 5.13, 5.16, 5.18, 5.23, 5.54
Direct Hardening, 6.7

Dividing Heads, 7.12
Down Milling, 3.16
Drawing, 4.1, 4.5, 4.19, 4.20, 4.34
Drilling, 3.6, 3.9, 3.10, 3.20, 3.25, 3.26, 3.36
Fabrication, 5.41, 5.42, 5.44, 5.56
Drilling Machine, 3.25, 3.26, 3.36
Face Milling, 3.16
Dry Pressing, 5.24
Face-Centered Cubic, 1.37
Ductility, 1.8, 1.13, 1.22
Facing, 3.8
Duplicating Lathe, 3.24
Fatigue Resistance, 1.14
Dye Penetrant Test, 7.18, 7.23, 7.28
Fatigue Strength, 1.22

Fatigue Test, 1.32
Feed Rate, 3.5, 3.7, 3.17

Ferrous, 1.4, 1.47, 2.9, 4.7, 6.1, 6.4, 6.15
Elastic Limit, 1.21
Fiber-Reinforced, 5.32, 5.38, 5.40, 5.55
Elasticity, 1.8, 1.12
Fine Powder, 6.31
Electric Arc Welding, 2.16
Finishes, 3.21, 6.32, 8.1, 8.17, 8.18, 8.19,

8.20
Electric Soldering, 2.21

Electrical Properties, 1.15
Electroforming, 4.30, 4.31
Electrolysis, 5.26, 5.55
Electrolytic Cleaning, 6.27, 6.37
Electron Beam Hardening, 6.11
Electron Beam Welding, 2.18
Fits, 7.5, 7.6

Flame Hardening, 6.11
Flame Spraying, 6.32
Flexible Manufacturing System, 3.36
Fluorescent Dye Penetrant Test, 1.35
Flux, 2.8, 2.21
Index I.5
FMS, 3.33, 3.36
High Carbon Steel, 3.5
Forging, 2.28, 4.1, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9,

4.10, 4.33, 4.34, 4.39, 4.40
Honing, 3.6, 3.19, 3.21, 3.36
Form Milling, 3.16
Hot Dipping, 6.29
Forming, 2.33, 4.1, 4.3, 4.4, 4.30, 4.31,

5.15, 5.42, 5.56
Hot Extrusion, 4.12
Hookes Law, 1.24
Hot Forging, 4.4, 4.6, 4.33
Fusion Welding, 2.16
Hot Hardness, 3.4

Hot Water Quenching, 6.16
Hydrogen Damage, 8.7, 8.30
G
Galvanic Corrosion, 8.7, 8.8, 8.29, 8.30
Gas Carburizing, 6.10
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, 2.17
Gas Welding, 2.17, 2.34
Gauging, 7.4
Glow Discharge, 8.24
GMAW, 2.17
Grinding, 3.6, 3.13, 3.14, 3.21, 3.28, 3.29,
3.36
Grinding Machine, 3.28, 3.36
GTAW, 2.17
I
Immersion Coating, 8.22
Impact Strength, 1.22
Impact Test, 1.29
Individual Filaments, 5.44, 5.56
Induction Hardening, 6.11
Injection Molding, 5.13, 5.18, 5.24, 5.45,
5.54, 5.56
Inorganic Finishes, 8.17
Inorganic Material Adhesives, 2.22
Inspection, 3.30, 3.32, 7.1, 7.3, 7.4, 7.15,
7.16, 7.20, 7.21, 7.27
Integral Fasteners, 2.23
Hardening Heat Treatments, 6.5, 6.7
Interference Fits, 7.6
Hardness Test, 1.25
Internal Broaching, 3.18
Hardness, 1.8, 1.11, 1.19, 1.21, 1.22, 1.25,

1.26, 1.44, 1.47, 1.49, 1.51
Investment Casting, 2.10, 2.12, 2.33
Head, 3.27, 3.40

Headstock, 3.23
Heat Treatment, 6.4, 6.5, 6.18, 6.19, 6.21,
6.36, 6.41
Hexagonal, 1.37
I.6 Index
Izod Impact Test, 1.30
Magnetic Pulse Forming, 4.30, 4.31
Malleability, 1.22, 1.23

