Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
CONSIDERATIONS
1 2 3 4 13 12 11 10
This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed
in this volume do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World
Bank or the governments they represent.
The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The
boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do
not imply any judgement on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any
territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with
complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive,
Danvers, MA 01923, USA; telephone: 978-750-8400; fax: 978-750-4470; Internet: www
.copyright.com.
All other queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to
the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433,
USA; fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org.
ISBN: 978-0-8213-8169-4
eISBN: 978-0-8213-8171-7
DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8169-4
Foreword vii
Acknowledgments ix
About the Authors xi
Abbreviations xiii
1 Introduction 1
Convergence Continues to Gain Momentum Worldwide 1
Responding to Convergence 4
Notes 7
v
CONTENTS
Regulatory Agencies 93
Conclusion 98
Notes 101
Index 117
Boxes
2.1 Convergence in Developing Countries: A Few Examples 12
2.2 The Impact of an Enabling Environment for
Convergence: Wireline Telephony and Job Creation 26
3.1 Examples of Multiple Play in Developing Countries 35
3.2 Consultations Can Build Support for and Strengthen
Regulatory Responses 40
3.3 How Competition in Telecommunications Affects
Growth and Consumer Costs: Lessons from India
and the United States 45
3.4 The Benefits of an Open Licensing Regime:
The Case of VoIP 53
3.5 Malaysia’s Simplified Licensing Framework 57
3.6 Japan’s Move to an IP-Based Environment 80
3.7 The Potential Gap in Next-Generation Networks 91
Figures
3.1 Globally, Mobile Telephones Surpassed
Fixed Lines in 2002 64
3.2 Many Cellular Operators Derive a Large Share
of Revenues from Wireless Data Services 66
Tables
2.1 Forms of ICT Convergence 11
2.2 Government Responses to Convergence around
the World 22
3.1 Some Examples of Regulatory Impediments
to Multiple Play 38
3.2 Summary Results of a Survey of Six Countries 42
3.3 Evolving License Types to Authorize Service
Providers’ Operations 50
vi
Foreword
vii
FOREWORD
This book proposes that countries have much to gain if they under-
stand and recognize the emerging forces of convergence and if they
create the appropriate conditions for it to flourish. Although con-
vergence may increase the complexity of market structures, it will
nevertheless help extend access to a broader range of affordable ICT
services, support innovation, and open new, unforeseen opportuni-
ties. Indeed, some of these benefits are already being realized in the
developing world. For example, mobile phones now offer traditionally
underserved populations an opportunity to access Internet services, as
cable television networks are also generating greater revenues from
converged services: voice, Internet, and media. Yet, while the promise
of convergence is tremendous, the pace and magnitude of change are
challenges for those who are tasked with regulating the ICT sector.
The absence of a strategic response can hamper competition and
discourage investment. This volume proposes certain policy options
and guiding principles that could help governments explore strategic
ways to mitigate some of the risks associated with convergence while
maximizing the benefits and opportunities that it can offer. It sug-
gests that governments should liberalize their markets further, by
promoting competition and allowing technologies to deliver all that
they can. At the same time, the book recognizes that there are no
universal or global solutions, with convergence occurring across such
a wide range of ICT networks and markets. As such, any ICT policy
or business solution should be tailored to the local environment and
to the peculiarities of the specific situation.
Mohsen A. Khalil
Director, Global Information and Communication Technologies
The World Bank Group
viii
Acknowledgments
For their help in collecting information and sharing ideas, the authors
would like to thank staff from the Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development, the U.S. Federal Communications
Commission, the Australian Communications and Media Authority,
the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, the U.K.’s Office of Com-
munication, the Infocomm Development Authority of Singapore, the
Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission, and
Industry Canada.
ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would also like to thank Alexandra Klopfer, Paul Holtz,
Sara Roche, and Lacinda Barrow for their editorial support. Finally,
for shepherding this volume from manuscript to published book, the
authors would like to thank the World Bank Office of the Publisher—
particularly Stephen McGroarty, acquisitions editor; Janet Sasser,
production editor; and Denise Bergeron, print coordinator. All errors
remain our own.
x
About the Authors
xi
Abbreviations
xiii
ABBREVIATIONS
xiv
Introduction
1
This book is a compilation of two recently completed works on the
convergence of information and communication technology (ICT)
(Singh and Raja 2008, 2009). Since then, convergence—the eroding
of boundaries among previously separate ICT services, networks, and
business practices—has accelerated and deepened.
1
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
the drive to cut costs while increasing value from ICT services are
coming together to speed up the pace of convergence.
2
INTRODUCTION
Users are also generating and consuming more and a greater diversity
of content online. Twitter, an application that allows users to broad-
cast short, text-based messages, allows cross-platform communication
and has an estimated 6 million users. Only three years old, it is already
recognized as a powerful organizing and political tool across the
world. The popularity of social networking Web sites, which allow
people to publish their own content and communicate with each
other, is another testament to the relevance of user-driven innovation.
