Book of Genesis

1 Structure

The Book of Genesis redirects here. For the comics,

see The Book of Genesis (comics).

Genesis appears to be structured around the recurring

phrase elleh toledot, meaning these are the generations,
with the rst use of the phrase referring to the generations of heaven and earth and the remainder marking
individualsNoah, the sons of Noah, Shem, etc., down
to Jacob.[7] It is not clear, however, what this meant to the
original authors, and most modern commentators divide
it into two parts based on subject matter, a primeval history (chapters 111) and a patriarchal history (chapters 1250).[8] While the rst is far shorter than the second, it sets out the basic themes and provides an interpretive key for understanding the entire book.[9] The
primeval history has a symmetrical structure hinging
on chapters 69, the ood story, with the events before
the ood mirrored by the events after.[10] The patriarchal
history recounts the events of the major patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, to whom God reveals himself and
to whom the promise of descendants and land is made,
while the story of Joseph serves to take the Israelites into
Egypt in preparation for the next book, Exodus.

The Book of Genesis (from the Latin Vulgate, in turn

borrowed or transliterated from Greek , meaning
origin"; Hebrew:
, Br, In [the] beginning)
is the rst book of the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh) and the
Christian Old Testament.[1][2]

The basic narrative expresses the central theme: God

creates the world (along with creating the rst man and
woman) and appoints man as his regent, but man proves
disobedient and God destroys his world through the
Flood. The new post-Flood world is equally corrupt,
but God does not destroy it, instead calling one man,
Abraham, to be the seed of its salvation. At Gods command Abraham descends from his home into the land of
Canaan, given to him by God, where he dwells as a sojourner, as does his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob. Jacobs name is changed to Israel, and through the agency of
his son Joseph, the children of Israel descend into Egypt,
70 people in all with their households, and God promises
them a future of greatness. Genesis ends with Israel in
Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the Exodus.
The narrative is punctuated by a series of covenants with
God, successively narrowing in scope from all mankind 2 Summary
(the covenant with Noah) to a special relationship with
one people alone (Abraham and his descendants through God creates the world in six days and consecrates the sevIsaac and Jacob).[3]
enth as a day of rest. God creates the rst humans Adam
The books author or authors appear to have structured it and Eve and all the animals in the Garden of Eden but inaround ten "toledot" sections (the these are the genera- structs them not to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of
tions of... phrases), but modern commentators see it in good and evil. A talking serpent, portrayed as a deceptive
terms of a "primeval history" (chapters 111) followed creature or trickster, entices Eve into eating it anyway,
by the cycle of Patriarchal stories (chapters 1250).[4] and she entices Adam, whereupon God curses them and
In Judaism, the theological importance of Genesis cen- throws them out in the fall of man. Eve bears two sons,
ters on the covenants linking God to his chosen people Cain and Abel. Cain kills Abel after God accepts Abels
and the people to the Promised Land. Christianity has oering but not Cains. God then curses Cain. Eve bears
interpreted Genesis as the preguration of certain cardi- another son, Seth, to take Abels place.
nal Christian beliefs, primarily the need for salvation (the After many generations of Adam have passed from the
hope or assurance of all Christians) and the redemptive lines of Cain and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by
act of Christ on the Cross as the fulllment of covenant the sin of man and Nephilim, and God determines to wipe
promises as the Son of God.
out mankind. First, he instructs the righteous Noah and
his family to build a huge boat and put examples of all
the animals on it. Then God sends a great ood to wipe
out the rest of the world. When the waters recede, God
promises that he will not destroy the world a second time
with water with the rainbow as the symbol of his promise.
But upon seeing mankind cooperating to build a great
tower city, the Tower of Babel, God divides humanity
with many languages and sets them apart with confusion.

Tradition credits Moses as the author of Genesis,

as well as Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and most of
Deuteronomy, but modern scholars increasingly see them
as a product of the 6th and 5th centuries BC.[5][6]

3 COMPOSITION
mother Hagar are driven out into the wilderness, but God
saves them and promises to make Ishmael a great nation.
God tests Abraham by demanding that he sacrice Isaac.
As Abraham is about to lay the knife upon his son, God
restrains him, promising him numberless descendants.
On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases Machpelah
(believed to be modern Hebron) for a family tomb and
sends his servant to Mesopotamia to nd among his relations a wife for Isaac, and Rebekah is chosen. Other
children are born to Abraham by another wife, Keturah,
among whose descendants are the Midianites, and he dies
in a prosperous old age and is buried in his tomb at Hebron.
Isaacs wife Rebecca gives birth to the twins Esau, father
of the Edomites, and Jacob. Through deception, Jacob
becomes the heir instead of Esau and gains his fathers
blessing. He ees to his uncle where he prospers and
earns his two wives, Rachel and Leah. Jacobs name is
changed to Israel, and by his wives and their handmaidens he has twelve sons, the ancestors of the twelve tribes
of the Children of Israel, and a daughter, Dinah.