Jiggering, 5.23, 5.54
Manufacturing Processes, 2.33, 3.32
Joining, 2.1, 2.14, 2.15, 2.25, 2.26, 2.33,

2.37, 5.17, 5.18, 5.23, 5.24, 5.55
Material Handling, 3.32
Material, 1.10, 1.15, 1.22, 1.27, 2.6, 2.8,

3.21, 3.22, 3.32, 4.7, 4.23, 5.6, 5.29,
5.31, 8.13
Matrix, 5.32, 5.33, 5.34, 5.44
Kevlar, 5.32, 5.33, 5.34, 5.37, 5.47, 5.63
Measurement, 7.4, 7.7, 7.8, 7.12, 7.13, 8.6
Knee, 3.26, 3.40
Mechanical Cleaning, 6.22, 6.25, 6.37

Mechanical Fastening, 2.15, 2.23, 2.33, 2.38
Mechanical Polishing, 6.23

Mechanical Properties, 1.8
Laminates, 5.32, 5.35, 5.38, 5.55
Melting Point, 1.6, 1.7
Lapping, 3.6, 3.19, 3.20, 3.21, 3.36
Metal Matrix Composites, 5.38
Laser Beam Hardening, 6.11
Metal Spraying, 6.30, 6.31
Laser Beam Welding, 2.18
Metallic Bonds, 1.39
Linear Parameters, 7.7, 7.27
Metallic Coatings, 6.29, 8.17, 8.20
Liquid Carburizing, 6.10
Metallizing, 8.20, 8.25
Liquid Plastisol, 6.31
Micrometer, 7.8, 7.10, 7.11, 7.27
Low Coefficient Of Friction, 3.4
MIG, 2.17, 2.19, 2.32
M
Machinabilty, 1.20
Machining, 2.27, 2.33
Machining, 3.1, 3.3, 3.4, 3.6, 3.20, 3.21,
3.32, 3.35, 3.36, 4.32, 5.13, 5.17, 5.18,
5.54
Magnetic Particle Inspection, 7.18, 7.20,
7.23, 7.28
Magnetic Particle Test, 1.34
Milling, 3.6, 3.14, 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, 3.20,

3.26, 3.27, 3.36, 3.40
Mixing, 5.27, 5.55
Modulus of Toughness, 1.12
Mold, 2.5, 2.6, 2.8, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12
Monoclinic, 1.37
Multi-Spindle Drill Press, 3.26
N
Natural Abrasives, 3.13
Index I.7
Natural Resin Adhesives, 2.22
Plasma Metallizing, 8.25
Nature of Failure, 1.22
Plug Gauge, 7.16, 7.17, 7.27
NC, 3.30
Plywood, 5.35
Nitrides, 5.21, 5.54
Polycarbonates, 5.7, 5.10, 5.19
Nitriding, 5.21, 6.9, 6.10
Polymer Matrix Composites, 5.37
Nondestructive Tests, 1.33
Polymers, 1.3, 1.4, 1.19, 1.47
Non-Ferrous, 1.4, 1.47, 2.17, 2.36
Polystyrene, 1.5, 5.7, 5.12, 5.50, 5.51
Normalizing, 6.6, 6.12, 6.13, 6.36
Porcelain Enamel, 8.19
Nylon, 1.4, 5.7, 5.8, 8.18
Pot Life, 5.37

Power Brushing, 6.23, 6.24, 6.37
Precipitation Hardening, 6.15, 6.18, 6.36

Prepreg, 5.36, 5.44
Optical Instruments, 7.8, 7.12, 7.27
Pre-Sintering, 5.27, 5.29, 5.55
Organic Finishes, 6.32
Pressing, 5.23, 5.24, 5.55
Organic Finishes, 8.17
Pressure Die Casting, 2.10, 2.11, 2.27, 2.33,