Facebook, which now has more than 350 million active users world-
wide, and other Web sites such as YouTube, which contains more
than 100 million videos, not only host user-created content, but are
also developed by users as distinct from corporations that have long
dominated the media market. The financial valuation of Facebook
is now higher than that of more well-recognized media companies
such as The Washington Post Company or The New York Times
Company.1
Both ICT users and firms are looking to cut costs while capturing the
maximum possible value. The best example of this is the increasing
popularity of inexpensive services based on voice-over-Internet pro-
tocol (VoIP), which allow free or cheap voice communication. The
traffic carried by Internet-based VoIP application Skype now repre-
sents 8 percent of all international voice minutes, more than the larg-
est conventional carrier. The use of Skype Out, a service that allows
PC-to-telephone international calling, grew 50 percent between
2007 and 2008, carrying almost 8.5 billion minutes (TeleGeography
2009a). Similarly, Jajah, an application that uses the Internet to carry
regular telephone calls, connected its billionth call in June 2009—just
three years after it was established (Marketwire 2009).
ICT firms are also adopting converged business models and expand-
ing to nontraditional services. These nontraditional services—Internet
and telephone services in the case of cable television networks, and
video and Internet business for telephone companies—are in many
cases growing faster than traditional businesses. As one example, cable
3
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Responding to Convergence
As broadband networks grow, so will the ability of users to create
and share multimedia content. And as their drive to control costs and
grow revenues gets stronger, ICT providers and users will look to new
technologies and services to help them. Countries with policy and
regulatory frameworks that allow converging markets to function well
will benefit the most. With the pace of convergence set to increase,
many countries are adjusting their policy and regulatory frameworks
to facilitate convergence.
4
INTRODUCTION
5
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
6
INTRODUCTION
Notes
1. In June 2009, Facebook was valued at $6.5 billion, while the market capitaliza-
tion of The Washington Post Company was $3.3 billion, and that of The New
York Times Company $730 million (Bloomberg 2009 and Google Finance).
Estimates for Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube are based on data collected by
the authors.
7
Thinking Strategically
2
about ICT Convergence
This chapter explains ICT convergence and its main forms; shows
that convergence is a widespread, market-driven process; discusses
some of the main opportunities and challenges convergence poses to
businesses, users, and governments; and outlines options for govern-
ment policy responses, along with potential benefits and risks.1
Understanding Convergence
Convergence serves as shorthand for several processes of change tak-
ing place in the ICT sector. Broadly speaking, convergence is the
erosion of boundaries among previously separate services, networks,
and business practices in the ICT sector.
9
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Three main forms of convergence are evident. The first, service conver-
gence, or “multiple play,” allows a firm to use a single network to pro-
vide several communication services that traditionally required separate
networks. The second form is network convergence, where a common
standard allows several types of networks to connect with each other.
Consequently, a communication service can travel over any combination
of networks. While the first two forms of convergence are techno-
logical, the third form, corporate convergence, results from mergers,
acquisitions, or collaborations among firms. New business entities are
created to offer multiple services, old and new, and address different
markets. Table 2.1 summarizes and illustrates these three forms of
convergence and associated benefits, risks, and policy implications.
Convergence Is Reality
A number of factors are pushing ICT service providers toward con-
verged business models. These market drivers are now increasingly
common worldwide, including in developing countries.
10
Table 2.1 Forms of ICT Convergence
Item Service convergence Network convergence Corporate convergence
Definition Firms use one network to provide A service travels over any Firms in one sector acquire, merge,
multiple services. combination of networks. or collaborate with firms in other
sectors.
Examples Communication companies offer Internet telephony services such Internet, broadcasting, and
telephony, television, and Internet as Skype and Jajah carry voice telecommunication firms
services using telephone, cable, or telephony using the Internet and partner, merge, or expand
wireless networks. Examples traditional networks. their range of services. Such
are found in Chile, the Arab developments have occurred
Republic of Egypt, India, Poland, in Brazil, Nigeria, and Sri Lanka.
and Ukraine.
Benefits Service providers enter new Reduced costs lower tariffs. Mergers create opportunities for new
sectors, use their networks more Network integration permits services or markets, lower
efficiently, offer discounts for mobility for consumers and costs and tariffs, and increase the
bundles, and increase access to expands coverage. coverage of individual firms.
new ICT services.
Risks Subscribers could be locked This could lead to lower Mergers could lead to less
into one provider. Smaller firms, investment in networks. competition, market dominance, and
especially those without their own less diversity of media content.
broadband networks, might get
pushed out of the market.
Policy Convergence changes the scope Connecting different networks Mergers create new business models
implications and boundaries of markets and allows location- and network- and alter the market structure,
11
alters entry barriers. independent service provision. changing the dynamics of the sector.
Source: Authors.
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
12
THINKING STRATEGICALLY ABOUT ICT CONVERGENCE
13
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
166 countries, and nearly a quarter of the 300 million subscribers were
in middle-income countries.2
14
THINKING STRATEGICALLY ABOUT ICT CONVERGENCE
subscribers previously received only one service, they can now receive
three—voice, video, and data—over either network. As of 2007, esti-
mates suggest that more than a third of Canadian households now
subscribe to triple-play services, and that there are about 23 million
subscribers worldwide (Pyramid Research 2007).
Lower tariffs and a wider range of services also make some services
more attractive to users who are price-conscious or unsure of the per-
sonal usefulness of new services. In Sweden, for example, one cable
15
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Similar possibilities arise from the mixed use of cable, wireless broad-
band, and other ICT networks. Access to high-quality, reliable, and
affordable ICT services can have significant impacts that strengthen
governance, through e-governance, or provide distance health or dis-
tance education opportunities.
16
THINKING STRATEGICALLY ABOUT ICT CONVERGENCE
17
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
that if half of the international calls from the United States used it
instead of traditional carriers, annual savings would top $1 billion.