The Angel Hinders the Oering of Isaac (Rembrandt, 1635)

God instructs Abram to travel from his home in

Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan. There God makes
a covenant with Abram promising that his descendants
shall be as numerous as the stars. But that people will
suer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years,
after which they will inherit the land from the river of
Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates. Abrams
name is changed to Abraham and that of his wife Sarai
to Sarah, and circumcision of all males is instituted as
the sign of the covenant. Because Sarah is old, she tells
Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as a
second wife. Through Hagar, Abraham fathers Ishmael.

Joseph, Jacobs favorite son, is sold into slavery in Egypt

by his jealous brothers. But Joseph prospers, after
hardship, with Gods guidance of interpreting Pharaohs
dream of upcoming famine. He is then reunited with his
father and brothers, who don't recognize him but who
plead for food. After much manipulation, he reveals himself and lets them and their households into Egypt, where
Pharaoh assigns to them the land of Goshen. Jacob calls
his sons to his bedside and reveals their future before he
dies. Joseph lives to an old age and exhorts his brethren,
if God should lead them out of the country, to take his
bones with them.

3 Composition

God resolves to destroy the city of Sodom and Gomorrah for the sins of its people. Abraham protests and
gets God to agree not to destroy the city if 10 righteous
men can be found. Angels save Abrahams nephew Lot
and his family but his wife looks back on the destruction
against their command and is turned into a pillar of salt.
Lots daughters, concerned that they are fugitives who will
never nd husbands, get him drunk to become pregnant
by him, and give birth to the ancestors of the Moabites
and Ammonites.
Abraham and Sarah go to the foreign land of Gerar, pretending to be brother and sister (they are half-siblings).
The King of Gerar takes Sarah for his wife, but God
warns him to return her, and he obeys. God sends Sarah
a son to be named Isaac, through whom the covenant will Abrams Journey from Ur to Canaan (Jzsef Molnr, 1850)
be established. At Sarahs insistence, Ishmael and his

3.2

3.1

Genre

Origins

Main article: Documentary hypothesis

There are four major textual witnesses to the book of
Genesis: the Masoretic text, the Samaritan Pentateuch,
the Septuagint, and fragments of Genesis found at Qumran. The Qumran group provides the oldest manuscripts
but covers only a small proportion of the book. In general, the Masoretic Text is well preserved and reliable,
but there are many individual instances where the other
versions preserve a superior reading.[11]
For much of the 20th century most scholars agreed
that the ve books of the PentateuchGenesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomycame from four
sources, the Yahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist and
the Priestly source, each telling the same basic story, and
joined together by various editors.[12] Since the 1970s
there has been a revolution in scholarship: the Elohist
source is now widely regarded as no more than a variation on the Yahwist, while the Priestly source is increasingly seen not as a document but as a body of revisions
and expansions to the Yahwist (or non-Priestly) material. (The Deuteronomistic source does not appear in
Genesis).[13]
In composing the Patriarchal history the Yahwist drew on
four separate blocks of traditional stories about Abraham,
Jacob, Judah and Joseph, combining them with genealogies, itineraries and the promise theme to create a unied whole.[14] Similarly, when composing the primeval
history he drew on Greek and Mesopotamian sources,
editing and adding to them to create a unied work that t
his theological agenda.[15] The Yahwistic work was then
revised and expanded into the nal edition by the authors
of the Priestly source.[16]
Examples of repeated and duplicate stories are used to
identify the separate sources. In Genesis these include
three dierent accounts of a Patriarch claiming that his
wife was his sister, the two creation stories, and the two
versions of Abraham sending Hagar and Ishmael into the
desert.[17]

3
tonomy within the empire, but required the local authorities to produce a single law code accepted by the entire community. The two powerful groups making up
the communitythe priestly families who controlled the
Temple and who traced their origin to Moses and the
wilderness wanderings, and the major landowning families who made up the elders and who traced their own
origins to Abraham, who had given them the land
were in conict over many issues, and each had its own
history of origins, but the Persian promise of greatly
increased local autonomy for all provided a powerful incentive to cooperate in producing a single text.[18]