2.34
Orthorhombic, 1.37
Oxidation, 1.16, 1.17, 1.19, 5.29
Oxide, 1.4, 5.20, 5.21, 5.54, 8.26, 8.27
Oxide Ceramics, 1.4, 5.20, 5.54
P
Pack Carburizing, 6.9
Particulates, 5.32, 5.35, 5.38, 5.55
Production Drill Press, 3.26

Production Lathe, 3.25
Profilometer, 7.14
Proportional Stress, 1.21
Protractors, 7.12, 7.13
Pull Broaching Machines, 3.18
Pulverization, 5.26, 5.27, 5.55
PVC, 5.4, 5.7, 5.9, 5.50, 5.51, 6.31
Pattern, 2.5, 4.32

Permanent Mold Casting, 2.10, 2.33, 4.33
Phosphate, 8.26, 8.27
Photoelasticity, 7.19, 7.22, 7.23
Pit and Crevice Corrosion, 8.7, 8.30
Pitch, 5.37
Plain Turning, 3.8
Planing, 3.6, 3.11, 3.12, 3.20, 3.36
I.8 Index
Q
Quality Control, 7.3, 7.27
Quenching, 6.8, 6.11
Shielded Metal Arc Welding, 2.19

Shore Scaleroscope Hardness Test, 1.29
Radial Drill Press, 3.26
Shrink and Expansion Fits, 2.24
Radiography, 7.18, 7.19, 7.22, 7.28, 7.31,

7.33
Sialon, 5.21, 5.22, 5.54
Reaming, 3.10, 3.26, 3.34

Reinforcements, 5.37
Resilience, 1.22
Resistance Soldering, 2.20
Resistivity, 1.15, 1.16
Rexolite, 5.11
Rhombohedral, 1.37
Ring Gauge, 7.16, 7.18, 7.27
Rivets, 2.24
Rockwell Hardness Test, 1.27, 1.28
Roll Bending, 4.24
Rolling, 4.1, 4.5, 4.16, 4.17, 4.18, 4.34, 6.24
Rule And Combination Set, 7.8, 7.27
Siliconizing, 8.22, 8.23

Simple Cubic, 1.37
Sine Bar, 7.12
Sintering, 5.27, 5.29, 5.30, 5.55
Slab Milling, 3.14
Slip Casting, 5.23
Snap Gauge, 7.16, 7.27
Softening Heat Treatments, 6.5, 6.6
Soldering, 2.15, 2.20, 2.21, 2.26, 2.33
Solid State Welding, 2.16
Solution Treatment, 6.15, 6.18, 6.37
Space-Grown Composites, 5.37
Specific Heat, 1.6
Speed Lathe, 3.24
Spinning, 4.1, 4.5, 4.26, 4.27, 4.28, 4.29,
4.34
Spot Welding, 2.18
Safety Glass, 5.35, 5.59
Spray Quenching, 6.16
Sand Mold Casting, 2.5, 2.33
Standard Upright Drill Press, 3.26
Sandwich Method, 5.43, 5.56
Step Turning, 3.8
Sawing, 3.6, 3.17, 3.21, 3.36
Stiffness, 1.8, 1.11, 1.22
Selective Hardening, 6.7
Straddle Milling, 3.15
Selective Leaching, 8.7, 8.8, 8.30
Strain, 1.8, 1.12
Shaping, 3.11, 3.12, 3.21, 3.31
Strength, 1.8, 1.10, 1.16, 2.23, 3.4, 4.10
Shear Spinning, 4.26
Strength and Resistance to Shock, 3.4
Shear Stress, 1.9

Shell Mold Casting, 2.10, 2.12, 2.33
Stress, 1.8, 1.9, 1.12, 5.52, 5.53, 6.12, 6.19,

6.20, 6.36, 6.37, 8.8, 8.11
Sheridizing, 8.22, 8.23
Stress Equalizing, 6.20, 6.37
Index I.9
Stress Relieving, 6.12, 6.19, 6.20, 6.36, 6.37

Stretch Forming, 4.25, 4.34
Transfer Molding, 5.13, 5.14, 5.15, 5.18,

5.54
Surface Broaching Machines, 3.18
Transition Fits, 7.6
Surface Broaching, 3.18
Triclinic, 1.37
Surface Roughness, 7.7, 7.27
Tube Bending, 4.24
Surface Roughness Measurement, 7.7
Tube Spinning, 4.26, 4.29
Synthetic Resin Adhesives, 2.22
Tumbling, 6.23, 6.37