18
THINKING STRATEGICALLY ABOUT ICT CONVERGENCE
Service providers also see convergence as a way to cut costs. They seek
to lower operating expenses through consolidation of different sectors
or by using standardized IP-based network equipment. For example,
BT (formerly British Telecom) expects that its operating expenses will
decrease by £1 billion a year because its next-generation, all-IP network
will integrate a number of operational and network management sys-
tems (BT 2006). Reduced costs for companies translate to lower prices
for consumers.
Convergence also alters the impact of the ICT sector on social and
economic development—as could be expected given the role of ICT
as a critical input to economic and social activity.5 Increased compe-
tition due to convergence leads to reduced tariffs, increases service
coverage, and drives economic growth, enhancing the benefits of
economic liberalization.
Potential Challenges
19
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
20
THINKING STRATEGICALLY ABOUT ICT CONVERGENCE
Resistance
21
22
23
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Under the wait and watch approach, governments do not make changes
to their policy frameworks. Instead, they rely on existing policy, legal,
and regulatory instruments to deal with issues on a case-by-case basis.
In the United States, the FCC and the Department of Justice track
mergers and acquisitions in the ICT sector and use general competition
law to stop the formation of monopolies or anticompetitive behavior.
Though the wait and watch approach does not necessarily hold back
convergence, it can lead to confusion and uncertainty. Because con-
vergence blurs the boundaries among ICT subsectors, case-by-case
decisions on structural issues may expose inconsistencies due to the
different business and regulatory histories of each subsector (Bar and
Sandvig 2000). When rules and policy frameworks overlap or conflict,
regulatory risk increases, which can in turn increase the cost of capital
by up to 6 percentage points (depending on the country or region),
slowing investment in infrastructure and services.7
In the United States, the wait and watch response has led to conflicts
and concerns. A dispute over the introduction of video over IP services
in the state of Connecticut led telecommunications operator AT&T to
consider canceling $336 million in investments and suspending 1,300
jobs (New Haven Register 2007). The conflict arose because the state
required city-level franchising for cable television operators. AT&T
faced delays and increased costs if its video service was to be treated as
a cable television service because instead of securing one statewide tele-
communications license, it would have had to seek licenses city by city.
After 17 months of deliberation, the conflict was resolved in October
2007. During the process, the state cable television regulator reversed
decisions and was challenged in the courts twice. Not only did the
uncertainty cause significant risk to inward investment and job creation
for the state, it also undermined the credibility of regulation.
24
THINKING STRATEGICALLY ABOUT ICT CONVERGENCE
Enable
Some governments believe that convergence can benefit the ICT sec-
tor and the economy at large, and choose to create an environment
that actively promotes innovation and competitive service provision.
The international experience with the mobile telephone revolution
indicates that when service providers have clearance to offer a service,
face few government restrictions, and have explicit or implicit govern-
ment support, the market can develop very quickly. Similar expansion
in investments and access to advanced ICT services can result from
the creation of an enabling policy environment for convergence.
25
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
150
100
50
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
26
THINKING STRATEGICALLY ABOUT ICT CONVERGENCE
27
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
28
THINKING STRATEGICALLY ABOUT ICT CONVERGENCE
29
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
In the long term, countries that resist are likely to lose out on the ben-
efits of improved ICT technologies and services. Countries that wait
and watch might benefit if they have appropriate policy frameworks
already in place, but risks remain because convergence typically does
30
THINKING STRATEGICALLY ABOUT ICT CONVERGENCE
not fit easily into traditional policy frameworks. Evidence suggests that
the greatest benefits are derived in markets that enable convergence.
The next part of this combined report addresses some of the regula-
tory challenges and emerging responses to service convergence or
multiple play. Emerging trends suggest best practice principles as
promoting competition, creating a level playing field, and reviewing
the authorizations regime and spectrum management frameworks.
These lead to regulatory frameworks that enable multiple play and,
more broadly, convergence.
Notes
1. For conciseness, this chapter focuses on the supply of information and com-
munication services rather than on their demand and use, including content
and applications. The chapter presents a selection of the different views on
convergence found in current practice, bearing in mind the interests of ICT
policy makers and businesses in the developing world.
31
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
7. See Estache and Pinglo (2004); Jamison, Holt, and Berg (2005); Kirkpatrick,
Parker, and Zhang (2006); and Smith (2000) for further details.
32
Emerging Regulatory
3
Responses to
Multiple Play
In the information and communication technology (ICT) sector,
“multiple play” refers to situations in which a service provider uses
a single communications network—typically a telephone or cable
television network—to provide a combination of services such as
telephony, media, and Internet access. Around the world, providers
of communications services are adopting business models based on
multiple play. In doing so, they are using their existing infrastruc-
ture to expand coverage, increase subscriber bases and revenues, and
reduce costs.1
33
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Moreover, there is strong demand for multiple play and its related
services. Skype, an Internet telephony service, has more than 400
million subscribers in 225 countries and territories (eBay 2009), and
in 2007 carried 4 percent of international telephone traffic (Tele-
Geography 2007). By late 2007, there were more than 30 million
“triple-play” subscribers worldwide—typically receiving telephony,
broadcasting, and Internet services. With the increasing availability
of broadband and growing user awareness of and interest in related
services, multiple play will likely become increasingly popular.