3.2 Genre
Genesis is perhaps best seen as an example of antiquarian history, a type of literature telling of the rst appearance of humans, the stories of ancestors and heroes, and
the origins of culture, cities and so forth.[19] The most
notable examples are found in the work of Greek historians of the 6th century BC: their intention was to connect notable families of their own day to a distant and
heroic past, and in doing so they did not distinguish between myth, legend, and facts.[20] Professor Jean-Louis
Ska of the Pontical Biblical Institute calls the basic rule
of the antiquarian historian the law of conservation": everything old is valuable, nothing is eliminated.[21] Ska also
points out the purpose behind such antiquarian histories:
antiquity is needed to prove the worth of Israels traditions to the nations (the neighbours of the Jews in early
Persian Palestine), and to reconcile and unite the various
factions within Israel itself.[21]

4 Themes

This leaves the question of when these works were created. Scholars in the rst half of the 20th century came
to the conclusion that the Yahwist was produced in the
monarchic period, specically at the court of Solomon,
and the Priestly work in the middle of the 5th century
BC (the author was even identied as Ezra), but more recent thinking is that the Yahwist was written either just
before or during the Babylonian exile of the 6th century,
and the Priestly nal edition was made late in the Exilic
period or soon after.[6]
As for why the book was created, a theory which has
gained considerable interest, although still controversial
is Persian imperial authorisation. This proposes that Joseph recognized by his brothers (Lon Pierre Urbain Bourgeois,
the Persians, after their conquest of Babylon in 538 BC, 1863)
agreed to grant Jerusalem a large measure of local au-

4.1

5 JUDAISMS WEEKLY TORAH PORTIONS

Promises to the ancestors

In 1978 David Clines published his inuential The Theme

of the Pentateuch inuential because he was one of the
rst to take up the question of the theme of the entire
ve books. Clines conclusion was that the overall theme
is the partial fulllment which implies also the partial
nonfulllment of the promise to or blessing of the Patriarchs. (By calling the fulllment partial Clines was
drawing attention to the fact that at the end of Deuteronomy the people are still outside Canaan).[22]

and is marked by the sign of the rainbow; the second is

with the descendants of Abraham (Ishmaelites and others
as well as Israelites), and its sign is circumcision; and the
last, which doesn't appear until the book of Exodus, is
with Israel alone, and its sign is Sabbath. Each covenant
is mediated by a great leader (Noah, Abraham, Moses),
and at each stage God progressively reveals himself by
his name (Elohim with Noah, El Shaddai with Abraham,
Yahweh with Moses).[3]

The patriarchs, or ancestors, are Abraham, Isaac and Ja- 5 Judaisms weekly Torah
cob, with their wives (Joseph is normally excluded).[23]
Through the patriarchs God announces the election of Main article: Weekly Torah portion
Israel, meaning that he has chosen Israel to be his special people and committed himself to their future.[24] God
tells the patriarchs that he will be faithful to their descendants (i.e. to Israel), and Israel is expected to have faith in
God and his promise. (Faith in the context of Genesis
and the Hebrew bible means agreement to the promissory
relationship, not a body of belief).[25]

portions

The promise itself has three parts: ospring, blessings,

and land.[26] The fullment of the promise to each patriarch depends on having a male heir, and the story is
constantly complicated by the fact that each prospective mother Sarah, Rebekah and Rachel is barren.
The ancestors, however, retain their faith in God and
God in each case gives a son in Jacobs case, twelve
sons, the foundation of the chosen Israelites. All three
promises are more richly fullled in each succeeding generation, until through Joseph all the world is saved from
famine,[27] and by bringing the children of Israel down to
Egypt he becomes the means through which the promise
can be fullled.[23]
First Day of Creation (from the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle)

4.2

Gods chosen people

Scholars generally agree that the theme of divine promise

unites the patriarchal cycles, but many would dispute the
ecacy of trying to examine Genesis theology by pursuing a single overarching theme, instead citing as more
productive the analysis of the Abraham cycle, the Jacob
cycle, and the Joseph cycle, and the Yahwist and Priestly
sources.[28] The problem lies in nding a way to unite the
patriarchal theme of divine promise to the stories of Genesis 1-11, known as the primeval history, or the primeval
cycle,[29] with the theme of Gods continuing mercy in the
face of mans sinful nature.[30] One solution is to see the
patriarchal stories as resulting from Gods decision not
to remain alienated from mankind:[30] God creates the
world and mankind, mankind rebels, and God elects
(chooses) Abraham.[3]
To this basic plot (which comes from the Yahwist) the
Priestly source has added a series of covenants dividing
history into stages, each with its own distinctive sign.
The rst covenant is between God and all living creatures,

Bereshit, on Genesis 16: Creation, Eden,

Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, Lamech,
wickedness
Noach, on Genesis 611: Noahs Ark, the
Flood, Noahs drunkenness, the Tower of
Babel
Lech-Lecha, on Genesis 1217: Abraham, Sarah, Lot, covenant, Hagar and
Ishmael, circumcision
Vayeira, on Genesis 1822: Abrahams
visitors, Sodomites, Lots visitors and
ight, Hagar expelled, binding of Isaac
Chayei Sarah, on Genesis 2325: Sarah
buried, Rebekah for Isaac
Toledot, on Genesis 2528: Esau and Jacob, Esaus birthright, Isaacs blessing
Vayetze, on Genesis 2832: Jacob ees,
Rachel, Leah, Laban, Jacobs children
and departure

