FURTHER ELECTRICAL POWER

ASSIGNMENT 1

THE MODERN POWER SYSTEM-PART1-1

JOHN O’CONNOR
16/10/09
 CONTENTS

Summary………………………………………………………….2

Introduction……………………………………………………….3

Report & Analysis………………………………………………..6

Conclusion………………………………………………………..18

Discussion………………………………………………………..18

References………………………………………………………..20
 SUMMARY

This report entails information about the modern power system, specifically
the construction and properties of overhead transmission lines, and my
findings are:

Considerations for the construction of steel lattice towers are

• Compressive forces on the steel members

• Bolted connections
• Bracing
• Forces acting on the tower, including foundations, horizontal wind load,
weight of conductors and fittings, longitudinal loads from conductor
tension, wind effects on the conductors (Aeolian vibrations)
• Environmental conditions
• Conductor types and fittings
• International design standards

Protection for high voltage overhead lines:

• Distance relay operation involving zones and measurement of the

impedance of the line to determine the fault.
• Typical faults include lightning strikes and objects coming into contact
with the conductors.
 INTRODUCTION

This report is a study of the modern power system, specifically overhead lines
and cables.

The following information is provided:

The diagram above shows a typical supply system. The 275kV/400kV section
is highlighted by the arrow.

The purpose of this report is to produce a technical manual that describes the
construction and properties of the 275kV/400kV overhead line connecting
T/X1 and T/X2.
The following information is also provided:

Figure 1.3 shows a simplified force diagram of a line tower with forces A to E
representing the following forces:

A – Horizontal conductor wind load

B – Horizontal structure wind load
C – Component of wind loading in respect of wind direction and structure area
D – Vertical conductor weight span times conductor weight, incl. insulators
and fixings
E – Longitudinal loads due to conductor tension

The purpose of this report is also to describe:

1. How the design of a 275kV/400kV tower ensures mechanical stability

against the above forces. Draw a force diagram that shows the above
forces and the forces acting upon the foundations.

2. The design standards (IEC, EN, BS) and how they apply to lattice steel
towers.

3. The factors influencing conductor selection for 275kV/400kV lattice

steel towers, e.g. environmental conditions, types of conductors, etc.
Also explain what ACSR conductors are and how they are classified.

4. The commonly used overhead line fittings for 275kV/400kV

transmission systems.
The following information is also provided:

The diagram above shows a transmission system. The lightening bolt shows a
fault between bus 3 and bus 4. The nominal voltage is 138kV and the power
transfer is 27MW.
The final purpose of this report is to explain what faults typically occur on
transmission lines like this and state the means of localising faults.
 REPORT AND ANALYSIS

The overhead line section from T/X1 to T/X2 is supported using steel lattice
towers. These towers are used at higher voltage levels and can support
heavier conductors along with longer conductor spans in hazardous
conditions, such as high wind areas. Wooden poles or lighter steel poles
would not perform as well.

(Diagram taken from Bayliss.C 1999 Transmission and Distribution Electrical

Engineering. Newnes)

The diagram above shows some typical tower outlines.

Towers can be categorized into the following groups:

Suspension towers Straight line and deviation angles up

to about 2°
10° angle or section tower Angles of deviation up to 2° or at
section positions also for heavy
weight spans or with unequal
effective negative weight spans
30° angle Deviation angles up to 30°
60° angle Deviation angles up to 60°
90° angle Deviation angles up to 90°
Terminal tower Terminal tower loading taking full line
tension on one side of tower and
none or slack span on other- usually
substation entry

There are different versions of description for these towers. The description is
abbreviated as shown:

A double circuit 30° angle tower for twin conductor use could be described as
D30T. It can also be known as D30.

Task 1.

MECHANICAL STABILITY

Steel lattice transmission towers are subjected to many forces, so it is vital

that they are able to withstand these and maintain stability. It is important that
each part of the tower is correct for the designed loadings. Slenderness ratios
(l/r where l is length and r is radius of gyration) are used to determine how
long a steel member can be before its load carrying ability is compromised.
The tower designers refer to BSEN 10025 for structural steel standards and
BS5950 for the slenderness ratios.

The tower design is based on compression formula for different sections of

the steel work. The design is usually carried out be specialist structural
engineers.
The table below shows the compression formula for leg members with
different length/radius of gyration values.

(Table taken from Bayliss.C 1999 Transmission and Distribution Electrical

Engineering. Newnes)

Bending forces, compression, tension forces, flexural buckling and lateral

buckling are all factors that need to be addressed by the structural engineers
when they are designing a steel lattice tower.

The type of bolts used is also important. Because of the forces acting on the
steel towers, there is a very slight bending, so the bolts used take this into
consideration. Friction grip bolts, which are commonly used for rigid structures
that are exposed to high shear loads, are not suitable.
FORCE DIAGRAM

Showing forces acting upon a steel lattice tower.

Horizontal structure wind load

• Horizontal structure wind load

• Horizontal conductor wind load
• Longitudinal conductor load
• Wind load (vibrations)
• Weight of conductors and fittings
• Uplift and compression on foundations due to wind loads
TASK 2

The design standards that apply to 275kV/400kV steel towers.