34
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
35
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
36
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
37
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
38
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
39
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
40
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
41
42
While multiple play might lower entry barriers, there is also a risk
that it could lead to monopolistic market conditions, through sev-
eral means. First, multiple play might reduce competition because
only those service providers that can invest in multiple service
44
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
1,200 12
rupees/minute
1,000 10
800 8
600 6
400 4
200 2
0 0
5
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
9
20
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
45
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
46
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
47
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
(Katz 2000, pp. 29–30). Regulatory symmetry can rectify and pre-
vent such outcomes.
At the same time, in some cases, clearly defined and predictable asym-
metries can ensure competition and foster growth in new technolo-
gies. Regulators often apply stricter or more rules to dominant service
providers to ensure that they do not abuse their market power. For
instance, these rules often require providers to unbundle their local
loops and interconnect with competing service providers. Sometimes,
regulations mandate incumbent mobile telephone service providers
to offer national roaming facilities to new entrants for a limited time
so that the new entrant can compete effectively even as they deploy
their networks.
48
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
Authorizations
In some markets, authorizations—the legal instruments, such as
licenses or concession agreements, that allow service providers to
enter markets and define the rights and obligations of authorized
parties (ICT Regulation Toolkit 2008b)—have been the result of
regulatory responses to multiple play, while in others they existed
before multiple play.7 But in all markets, the authorization regime
is a top priority in creating an enabling regulatory environment that
facilitates a market-driven transition to multiple play. Service provid-
ers can lawfully provide only those services that fall within the scope
of their authorizations. As a result, even though technology permits
multiple play and service providers’ business models could benefit
from it, authorizations may hold them back. Mechanisms for award-
ing authorizations also have significant implications for the market
effects of multiple play. Regimes that allow easy entry by new service
providers or permit older service providers to enter new market seg-
ments will facilitate the introduction of multiple play.
Recent trends have been for regimes to move from technology (or
service-specific) authorizations to open and flexible regimes, as in
Kenya and Uganda (table 3.3). Some countries, such as Malaysia and
Singapore, have moved to class licensing for some services. There is
also an emerging trend requiring only simple notification for some
services (as in Finland, Japan, and Moldova) or, in the future, toward
de-licensing.
49
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
50
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
51
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
52
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
AT&T
Skype Out
Jajah
Reliance
53
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
54
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
55
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
56
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
57
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
58
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
Even a liberal market such as that in the United States has not been
free of the problems that multiple play creates for the authorizations
regime. U.S. telephone services are traditionally licensed at the state
or national level. Now that telecommunications companies are enter-
ing the media market, they are subject to licensing regimes at the city
level, a disparity that creates opportunities for firms to exploit dif-
ferent rules if they find themselves in a conflict between regulations
and agencies.
59
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
licenses, saying that IPTV was not significantly different from tradi-
tional cable television. After a long court battle, in November 2007
AT&T secured the right to statewide franchising. Along the way,
the company almost canceled its investment and employment plans,
threatening significant lost economic opportunities for the state.
60
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
61
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
the provision of multiple services and easy market entry. Many coun-
tries are adopting unified regimes, class licenses, or even de-licensing
(see again table 3.3). The only exception typically is when service
providers require the right to use finitely available resources such as
radio frequency.
■ Licensing fees. Some licensees may have paid large sums for their
licenses, while others have paid little or nothing. In many cases the
differences are significant even within the same market.
62
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
Spectrum Management
Appropriate radio spectrum management can facilitate wireless mul-
tiple play. Around the world, spectrum management is moving away
from traditional administration, which involved allocating spectrum
to specific uses, toward more flexible, open spectrum management
regimes.
63
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
3,500
3,000
number, millions
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
main (fixed) telephone lines mobile cellular subscribers
Source: Author estimates based on ITU and Wireless Intelligence (2008) data.
64
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
There are also indications that demand is growing for nonvoice (data)
services over wireless networks. In 2007, cellular operators in at least
15 countries—including Indonesia and the Philippines—derived a
fifth or more of service revenues from data services (figure 3.2).
The market for content and services provided over mobile telephones
is also growing. For instance, revenues from games played on mobile
phones are already more than $4 billion and by 2010 are expected to
reach $17 billion. Similar growth is expected in multimedia distrib-
uted over cellular telephone networks (SSKI Research 2007).
65
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
60
50
40
percent
30
20
10
0
s
Ze n
Un In land
Ki sia
m
nd
Ge tria
y
Cz the ly
Re nds
Au lic
Cr lia
Po a
itz d
nd
e
an
ti
pa
n
Ita
do
b
in
ra
oa
la
Sw la
la
e
pu
rm
ec rla
Ja
ite on
pp
st
a
Ire
Au
er
ng
d
ili
Ph
Ne
h
d
Ne
and video broadcasting. Some have already begun the switch, while
others—such as Chile, Hungary, Slovenia, and República Bolivariana
de Venezuela—are planning to move toward digital television.
66
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
Germany; Hong Kong, China; India; Kenya; and Nigeria have mobile
television services in testing or ready for commercialization.
67
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
68
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
bands. Similarly, the 2.5 GHz band was originally marked for tech-
nologies including 3G and beyond. But the 2007 World Radiocom-
munications Conference added WiMax to the list of 3G international
mobile telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) technologies, thus
allowing regulators to attempt to avoid tying spectrum bands to
specific technologies.