5
Vayishlach, on Genesis 3236: Jacobs
reunion with Esau, the rape of Dinah

7 See also

Vayeshev, on Genesis 3740: Josephs

dreams, coat, and slavery, Judah with
Tamar, Joseph and Potiphar

Genesis creation narrative

Miketz, on Genesis 4144: Pharaohs

dream, Josephs in government, Josephs
brothers visit Egypt

Dating the Bible

Vayigash, on Genesis 4447: Joseph reveals himself, Jacob moves to Egypt

Paradise Lost

Vaychi, on Genesis 4750: Jacobs blessings, death of Jacob and of Joseph

The Bible and history

Mosaic authorship

Protevangelium
Wife-sister narratives in Genesis
Enma Eli

First phrase
8 References

Main article: Genesis 1:1

Perhaps the most well-known passage of the Hebrew

[1] Hamilton (1990), p.1

[2] Graves, Robert; Patai, Raphael (1986). Hebrew Myths:
The Book of Genesis. Random House. p. 315.
[3] Bandstra (2004), pp. 2829
[4] Kessler, Deurloo (2004), pp.37
[5] Van Seters (1998), p.5
[6] Davies (1998), p.37
[7] Hamilton (1990), p.2
[8] Whybray (1998), p.41
[9] McKeown (2008), p.2
[10] Walsh (2001), p.112
[11] Hendel, R. S. (1992). Genesis, Book of. In D. N. Freedman (Ed.), The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (Vol. 2, p.
933). New York: Doubleday
[12] Gooder (2000), pp. 1214
[13] Van Seters (2004), pp. 3086
[14] Van Seters (1998), p.33
[15] Van Seters (1992), pp. 188189
[16] Van Seters (2004) p.114

In principio creavit deus... First page of Genesis in a Latin bible

dated 1481 (Bodleian Library)

Bible, the rst phrase of Genesis has long been translated

as In the beginning God created... However, some
modern [translators] believe that a more accurate translation is 'When God began to create'", as in the 1962 NJPS
Torah translation.[31] The idea that God created the world
out of nothing (creatio ex nihilo) is central today to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, but it is not directly stated
anywhere in the entire Hebrew Bible.[32]

[17] Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction By

Lawrence Boadt, Richard J. Cliord, Daniel J. Harrington
| Paulist Press | 2012
[18] Ska (2006), pp.169, 217218
[19] Van Seters (2004) pp. 113114
[20] Whybray (2001), p.39
[21] Ska (2006), p.169
[22] Clines (1997), p.30

9 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[23] Hamilton (1990), p.50

[24] Brueggemann (2002), p.61
[25] Brueggemann (2002), p.78
[26] McKeown (2008), p.4
[27] Wenham (2003), p.34
[28] Hamilton (1990), pp. 3839
[29] Hendel, R. S. (1992). Genesis, Book of. In D. N. Freedman (Ed.), The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (Vol. 2, p.
935). New York: Doubleday

Hamilton, Victor P (1995). The book of Genesis:

chapters 1850. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802823090.
Hirsch, Samson Raphael. The Pentateuch: Genesis.
Translated by Isaac Levy. Judaica Press, 2nd edition
1999. ISBN 0-910818-12-6. Originally published
as Der Pentateuch uebersetzt und erklaert Frankfurt,
18671878.
Kass, Leon R. The Beginning of Wisdom: Reading
Genesis. New York: Free Press, 2003. ISBN 07432-4299-8.

[30] Kugler, Hartin (2009), p.9

[31] Moore, John A. (24 Jan 2002), From Genesis to Genetics:
The Case of Evolution and Creationism, University of California Press, pp. 2829, ISBN 978-0520930780
* Moore cites page 51 of Orlinsky's Notes on the New
Translation of the Torah. Jewish Publication Society.
1969. Google snapshot
[32] Nebe, Gottfried (2002), Creation in Pauls Theology. In
Homan, Yair; Reventlow, Henning Graf. Creation in
Jewish and Christian tradition, A&C Black, p. 119

Bibliography

9.1

Kessler, Martin; Deurloo, Karel Adriaan (2004).

A commentary on Genesis: the book of beginnings.
Paulist Press. ISBN 9780809142057.
McKeown, James (2008).
ISBN 9780802827050.

Genesis.

Eerdmans.

Rogerson, John William (1991). Genesis 111.