BS5950 covers the design comprehensively. The tables for l/r slenderness
ratios are derived from this standard.

EN50341 covers the design of steel structures.

BSEN10025 is another hot rolled steel structural standard.

EN24016 is the standard for ISO metric black hex bolts and precision bolts.

IEC 60815-1 and -2 is the guide for the selection of insulators in respect of
polluted conditions.

IEC 60826 is the guide for design criteria for overhead lines

EN50341 covers loadings for overhead lines in excess of AC45kV.

BS8100 covers loading and strength of overhead transmission lines.

TASK 3

Factors that influence conductor selection for 275kV/400kV steel lattice

towers.

Overhead lines operate in a vast variety of climatic conditions, from desert to

frozen steppe. The environmental conditions have to be considered: (Taken
from Bayliss.C 1999 Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering.
Newnes)

Temperature.

The max, min and average temperature can affect conductor current rating
and sag. For temperate conditions typically 20°C with 55°C temperature rise.
For tropical conditions 35°C or 40°C with 40°C or 35°C temperature rise.
Maximum conductor operating temperature should not exceed 75°C for bare
conductors to prevent annealing of aluminium. Conductor temperatures up to
210°C are possible with ‘GAP’ conductors.

Wind Velocity

Required for structure and conductor design. Electrical conductor ratings may
be based on cross wind speeds of 0.5 m/s or longitudinal wind speeds of 1
m/s.
Solar Radiation

Required for conductor ratings but also for fittings such as composite
insulators that may be affected by exposure to high thermal and ultraviolet
(UV) radiation. Typical values of 850W/m^2 and 1200W/m^2 may be
assumed for temperate and tropical conditions respectively.

Rainfall

Important in relation to flooding (necessity for extension legs on towers),

corona discharge and associated electromagnetic interference, natural
washing and insulator performance.

Humidity

Effect on insulator design.

Altitude

Effect on insulator and conductor voltage gradient.

Ice and Snow

Required for design of conductor sags and tensions. Build up can also affect
insulation as well as conductor aerodynamic stability.

Atmospheric Pollution

Effect on insulation and choice of conductor.

Soil Characteristics

Electrically affecting grounding requirements (soil resistivity) and structurally

the foundation design (weights, cohesion and angle of repose)

Lightning

Effect on insulation levels and also earth wire screening arrangements

necessary to provide satisfactory outage performance.

Seismic Factor

Effect on tower and foundation design.

General Loadings

Refer also to IEC 60826 (Design criteria for overhead lines), EN50341
(Overhead lines exceeding AC45kV- supersedes 60826 for European use)
and BS8100 (Loading and strength of overhead transmission lines).
CONDUCTOR SELECTION.

The selection of the conductors for 275kV/400kV overhead lines must take
various factors into account. The conductors for 36kV and above both
aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) and all aluminium alloy
conductor (AAAC) can be used. ACSR conductors are used both because
they are less costly than the other options and they have good mechanical
strength properties. They also have widespread manufacturing capacity.

Copper is a fantastic conductor material, having very high corrosion

resistance and able to be used in conditions prone to sand blasting (desert).
The downside to copper is the cost. It is more costly than aluminium.

ACSR conductors have better resistance to long term creep or relaxation that
can occur with AAAC conductors. This is due to the steel core in ACSR
conductors.

There are problems that can arise with the ACSR conductors. One such
problem is bulge corrosion. This is corrosion that increases the conductor
diameter by way of corrosion deposits that are a byproduct of bi-metallic
corrosion. Because of the capacity for steel to corrode the corrosion of the
steel core in ACSR conductors has been abated by using high temperature
greases. The greases prevent the onset of galvanic corrosion between the
galvanized steel core and the outer aluminium wires.

The table below shows the typical properties of some ACSR conductors.

(Table taken from Bayliss.C 1999 Transmission and Distribution Electrical

Engineering. Newnes)
 Diagram of conductor arrangements for ACSR conductors.

(Diagram taken from Bayliss.C 1999 Transmission and Distribution Electrical

Engineering. Newnes)

TASK 4

Overhead line fittings.

There are many fittings used on 275kV/400kV overhead lines. The list below
covers the important ones.

• Joints.

Joints on overhead lines must be capable of withstanding the full line

current, as well as the occasional fault current, in the ambient
temperature range where the overhead line is located. Joints on ACSR
conductors are constructed of two parts, a galvanized or stainless steel
inner cylindrical sleeve and a surrounding outer cylindrical aluminium
sleeve. Both sleeves are compressed together using a hydraulic press.
Compression grease is used to coat the aluminium and steel to prevent
corrosion.
• Stockbridge damper

(Taken from www.pfisterer.com)

The Stockbridge damper is designed to control Aeolian vibrations. The

damper controls a vibration effect that is at a high frequency. The effect
of Aeolian vibration can be damage to the conductor and eventual
possible failure.