69
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
One concern about opening all spectrum to any use involves the balance
between flexible new assignments and existing assignments to incum-
bents. For example, if a new mobile wireless broadband provider offers
voice telephone services, it changes the business models and position
of existing 3G-only operators, many of which have paid significant
sums—sometimes hundreds of millions of dollars—for spectrum usage
rights. Regulators need to consider not only how to manage the grow-
ing range of uses of previously allocated spectrum, but also the balance
between new spectrum allocations and incumbents’ interests.14
70
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
71
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
72
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
73
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
74
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
75
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
76
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
revenues with each other, VoIP providers, who hold a different type
of license and are not subject to these regulations, benefit from this
imbalance (The Nation 2008).
Multiple play does not necessarily mean that the nature of services is
changing. In many cases, the telephone, media, and Internet services
that consumers are using will continue. Delivery platforms, though, are
changing, as is the roster of service providers. Still, discussions about
interconnection and interoperability need not deviate entirely from
their current form. Rather, they can take into account the presence of
77
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
new service providers and ensure that interconnection terms are fair
and nondiscriminatory.
78
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
All three of these models are currently in use around the world—
and in some cases multiple models are used in the same country.
For example, the United States uses CPNP for calls to incumbent
wireline telephone operators, and bill and keep for mobile-to-mobile
calls and calls from one nonincumbent fixed provider to another (or
to a mobile operator). Singapore uses a system similar to that in the
United States, with CPNP for calls terminating on the fixed network
and bill and keep for calls terminating on the mobile network. There
are also a number of arrangements in the Internet hierarchy. While
tier 1 backbone operators tend to use bill and keep among them-
selves, their arrangements with tier 2 operators22 tend to be RPNP
(Gilbert + Tobin and CRA International 2007).
79
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
80
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
81
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
82
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
The twin issues of access and unbundling must be addressed early and
clearly. Investments in facilities are significant: estimates suggest that
investments in next-generation networks will exceed $300 billion over
the next decade and, as with all investments, are made assuming cer-
tain rates of return that in turn depend on tariffs. Investors might seek
83
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
84
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
work formally began on the network, and Nucleus Connect was signed
on to operate it (IDA 2009).
Access rules also find their way to cable television networks. In 2007,
the U.S. FCC initiated discussions on regulating access to cable televi-
sion channels. It proposed a rule, currently under discussion, that would
require cable television companies to lower the prices they charge televi-
sion content producers to lease access to cable channels (FCC 2008a).
Universal Service
Many socially desirable goals cannot be achieved by relying solely
on markets. Hence, governments often introduce universal service
programs to attain goals such as increased coverage, access for poor or
socially vulnerable groups, and provision of cultural and educational
content and services.
85
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
groups that they otherwise might not reach. With the spread of
broadband, regulators will have to reconsider the goals of these pro-
grams and ensure that obligations and support apply equally across
technologies. They can also add new services as targets for support,
such as data services—as Australia has done.
86
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
87
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
88
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
89
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
90
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
500 25
400 20
300 15
200 10
100 5
0 0
an
iL a
ka
Un al a
St a
es
Ne ga n
ite Zea e
Ko Kin d
m
an of
Au ina
lia
di
Un w por
Si apa
n
ite ays
re gdo
at
an
ra
st
la
iw p.
Ch
h
In
ki
,C
st
Ta Re
J
Pa
n
d
Sr
a,
d
91
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
For example, in a review of its rules for universal service fund con-
tributions several years ago, the U.S. FCC (2006) noted that the
revenues of traditional wireline telephone contributors had fallen
by 6 percent even as their disbursements had grown 29 percent over
2003–05. Yet wireless and VoIP services grew enormously during this
period, with VoIP subscribers growing by 28 times (FCC 2005a). The
FCC concluded that excluding these providers from universal service
contribution requirements was inappropriate, especially given that
they were competing directly with traditional contributors. It thus
added all “interconnected” telephone providers to the list of con-
tributors, including VoIP providers. The FCC is currently seeking to
develop a contribution methodology, based on end-user telecommu-
nications revenues, that is competitively neutral. This approach would
avoid distorting how carriers choose to structure their businesses or
the types of services that they provide.
92
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
as ducts, cellular phone towers, and dark fiber. The regulatory ques-
tion is then how to use available funds to support not just the active
or complete infrastructure, but also the passive infrastructure that will
enable broadly based sector development.
Regulatory Agencies
The establishment and mandates of regulatory agencies are policy
issues. But given the importance of regulatory agencies in the ICT
sector, it is relevant to consider the impact of multiple play and the
different organizational models in use. Every country has its own
organizational structure for the ICT sector. Typically, there are line
ministries, regulators, and affiliated authorities or bodies that directly
oversee the sector.
93
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
More recently, there has been a growing trend toward creating con-
verged regulators. This can be done either by creating converged
regulators for telecommunications and broadcasting infrastructure
and content (as in the United Kingdom and the United States) or
by creating converged infrastructure regulators (as in Estonia and
Singapore).
94
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
95
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
96
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
As shown above, Malaysia, Singapore, and India have all had their
successes and challenges in dealing with multiple play. All three have
responded to the introduction of IPTV, though with varying efficien-
cies. They have also faced difficulties in regulating new services, such
as mobile television in Singapore and interconnected VoIP in India.
97
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Conclusion
Around the world, there has been a diverse range of regulatory
responses to multiple play in the ICT sector. Regulatory frameworks
have responded and adapted differently, depending on specific cir-
cumstances and legacy factors. So, even though the technologies and
possibilities of multiple play are universal, specific implications and
appropriate responses vary by country. Moreover, the experiences of
many developed countries suggest that regulatory frameworks need
to be revised as technologies, business models, and market conditions
evolve. Thus, regulatory responses to multiple play will be specific to
both location and time.