T&T Clark. ISBN 9780567083388.
Sacks, Robert D (1990). A Commentary on the Book
of Genesis. Edwin Mellen.

Commentaries on Genesis

Armstrong, Karen. In the Beginning: A New Interpretation of Genesis. New York: Knopf, 1996.
ISBN 0-679-45089-0.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2011). Creation, Un-creation,
Re-creation: A discursive commentary on Genesis
111. Continuum International Publishing Group.
ISBN 9780567372871.
Brueggemann, Walter. Genesis: Interpretation: A
Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1986. ISBN 0-8042-3101X.
Cotter, David W (2003). Genesis. Liturgical Press.
ISBN 9780814650400.
De La Torre, Miguel A. Genesis: Belief, A Theological Commentary on the Bible, Westminster John
Knox Press, 2011.
Fretheim, Terence E. The Book of Genesis. In
The New Interpreters Bible. Edited by Leander E.
Keck, volume 1, pages 319674. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. ISBN 0-687-27814-7.
Hamilton, Victor P (1990). The book of Genesis:
chapters 117. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802825216.

Sarna, Nahum M. The JPS Torah Commentary:

Genesis: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New
JPS Translation. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication
Society, 1989. ISBN 0-8276-0326-6.
Speiser, E.A. Genesis: Introduction, Translation,
and Notes. New York: Anchor Bible, 1964. ISBN
0-385-00854-6.
Towner, Wayne Sibley (2001). Genesis. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664252564.
Turner, Laurence (2009). Genesis, Second Edition.
Sheeld Phoenix Press. ISBN 9781906055653.
Von Rad, Gerhard (1972). Genesis: A Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN
9780664227456.
Wenham, Gordon (2003). Genesis. In James D.
G. Dunn, John William Rogerson. Eerdmans Bible
Commentary. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837110.
Whybray, R.N (2001). Genesis. In John Barton.
Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 9780198755005.

9.2

General

Bandstra, Barry L (2004).

Reading the Old
Testament: an introduction to the Hebrew Bible.
Wadsworth. ISBN 9780495391050.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2004). Treasures old and
new: essays in the theology of the Pentateuch. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802826794.
Brueggemann, Walter (2002).
Reverberations
of faith: a theological handbook of Old Testament themes. Westminster John Knox. ISBN
9780664222314.
Campbell, Antony F; O'Brien, Mark A (1993).
Sources of the Pentateuch: texts, introductions, annotations. Fortress Press. ISBN 9781451413670.
Carr, David M (1996). Reading the fractures of
Genesis. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN
9780664220716.
Clines, David A (1997).
The theme of the
Pentateuch. Sheeld Academic Press. ISBN
9780567431967.
Davies, G.I (1998). Introduction to the Pentateuch. In John Barton. Oxford Bible Commentary.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198755005.
Gooder, Paula (2000). The Pentateuch: a story of
beginnings. T&T Clark. ISBN 9780567084187.
Hendel, Ronald (2012). The Book of Genesis": A Biography (Lives of Great Religious Books).
Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691140124.
Kugler, Robert; Hartin, Patrick (2009). The Old
Testament between theology and history: a critical
survey. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802846365.
Levin, Christoph L (2005). The Old testament:
a brief introduction. Princeton University Press.
ISBN 9780691113944.
Longman, Tremper (2005). How to read Genesis.
InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830875603.
McEntire, Mark (2008). Struggling with God: An
Introduction to the Pentateuch. Mercer University
Press. ISBN 9780881461015.
Ska, Jean-Louis (2006). Introduction to reading the
Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575061221.

Van Seters, John (1992). Prologue to History: The

Yahwist As Historian in Genesis. Westminster John
Knox Press.
Van Seters, John (1998). The Pentateuch. In
Steven L. McKenzie, Matt Patrick Graham. The
Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical
issues. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN
9780664256524.
Van Seters, John (2004). The Pentateuch: a socialscience commentary. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 9780567080882.
Walsh, Jerome T (2001). Style and structure in
Biblical Hebrew narrative. Liturgical Press. ISBN
9780814658970.

10 External links
Book of Genesis illustrated
Genesis Reading Room (Tyndale Seminary): online
commentaries and monographs on Genesis.
Bereshit with commentary in Hebrew
Bereishit Genesis (Hebrew English at
Mechon-Mamre.org)
Genesis at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation)
Hebrew Audiobook of Genesis from Librivox
Genesis (The Living Torah) Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's
translation and commentary at Ort.org
Genesis (Judaica Press) at Chabad.org
Youngs Literal Translation (YLT)
New International Version (NIV)
Revised Standard Version (RSV)
Westminster-Leningrad codex
Aleppo Codex
Genesis in Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Greek, Latin,
and English The critical text of the Book of Genesis in Hebrew with ancient versions (Masoretic,
Samaritan Pentateuch, Samaritan Targum, Targum
Onkelos, Peshitta, Septuagint, Vetus Latina, Vulgate, Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion) and English translation for each version in parallel.