• Spacer damper

(Taken from www.pfisterer.com)

The spacer damper is used to maintain conductor separation. It also

has a role in combating vibration.
• Armour rods

(Taken from www.pfisterer.com)

Armour rods are used to protect the conductor from compression,

bending, abrasion and flash over. They are also used to repair
damaged aluminium based conductors and restore mechanical
strength and conductivity.

• Suspension clamps

(Taken from Overhead Line Fittings Equipment Ltd)

Suspension clamps are used to suspend the conductor.

 • Grip suspension clamps.

(Taken from www.pfisterer.com)

Armour grip suspension clamps are recognized as the best

transmission suspension system since their introduction in 1951.

TASK 5

Faults on transmission systems

The typical faults that can occur on the transmission line shown previously are
lightning strikes or items coming into contact with the line, phase to phase
from damage to conductor fittings or from wind/environmental damage.

When faults do occur there are systems that detect, locate and initiate the
removal of the faulted equipment from the system in the shortest desirable
time. Relay protection is employed to carry out these tasks.

For overhead line networks distance relays are more commonly used, as
these are faster acting compared with current operated relays. Distance
relays measure the impedance of the line they are protecting. If a fault occurs
the ratio of applied voltage to current changes and the impedance decreases
as the current increases. The relay senses this change and trips the
appropriate breakers. The impedance of an overhead line is proportional to its
length.

Distance relay protection schemes protect the line in three stages. The first
zone covers from the relaying point to 80% of the way to the next substation.
If a fault occurs in this zone the protection operates at the first substation. The
next zone covers from the 80% point, past the next substation to the third
substation. A fault in this zone causes the protection to operate at the first
substation if zone 2s time limit provided the protection at substation 2 has not
operated.

The zone three covers an area a little way past the third substation. It has a
longer delay. The measuring elements of each of the zones have settings
related to the line impedance. Zone 1 is set to 80% of the line impedance.
Zone 2 is set to 120% and zone three is set to between 200% to 300%.

(Taken from Reeves.E.A & Heathcote.M.J 2003. Electrical Pocket Book.)

If a fault occurs in the zone1, polarized relay operates to cut off the supply at
the first substation. If its distance is within the zone 2, the timer times out and
trips the circuit breaker. If the fault is within the zone 3, the circuit breaker trips
after the timer has timed out.

CONCLUSION

The first task looked at the mechanical stability of steel lattice towers.
Attention was paid to the properties of the tower parts and the forces acting
upon them. This gives an insight into the considerations that the designers of
overhead line steel lattice towers have to deal with.

There are many design standards that must be adhered to also. The main
ones are outlined in the report and analysis task 2. Along with the physical
parts of the tower, research was carried out as to the environmental
conditions such as temperature, humidity, altitude etc.

The types of conductor was researched especially the most common type-
ACSR conductors along with the different types of fittings found on high
voltage overhead lines.

Research was carried out into the protection of overhead lines involving the
typical faults, distance relays and how they operate with zones of protection.

DISCUSSION

Aeolian vibrations are wind induced mechanical vibrations that act upon the
overhead line conductors and shield wires. It is important to control these
vibrations as they can cause damage that can result in reduced reliability and
serviceability of the lines.

Lines damaged by vibration often have to be de-rated or even taken out of

service whilst repairs are made.

The cause of the Aeolian vibration is small vortices or eddies that are formed
when a smooth stream of air passes across a cylindrical shape. The vortices
produce alternating pressures that produce movement at 90° to the direction
of air flow. The type of air flow is critical in this scenario. Air that contains
turbulence will not produce these vortices, only smooth air flow. The Aeolian
vibrations will only generally become a problem in areas with wind speed
below 15 miles per hour. Turbulence in air is brought about through wind
speed and the terrain over which the wind passes.
The frequencies at which the vortices alternate is inversely proportional to the
diameter of the conductor.

The equation shown below shows the relationship between this:

Vortex frequency = 3.26V/d

Where:
V is the wind velocity component normal to the conductor in miles per hour.
d is the conductor diameter in inches.
3.26 is an empirical constant.

The vortex frequency of a 795 kcmil ACSR conductor under the influence of
an 8mph wind is 23.5 Hz.

Abrasion damage is caused by the vibration if the magnitude of the vibration

is sufficient. Over time the surface of the conductor becomes worn away and
can cause fatigue failure. The photos below shows abrasion damage:

(Taken from www.pfisterer.com)

(Taken from www.pfisterer.com)

Dampers are used to reduce the level of Aeolian vibrations. Many designs
have been tried since the early 1900s, with the most common type being the
Stockbridge type damper, invented by G.H Stockbridge in 1924. This design
works by having weights suspended from the ends of specially designed and
manufactured steel strand, which is secured to the conductor with a clamp.

When attached to a vibrating conductor the movement of the weights will

produce bending of the steel strand. The individual wires in the strand rub
together and thus dissipate the energy.

REFERENCES

• Reeves.E.A & Heathcote.M.J 2003. Electrical Pocket Book Newes

• Bayliss.C 1999 Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering.
Newnes.

• www.pfisterer.com

• Overhead Line Fittings Equipment LTD