98
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
The book also identifies some global best-practice principles for regu-
latory frameworks to respond to multiple play:
99
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
The analysis in this book also highlights the importance for regulators
to consider how to implement their agendas. It is not necessary to do
everything at once when responding to multiple play. Instead, politi-
cally or capacity-constrained regulators might choose a first step that
will have the greatest impact. Given the primacy of the authorization
regime, its review and amendment might be a useful such step.
100
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
Notes
1. Multiple play can also be provided by bundling. This is where combinations of
services are offered as part of one package or customer relationship. Bundling
does not require these services to be provided over one network, or even by one
provider. It is a commercial or business arrangement, as opposed to a techno-
logical solution. This book does not discuss multiple play through bundling,
but focuses on the provision of multiple play over one network, typically using
IP networking technology.
3. The book focuses on these areas because they include many of the key regula-
tory issues associated with multiple play. A number of other issues—such as
the assignment of telephone numbers and quality of services—have not been
addressed, because the debate and discussion on them do not fundamentally
shift in the era of multiple play. Moreover, the services provided retain their
unique identities (for example, numbering of telephone subscribers may follow
the same numbering plan whether a cable television or telecommunications
provider offers telephone services).
6. Symmetry can also apply to content regulation. For example, many coun-
tries impose must-carry provisions on cable or satellite television networks,
mandating that cable networks carry a certain number of public interest or
local channels. But these rules are not always imposed on telecommunications
service providers. When telecommunications firms enter the broadcasting
market, asymmetric access to and regulation of content might strengthen or
weaken their position depending on the market’s preference for public interest
or local content.
101
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
7. The discussion here focuses on four distinct services: mobile telephony, wire-
line telephony, video and television services, and Internet services. Together,
these services form the basis of most multiple-play business models.
10. Further, the provision of data or even voice over traditional or alternative
wireless networks was not a major disruption. However, the trend around
the world has been for regulators to see the provision of video services over
wireless networks as a problem. The introduction of mobile television and
video broadcasting over “telecommunications” networks, for example, has
led to significant hand wringing among many regulators. The primary cause
for this is the stricter control governments seek over media and broadcasting
than telecommunications. Even many countries that have adopted multiple
play-friendly regulations are still maintaining older distinctions.
11. Operators can upgrade CDMA2000 networks in the 800 MHz band to data-
centric CDMA2000 EV-DO networks. This has happened in 28 countries
(for example, Brazil, Cameroon, Indonesia, and Morocco) to date. Further,
even the GSM evolution to 3G, WCDMA, is now available in the 900 MHz
band. Australia, Finland, France, and the United Kingdom have plans to
deploy (or have already deployed) WCDMA in this band.
13. FDD is frequency division duplexing, where transmission and reception chan-
nels operate simultaneously but at different frequencies. TDD is time division
duplexing, where transmission and reception are over the same frequencies but
at different times.
102
EMERGING REGULATORY RESPONSES TO MULTIPLE PLAY
area codes was set aside for IP telephony services, with more flexibility given
to services that connected to emergency service numbers. See Morita (2005)
for more background.
15. For example, the U.S. Federal Communication Commission’s Part 15 rules
on how “intentional, unintentional, or incidental radiator may be operated
without an individual license” states: “Emanations from the device shall be
suppressed as much as practicable, but in no case shall the emanations exceed
the levels specified in these rules. . . . Parties responsible for equipment
compliance should note that the limits specified in this Part will not prevent
harmful interference under all circumstances.” As such, manufacturers and
users of devices using the unlicensed spectrum have a responsibility to reduce
their harmful emissions as much as possible and minimize the possibility of
interference with other devices. On the other hand, users of the devices have
no right to be protected from harmful interference from another device (see
http://www.fcc.gov/oet/info/rules/part15/part15-9-20-07.pdf).
17. The next generation of technical developments will further challenge regulators.
Dynamic circuit switches and utility computing, as well as the potential for an
end to the termination monopoly, are some of these potential developments.
20. For example, the interface between the CDMA and GSM mobile networks in
countries such as India and the United States is not regulated.
21. This discussion is covered under the rubric of “network neutrality.” Funda-
mentally, network neutrality seeks to ensure that a network treats different
types of traffic or content the same. There are a number of views on the issue,
and the debate about whether network neutrality is a useful or harmful tool is
ongoing. See Peha (2007) and Wu (2003) for more background on the issue.
22. Tier 1 networks are the major operators that form the backbone of the Inter-
net and other international telecommunications networks. They peer with
103
CONVERGENCE IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
other Tier 1 networks for no fee. Tier 2 operators are the national or regional
networks that pay to transit other networks. Tier 2 operators buy transit from
Tier 1 networks and other Tier 2 networks. In some cases, Tier 2 networks
peer or exchange traffic settlement free with other Tier 2 networks.
23. See, for example, Adams and Yellen (1976) and Guiltinan (1987).
24. An example is France, where the government has begun to subsidize the
building of passive infrastructure, such as ducts and dark fiber, to help cut
the costs of network rollout. Similarly, Singapore is tendering for the rollout
of passive infrastructure such as cables and ducts in order to support Internet
services at 1 Gbps (gigabits per second) and beyond to households and busi-
nesses.