Turning, 3.6, 3.8, 3.9, 3.20, 3.36
T
Tailstock, 3.23
Tempering, 6.6, 6.7
Turret Drill Press, 3.26
Tensile Strength, 1.10, 1.19
Ultimate Tensile Strength, 1.12
Tensile Stress, 1.9
Ultimate Tensile Stress, 1.21, 1.24
Tensile Test, 1.23, 1.24
Ultrasonic Cleaning, 6.28, 6.37
Tetragonal, 1.37
Ultrasonic Inspection, 1.34, 7.34
Thermal Conductivity, 1.17
Ultrasonic Testing, 1.35, 7.18, 7.20, 7.22
Thermal Expansion, 1.18
Unilateral Tolerance, 7.5, 7.6
Thermal Properties, 1.17
Up Milling, 3.16
Thermal Welding, 2.17

Thermit Welding, 2.18
Thermocole, 2.6
Thermoforming, 5.17, 5.18, 5.59
Vacuum Forming, 5.13, 5.16, 5.18, 5.54
Thermoplastics, 5.4, 5.5, 5.34, 5.57, 5.63
Vacuum-Metallized, 8.24
Thermosetting, 5.3, 5.5, 5.6, 5.54
Van der Waals Bonds, 1.36, 1.40, 1.41
TIG, 2.17, 2.19, 2.32
Vapor Degreasing, 6.27, 6.37
Tolerance, 7.5, 7.6
Vernier Calipers, 7.8
Tool Room Lathe, 3.24
Vickers Hardness Test, 1.27
Torch Soldering, 2.20

Toughness, 1.8, 1.11, 1.22
W
Wave Soldering, 2.21
I.10 Index
Welding, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.26,

2.33, 2.37, 5.18
Wire Metallizing, 8.25, 8.27
X
X-Ray and Gamma Ray Tests, 1.34
Y
Yield Strength, 1.11
Yield Stress, 1.22, 1.24
Young's Modulus, 1.11, 1.19
Z
Zirconia, 5.21, 5.22
Index I.11
I.12 Index

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AM340 - Manufacturing Processes and Materials PDF

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Manufacturing Processes and Materials

Pearson Custom Publishing

Copyright 2005 by Pearson Custom Publishing

Printed in the United States of America

PEARSON CUSTOM PUBLISHING

Pearson Custom Publishing

Chapter 1Engineering Materials

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Chapter 2Manufacturing Processes for Metal Alloys

Chapter 3Manufacturing Processes: Machining and

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Chapter 4Manufacturing Processes for Metals and

Chapter 5Manufacturing Processes for Powder Metals

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5.4 Introduction to Composites .............................................................................................................. 5.31

Chapter 6Heat Treatment, Cleaning, and Finishing

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Chapter 7Inspection and Quality Control

Chapter 8Overview of Corrosion and Protective Coatings

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About the Book

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Conventions Used in the Book

A tip provides an alternative method for performing a task. It can

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Pearson Custom Publishing

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

Identify properties of each type of engineering material.

Distinguish between the properties of materials.

Identify the types of tests performed to assess various

Identify the types of atomic bonds in materials.

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1.2 Engineering Materials

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1.1 Introduction to Materials

Materials are converted to other materials and products by using manufacturing

1.1.1 Classification of Materials

! Metals and alloys

Metals and Alloys

Engineering Materials 1.3

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Polymers and Plastics

Silicates (e.g. asbestos, clay,

Refractories (fire bricks)

1.4 Engineering Materials

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Abrasives (silicon carbide)

Cement and concrete

Table 1.1: Commonly Used Materials in Engineering Industries

1.1.2 Properties of Materials

Each of these properties is discussed in detail in the following sections.

Engineering Materials 1.5

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1.6 Engineering Materials

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Engineering Materials 1.7

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1.8 Engineering Materials

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Figure 1.1: Stress in a Metal Rod