11

11
11.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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Patrick, Michael Hardy, BrianHansen~enwiki, Oliver Pereira, DopeshJustin, The T, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Gabbe, Tgeorgescu, IZAK,
Sannse, GTBacchus, Georey~enwiki, Mkweise, Angela, Andrewa, , Usedbook, Andres, John K, Rob Hooft, Tobias Conradi, Hashar, Emperorbma, EALacey, Dino, Reddi, Desertphile, Wik, Zoicon5, Timc, Grendelkhan, Itai, Paul-L~enwiki, Joy, Raul654,
Jason Potter, Branddobbe, Robbot, Rossnixon, Iwpg, SableSynthesis, Altenmann, Orthogonal, Postdlf, Amgine, Academic Challenger,
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Bodnotbod, Tail, Gscshoyru, Gary D, Neutrality, Dovi, Fintor, Tromatic, Subsume, Mike Rosoft, Sdrawkcab, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, AlexG,
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Sietse Snel, Aaronbrick, One-dimensional Tangent, Bobo192, NetBot, Smalljim, BrokenSegue, Jguk 2, Arcadian, Sampo Torgo, Jojit fb,
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Tavares, Simetrical, Woohookitty, Revjmyoung, Uncle G, Robwingeld, E=MC^2, Peter Hitchmough, Drostie, Chochopk, MONGO, Zach
Alexander, Eleassar777, Striver, Steinbach, JeUK, Gimboid13, Palica, KHM03, LexCorp, Mandarax, SilhouetteSaloon, Ashmoo, Revas,
BD2412, Josh Parris, Crzrussian, Koavf, PinchasC, Sjlegg, MarnetteD, Notorious4life, Ptdecker, FlaBot, Fanther, Nowhither, Ysangkok,
Fischersc, Foscolo~enwiki, RexNL, Mark J, AndriuZ, Codex Sinaiticus, Alphachimp, Tysto, Benanhalt, Xix~enwiki, Chobot, Wingchi,
Rigel.j, EamonnPKeane, Satanael, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Jimp, Stephen Day, Sputnikcccp, Briaboru, Chaser, YEvb0, RadioFan2 (usurped), Gaius Cornelius, Pseudomonas, NawlinWiki, Msikma, Veledan, Neural, Gmcism, Bjford, Cquan, Welsh, Nad, RazorICE, Dureo, Irishguy, Brian Crawford, Benne, Dr Debug, DGJM, Rwalker, Bota47, Silversnake020, Rktect, Revevil, David Underdown,
Grubbmeister, Wknight94, Poofyspikes, Dbratton, Arthur Rubin, Fang Aili, FDuy, Livitup, , Jimmyjrg, CWenger, Staxringold, Ephilei,
Kungfuadam, NeilN, Benandorsqueaks, Airconswitch, FyzixFighter, Tobyk777, Jenn xD, Sardanaphalus, Laurence Boyce, SmackBot, Amcbride, PiCo, Foxbat89, Dauster, Unyoyega, C.Fred, Aardvark92, Clpo13, Midway, EncycloPetey, Hardyplants, Flamarande, Vassyana,
Lordandmaker, Macintosh User, Wikikris, Gilliam, Hmains, Carl.bunderson, ERcheck, Valley2city, Chris the speller, Bluebot, EncephalonSeven, MartinPoulter, Oli Filth, Mr Poo, Rothery, Silly rabbit, Rvs84, Donnie Love, TheFeds, The Benefactor, DHN-bot~enwiki, Scwlong,
Ishmayl, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Akhilleus, Chlewbot, Neo139, Vanished User 0001, Michael.Pohoreski, JonHarder, Rrburke, Bobbybrown, Grover cleveland, Brother Emerson, Nsweet, Flyguy649, Gabi S., PrometheusX303, Quique H., Cybercobra, John D. Croft,
Akriasas, Andrew c, Jklin, DMacks, Smerus, Enriquecardova, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Atlantas, Ceoil, Eliyak, Deadlightbulb, Richard L.
Peterson, John, Euchiasmus, Scutfargus, Knobbly, JoshuaZ, 2nd Piston Honda, NathanLee, Monitorer, Dfass, The Man in Question,
Smith609, Beetstra, MrArt, Achorn316, Jose77, SmokeyJoe, Sorompio, Ginkgo100, Ashaiba91, Iridescent, JMK, RaiderTarheel, Twas
Now, Gopchristian, CapitalR, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, Blubberbrein2, Tawkerbot2, Joshuagross, Kingoomieiii, The Haunted Angel,
SkyWalker, Kendroche, JForget, Renophaston, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Woolhiser, Anarchistbookshop, Cydebot, Karimarie, DCAnderson,
Despinne, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Cec~enwiki, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, 1gnostic, Anonymous44, Chasingsol, Doug Weller, Ssluiter,
Mikewax, Briantseng, JodyB, Crum375, Dw4372, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Btball, Beobach972, Headbomb, BILLK2006, EdJohnston, Jamesa7171, Northumbrian, Escarbot, Trengarasu, Mentisto, El Jogg, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Mousebelt,
Waerloeg, Poseidon1, Dylan Lake, Shift6, MECU, Qwerty Binary, Darrenhusted, JAnDbot, Dinurcenter, Husond, Nannus, Bryan121,