25. Given the focus of this book on infrastructure, an analysis of content guide-
lines is not provided.
27. Indeed, this is the idea behind the market gap/access gap model.
104
References and Other
Resources
Adams, W. J., and J. L. Yellen. 1976. “Commodity Bundling and the Burden of
Monopoly.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 90 (3): 475–98.
AFX Asia. 2007. “Singapore’s Starhub 2006 Net Profit Rises 62.7 on Strong
Revenue in All Segments.” February 14.
Associated Press. 2007. “Judge Sides with AT&T in Effort to Offer Cable Televi-
sion in Connecticut.” October 31.
Balancing Act. n.d. “Kenya—Legal VoIP Begins to Shake Up the Market and
Bring Prices Down.” http://www.balancingact-africa.com/news/back/balancing-act
_297.html.
105
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
Bar, F., and C. Sandvig. 2000. “Rules from Truth: Communication Policy after
Convergence.” Paper presented at the Telecommunications Policy Research Con-
ference, Alexandria, VA, September 23–25.
Bloomberg. 2009. “Facebook Employees Offered $100 Million for Shares.” July 13.
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=a3StPF2tZb0I.
Burns, John, Phillipa Marks, Florence LeBorgne, and Richard Rudd. 2004. “Study on
Spectrum Management in the Field of Broadcasting: Implications of Digital Swi-
tchover for Spectrum Management.” http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/policy/
ecomm/doc/library/ext_studies/spectrum_mgmt_bc_dswo/final_report_v3.pdf.
The Business Times. 2006a. “All Set to Disrupt Telecoms Industry.” July 24.
Cave, M. 2005. “Investment Incentives and Local Loop Prices.” Unpublished paper.
http://www.arcep.fr/fileadmin/reprise/dossiers/degroup/MartinCave1233.pdf.
106
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
Department for Culture, Media, and Sport and Department for Business,
Innovation and Skills (United Kingdom). 2009. “Digital Britain: Final Report.”
London. http://www.culture.gov.uk/images/publications/digitalbritain-final
report-jun09.pdf.
Dow Jones International News. 2000. “Japan Govt May Create National Fiber-
Optic Network.” November 1.
Economist Intelligence Unit. 2007. “Africa: Tariffs Tumble, VoIP Rises.” EIU,
New York.
107
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
———. 2005b. “First Report and Order and Notice of Public Rule Making: IP-
Enabled Services.” WC Docket Nos. 04-36 and 05-196. FCC, Washington, DC.
http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-05-116A1.pdf.
———. 2006. “Report and Order and Notice of Proposed Rulemaking: Universal
Service Contribution Methodology.” FCC, Washington, DC. http://hraunfoss
.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-06-94A1.pdf.
———. 2007e. “Time Warner Request for Declaratory Ruling that Competitive
Local Exchange Carriers May Obtain Interconnection under Section 251 of the
Communications Act of 1934, as Amended, to Provide Wholesale Telecommuni-
cations Services to VoIP Providers.” WC Docket No. -6-55. FCC, Washington,
DC. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DA-07-709A1.pdf.
———. 2008a. “Report and Order and Further Notice of Proposed Rulemaking:
Leased Commercial Access.” MB Docket No. 07-42. http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/
edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-07-208A1.doc.
108
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
109
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
Guermazi, B., and D. Satola. 2005. “Creating the ‘Right’ Enabling Environment
for ICT.” In E-Development: From Excitement to Effectiveness, ed. Robert Schware,
23–46. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Henten, A., M. Falch, and R. Tadayoni. 2002. “Some Implications for Regulation
of ICT and Media Convergence.” Discussion Paper 0202. World Dialogue on
Regulation for Network Economies, Copenhagen.
110
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
———. 2007. “The Status of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) Worldwide,
2006.” FoV paper 04, International Telecommunication Union, Geneva.
Jamison, M. A., L. Holt, and S. V. Berg. 2005. “Measuring and Mitigating Regu-
latory Risk in Private Infrastructure Investment.” The Electricity Journal 18: 6.
Johnson, S. 2009. “How Twitter Will Change the Way We Live.” Time. June 5.
Kirkpatrick, C., D. Parker, and Y.-F. Zhang. 2006. “Foreign Direct Investment
in Infrastructure in Developing Countries: Does Regulation Make a Difference?”
Transnational Corporations 15 (1): 143–71.
Marcus, J. Scott. 2007. “NGN Interconnection and Access.” Report for Inter-
national Telecommunication Union Global Symposium of Regulators, Dubai,
February 5–7. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Events/Seminars/GSR/GSR07/
discussion_papers/JScott_Marcus_Interconnection_IP-based.pdf.
111
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
The Nation (Thailand). 2008. “DTAC Sees Red over VoIP Calls.” February 16.
The New York Times. 2007. “Unlike U.S., Japan Pushes Fiber Over Profit.”
October 3.
112
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
Papadias, L., A. Riedl, and J. G. Westerhof. 2006. “Public Funding for Broad-
band Network—Recent Developments.” European Competition Policy Newsletter 3:
13–18.
Paul Budde Communications Pty Ltd. 2007. “France: Telecom Market Over-
view.” Paul Budde Communications Pty Ltd., Bucketty, Australia.
113
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
Singh, R., and S. Raja. 2009. “Nothing Endures but Change: Thinking Strategi-
cally about ICT Convergence.” In Information and Communications for Develop-
ment 2009: Extending Reach and Increasing Impact, 19–34. Washington, DC:
World Bank.
Stern, P. A., and D. N. Townsend. 2007. “New Models for Universal Access to
Telecommunications Services in Latin America.” Joint study by Regulatel, Public-
Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility, Global Partnership on Output-Based Aid,
United Nations, European Union, Economic Commission for Latin America and
the Caribbean (CEPAL), and the World Bank.
Straits Times (Singapore). 2005a. “Pay Television Key to SingTel’s Hub Ambition.”
October 31.
———. 2006. “SingTel’s Pay Television Foray May Come at High Cost.”
November 20.
Telecommunications Reports. 2007. “Court Rules AT&T Can Offer IPTV under
New Video Law.” 15 November.
114
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
TR’s State NewsWire. 2006. “AT&T Credits IPTV Ruling for $336M Invest-
ment Plan.” June 23.
U.K. Department for Culture, Media and Sport. 2006. “Convergence Think
Tank.” http://www.culture.gov.uk/Convergence/index.html.
U.S. Congressional Research Service. 2003. “FCC Media Ownership Rules: Issues
for Congress.” U.S. Congressional Research Service, Washington, DC.
———. 2009a. 1st Quarter 2009 Earnings Conference Call, April 27, 2009:
http://investor.verizon.com/news/20090427/20090427.pdf.
115
REFERENCES AND OTHER RESOURCES
———. 2009b. 2nd Quarter 2009 Earnings Conference Call, July 27, 2009:
http://investor.verizon.com/news/20090727/20090727.pdf.
The Wall Street Journal. 2006. “How France Became a Leader in Offering Faster
Broadband.” March 28.
Waverman, L. 2006. “The Challenges of a Digital World and the Need for a New
Regulatory Paradigm.” In Communications—The Next Decade, ed. E. Richards,
R. Foster, and T. Kiedrowski, 158–75. Norwich, U.K.: Office of Communications.
Wellenius, B., and I. Neto. 2008. “Managing the Radio Spectrum: Framework for
Reform in Developing Countries.” Policy Research Working Paper, World Bank,
Washington, DC.
116
Index
117
INDEX
B interconnection, 73, 83
barriers to entry, 36–37, 38t, 41, 44 next-generation networks,
best-practice principles, 6–7, 99–100 investment in, 91b
bill-and-keep model, 78–79 spectrum management, 67, 69
Brazil wireline services, declining
anticompetitive effects of subscriber base for, 26b
convergence in, 19 Cisco Systems, 12
authorizations regime, 102n9 code division multiple access,
broadband network development evolution, data-optimized
in, 2 (CDMA EV-DO)
corporate convergence in, 12b technology, 68
forms of convergence in, 11t code division multiple access
multiple play, growing supply of/ (CDMA) standard,
demand for, 35b 68, 103n20
spectrum management in, 102n11 competition
BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, as best-practice principle in
and China), 2 regulatory regimes, 99–100
broadband network development, direct government investment,
1–3, 13–14 anticompetitive effects
broadband wireless, 65–67, 66f of, 28
bundling, 101n1 effects of covergence on, 17–20
business models, converged (corporate interconnection issues, 78, 80b
convergence), 3–4, legacy regulatory frameworks,
10, 11t, 20 challenges for multiple play
in, 36–37, 38t
policy reform and promotion of,
C 27, 31
cable television infrastructure, regulation promoting, 41,
converged services via, 15 44–47, 45–46b
calling party’s network pays (CPNP), consultation with stakeholders
78, 79 in regulatory reform, 39,
Cameroon, 102n11 40b
Canada, 15, 42t, 98 content online, 3
CDMA EV-DO (code division convergence in ICT, vii–viii, 1–20
multiple access, evolution, benefits and risks of, 14–20
data-optimized) best-practice principles, 6–7
technology, 68 competition, effects on, 17–20
CDMA (code division multiple defined, 1, 9
access) standard, 68, in developing countries, 12–13b
103n20 growing momentum of, 1–4
Chile, 4, 11t, 13b, 35b, 66 market and technology drivers,
China 10–14
access regulation, 83 policy responses to, 4–5, 20–31.
authorizations regime, 56, 63 See also policy responses to
broadband network
convergence
development in, 2
118
INDEX
119
INDEX
120
INDEX
121
INDEX
122
INDEX
123
INDEX
124
INDEX
125
ECO-AUDIT
Environmental Benefits Statement
The World Bank is committed to preserving Saved:
endangered forests and natural resources. • 2 trees
The Office of the Publisher has chosen to • 1 million Btu of
print Convergence in Information and total energy
Communication Technology: Strategic and • 225 lb. of net
Regulatory Considerations on recycled greenhouse gases
paper with 30 percent postconsumer fiber in • 1,084 gal. of
accordance with the recommended standards waste water
for paper usage set by the Green Press Ini- • 66 lb. of solid
tiative, a nonprofit program supporting pub- waste
lishers in using fiber that is not sourced from
endangered forests. For more information,
visit www.greenpressinitiative.org.
Growth in the information and communication technology (ICT)
sector has exploded over the past 20 years. Continuous dynamic
market and technology developments in this sector have led to
a phenomenon known as convergence, which is defined in this
volume as the erosion of boundaries between previously separate
ICT services, networks, and business practices. Some examples include
cable television networks that offer phone service, Internet television,
and mergers between media and telecommunications firms.
ISBN 978-0-8213-8169-4
SKU 18169