Vitaopus, Fetchcomms, Nancehixon, Sophie means wisdom, Hut 8.5, Some demigod, Greensburger, Vicki Virago, SiobhanHansa, Nexous, Benstown, Pablothegreat85, Mattb112885, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Crimperman, LostCause, Nyttend, Robcotton, Chesdovi, Tonyfaull, SparrowsWing, Catgut, Theroadislong, Jaakobou, Geo.Fischer, BambookidX, Afaprof01, Allstarecho, SnapSnap, Fang 23, Edward321, Pax:Vobiscum, Wayne Miller, Greenguy1090, Tonicthebrown, MartinBot, STBot, Boneka, Sseiter, Zouavman Le Zouave, Bus
stop, CommonsDelinker, Wikitiki89, Mayrell, AlphaEta, J.delanoy, Numbo3, Rhinestone K, Jerry, OttoMkel, G. Campbell, Darth Mike,
Ncmvocalist, MikeEagling, Mango Sango, M-le-mot-dit, Aram33~enwiki, Dugontherocks, Jmshaw, SJP, Mak1457, Xorthan, Grdenlite,
2help, Editor37, HyDeckar, Treisijs, Scott Illini, JavierMC, Sgeureka, Drakeroks, Idioma-bot, DanBealeCocks, VolkovBot, Macedonian,
Brando130, Kevinkor2, Latash, Barneca, Philip Trueman, Sscrofano, TXiKiBoT, , Java7837, Kacy Barnett-Gramckow, Maxkin,
Aymatth2, Anna Lincoln, Diego Vara, Ijkopl, Psyche825, Sarahjansen, Lilid rod, BotKung, Mr. Absurd, Billinghurst, DefendOthers,
Falcon8765, !dea4u, Ajrocke, Nathan M. Swan, Undon, Van Parunak, Tommytitt, Chuck Sirloin, NHRHS2010, Yodawg123456789,
CConnla77, Ponyo, SieBot, StAnselm, TJRC, ToePeu.bot, Gerakibot, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Til Eulenspiegel, Keilana, Mwaisberg, Bentogoa, RucasHost, Quest for Truth, Flyer22, Tim Thomason, Oxymoron83, KoshVorlon, Jayanta.dey, BenoniBot~enwiki, Vanished user
ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, StaticGull, Nefariousski, Jonpartin, Teddypommpomm, Princeboy, Nahums1, Eastquil, Thomjakobsen, RomanHistorian, Myrvin, JRosine, Loren.wilton, Martarius, De728631, ClueBot, Tangent01, Angryglasscontainer, ArdClose,
Rjd0060, Plastikspork, Ender of Games, Personalbest, Taboyz, Gawaxay, Ewawer, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Drmies, Der Golem, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Seth3511, Sineaste, Blanchardb, Ohsimone, Leadwind, John J. Bulten, SamuelTheGhost, Mike0001, Robert Skyhawk, Excirial, Nymf, Strangerunbidden, Silvanus42, Feline Hymnic, Ice Cold Beer, Arjayay, Bremerenator, Hans Adler, Elizium23, Erudhalion,
Xabiereus, Mikaey, BOTarate, Alfredie, KleanUpKatie, Opensourcejunkie~enwiki, Mattissa, Callinus, TryMIDDLEme, Seachest, Editor2020, Genesis auctions, Bentheadvocate, Crazy Boris with a red beard, BarretB, JohnDarville, RekonDog, Dark Mage, Swift as an Eagle,
Rror, Hoare-Spitall, Bradv, Blutoband, Rarice, WikHead, SilvonenBot, Ccaspar, Oyetu, Noctibus, Ramac (usurped), Aunt Entropy, Me,
Myself, and I, Good Olfactory, Neufast, Kbdankbot, RN1970, Cmpaul, Imeriki al-Shimoni, Jojhutton, Ginedwards, Clementkuehn, Euisun,
Leszek Jaczuk, Fluernutter, Musdan77, SholomDovBer, CarsracBot, Atomictelesopicman1234, AndersBot, LemmeyBOT, LinkFABot, Kisbesbot, Meieimatai, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Dabiggestestitaliano, FormerBaptist, Criminy1, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Senator Palpatine, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Beeswaxcandle, Daniel 1992, LtfMA, AnomieBOT, Fendrak, DemocraticLuntz,
Godofguns, Rubinbot, Jim1138, 90, LlywelynII, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Ss1517, Materialscientist, Citation bot, BeforeTheFoundation,
Danb11, SquishyBeaver, LovesMacs, Xqbot, The Fiddly Leprechaun, ThomasSixten, Intelati, The sock that should not be, Capricorn42,
Atob37, Giemmeci, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, N419BH, Adubsizzle, Hornymanatee, Cherry Blossom OK, GliderMaven, Nagualdesign, Mirzausman, Prari, Lionelt, FrescoBot, Avrum84, LucienBOT, TFearghall, Bpmiller, Girlwithgreeneyes, Shreknangst, Airborne84,
Amarq09, EastOfGingerTrees, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, BigDwiki, ZyzzxLad, Gmasterman, SpaceFlight89, Jandalhandler, Davinquin,
Newmanyb, Wawawemn, Lemmiwinks2, Corinne68, FoxBot, Notpietru, DixonDBot, ItsZippy, Wildman32586, Jhenderson777, Reach
Out to the Truth, Bobby122, Onel5969, Zulatry, Aleksig6, Yosefus, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, -- -- --, WikitanvirBot, Eek-

11.2

Images

erz, Mk5384, Niluop, Griswaldo, Web2091, Gauss1777, Yafehmeod, Sirius 128, Chris is cool poo bear, AvicBot, ZroBot, Sally Goodman,
A2soup, Nkrita, TigerEye1984, Nholt0113, Jesanj, Sahimrobot, Rrstern25, Donner60, Mutualaddiction, ChuispastonBot, Dylan Flaherty,
GregSims, Terraorin, Denhol415, Mitchou, Fearside, ClueBot NG, Warthomp, Joseph Biddulph, Tadukoo, Widr, Telpardec, Helpful
Pixie Bot, 78.146.132.102 Classics, Cariane, Calabe1992, WNYY98, Lowercase sigmabot, Dalai lama ding dong, Flax5, GoldlineLiberTarian, Nathan2055, Palltrast, JohnChrysostom, Zyxwv99, Mark Arsten, Misterechelon, CitationCleanerBot, Harizotoh9, Snow Blizzard,
JimTrail, Sbeystrum, Omarhabbaz, Brighella11, Searchinglost1, Bro.brianjs, Laodah, Shark12341234, Diekarte, JTWaggoner, Cody8282,
JYBot, Amtrakfan4, Darth Molo, Dexbot, Cwobeel, PretoriaTravel, Unknownperson69, Wvs3, Brownwould2, Socksure-Sackville, Seanpaul90210, Cherubinirules, Loveinspiring, Ugog Nizdast, Evensteven, Avrahamchaim, Avraham148, SarahCook184, FloodnoahArk123,
Aligna Padammm, Shery Nash, Concord hioz, Snowstorm26, Shotdot10, Mattw1021, Chicagoveter, Ali69eh, JudeccaXIII, Theredheifer,
Grbradt99, MTNPARK, Sashagoldstar, ProfGray, Isambard Kingdom, TKatz23, Zhyboo, The Fool, Johnmcintyre1959 and Anonymous:
861

11.2

Images

File:Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Aleppo_Codex_Joshua_1_1.jpg

License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.aleppocodex.org Original artist: see en:Aleppo Codex; scanned by http://www.
aleppocodex.org
File:Bourgeois_Joseph_recognized_by_his_brothers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Bourgeois_
Joseph_recognized_by_his_brothers.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/joconde/0419/
m015586_0004599_p.jpg Original artist: Lon Pierre Urbain Bourgeois
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Genesis_Bib_Lat_1481_d.1_p9.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Genesis_Bib_Lat_1481_d.1_
p9.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: The Bodleian Libraries, Oxford Original artist: Unknown
File:Molnr_brahm_kikltzse_1850.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Moln%C3%A1r_
%C3%81brah%C3%A1m_kik%C3%B6lt%C3%B6z%C3%A9se_1850.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (scanned)
Original artist: Jzsef Molnr
File:Nuremberg_chronicles_-_f_2v.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Nuremberg_chronicles_-_f_
2v.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (scan from original book)
language: Latin
Original artist: Hartmann Schedel
File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_035.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Rembrandt_
Harmensz._van_Rijn_035.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM,
2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Rembrandt
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

11.3

Content license

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