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Contents
A consensus statement was published to give a universal definition of the term myocardial infarction. The authors
stated that MI should be used when there is evidence of myocardial necrosis in a clinical setting consistent with
MI. Myocardial infarction was then classified by the clinical scenario into various subtypes. Type 1 is a
spontaneous MI related to ischemia from a primary coronary event (e.g., plaque rupture, thrombotic occlusion).
Type 2 is secondary to ischemia from a supply-and-demand mismatch. Type 3 is an MI resulting in sudden
cardiac death. Type 4a is an MI associated with percutaneous coronary intervention, and 4b is associated with instent thrombosis. Type 5 is an MI associated with coronary artery bypass surgery.3
A more common clinical diagnostic classification scheme is also based on electrocardiographic findings as a
means of distinguishing between two types of MI, one that is marked by ST elevation (STEMI) and one that is not
(NSTEMI). Management practice guidelines often distinguish between STEMI and non-STEMI, as do many of the
studies on which recommendations are based. The distinction between STEMI and NSTEMI also does not
distinguish a transmural from a nontransmural MI. The presence of Q waves or ST-segment elevation is
associated with higher early mortality and morbidity; however, the absence of these two findings does not confer
better long-term mortality and morbidity.4
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Hyperlipidemia
Elevated levels of total cholesterol, LDL, or triglycerides are associated with an increased risk of coronary
atherosclerosis and MI. Levels of HDL less than 40 mg/dL also portend an increased risk. A full summary of the
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's cholesterol guidelines is available online.6
Diabetes Mellitus
Patients with diabetes have a substantially greater risk of atherosclerotic vascular disease in the heart as well as
in other vascular beds. Diabetes increases the risk of MI because it increases the rate of atherosclerotic
progression and adversely affects the lipid profile. This accelerated form of atherosclerosis occurs regardless of
whether a patient has insulin-dependent or noninsulin-dependent diabetes.
Hypertension
High blood pressure (BP) has consistently been associated with an increased risk of MI. This risk is associated
with systolic and diastolic hypertension. The control of hypertension with appropriate medication has been shown
to reduce the risk of MI significantly. A full summary of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's JNC 7
guidelines published in 2003 is available online.7
Tobacco Use
Certain components of tobacco and tobacco combustion gases are known to damage blood vessel walls. The
body's response to this type of injury elicits the formation of atherosclerosis and its progression, thereby
increasing the risk of MI. A small study in a group of volunteers showed that smoking acutely increases platelet
thrombus formation. This appears to target areas of high shear forces, such as stenotic vessels, independent of
aspirin use.8 The American Lung Association maintains a website with updates on the public health initiative to
reduce tobacco use and is a resource for smoking-cessation strategies for patients and health care providers.
Male Gender
The incidence of atherosclerotic vascular disease and MI is higher in men than women in all age groups. This
gender difference in MI, however, narrows with increasing age.
Family History
A family history of premature coronary disease increases an individual's risk of atherosclerosis and MI. The
cause of familial coronary events is multifactorial and includes other elements, such as genetic components and
acquired general health practices (e.g. smoking, high-fat diet).
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The development of atherosclerotic plaque occurs over a period of years to decades. The two primary
characteristics of the clinically symptomatic atherosclerotic plaque are a fibromuscular cap and an underlying
lipid-rich core. Plaque erosion can occur because of the actions of matrix metalloproteases and the release of
other collagenases and proteases in the plaque, which result in thinning of the overlying fibromuscular cap. The
action of proteases, in addition to hemodynamic forces applied to the arterial segment, can lead to a disruption of
the endothelium and fissuring or rupture of the fibromuscular cap. The loss of structural stability of a plaque often
occurs at the juncture of the fibromuscular cap and the vessel wall, a site otherwise known as the shoulder
region. Disruption of the endothelial surface can cause the formation of thrombus via platelet-mediated activation
of the coagulation cascade. If a thrombus is large enough to occlude coronary blood flow, an MI can result.
The death of myocardial cells first occurs in the area of myocardium most distal to the arterial blood supply: the
endocardium. As the duration of the occlusion increases, the area of myocardial cell death enlarges, extending
from the endocardium to the myocardium and ultimately to the epicardium. The area of myocardial cell death
then spreads laterally to areas of watershed or collateral perfusion. Generally, after a 6- to 8-hour period of
coronary occlusion, most of the distal myocardium has died. The extent of myocardial cell death defines the
magnitude of the MI. If blood flow can be restored to at-risk myocardium, more heart muscle can be saved from
irreversible damage or death.
The severity of an MI depends on three factors: the level of the occlusion in the coronary artery, the length of time
of the occlusion, and the presence or absence of collateral circulation. Generally, the more proximal the coronary
occlusion, the more extensive the amount of myocardium that will be at risk of necrosis. The larger the
myocardial infarction, the greater the chance of death because of a mechanical complication or pump failure. The
longer the period of vessel occlusion, the greater the chances of irreversible myocardial damage distal to the
occlusion.
STEMI is usually the result of complete coronary occlusion after plaque rupture. This arises most often from a
plaque that previously caused less than 50% occlusion of the lumen. NSTEMI is usually associated with greater
plaque burden without complete occlusion. This difference contributes to the increased early mortality seen in
STEMI and the eventual equalization of mortality between STEMI and NSTEMI after 1 year.
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Chest pain described as a pressure sensation, fullness, or squeezing in the midportion of the thorax
Radiation of chest pain into the jaw or teeth, shoulder, arm, and/or back
An MI can occur at any time of the day, but most appear to be clustered around the early hours of the morning or
are associated with demanding physical activity, or both. Approximately 50% of patients have some warning
symptoms (angina pectoris or an anginal equivalent) before the infarct.
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Diagnosis
Identifying a patient who is currently experiencing an MI can be straightforward, difficult, or somewhere in
between. A straightforward diagnosis of MI can usually be made in patients who have a number of atherosclerotic
risk factors along with the presence of symptoms consistent with a lack of blood flow to the heart. Patients who
suspect that they are having an MI usually present to an emergency department. Once a patient's clinical picture
raises a suspicion of MI, several confirmatory tests can be performed rapidly. These tests include
electrocardiography, blood testing, and echocardiography.
Diagnostic Procedures
The first diagnostic test is electrocardiography (ECG), which may demonstrate that a MI is in progress or has
already occurred. Interpretation of an ECG is beyond the scope of this chapter; however, one feature of the ECG
in a patient with an MI should be noted because it has a bearing on management. Practice guidelines on MI
management consider patients whose ECG does or does not show ST-segment elevation separately. As noted
earlier, the former is referred to as ST elevation MI (Fig. 1) and the latter as non-ST elevation MI (Fig. 2). In
addition to ST-segment elevation, 81% of electrocardiograms during STEMI demonstrate reciprocal ST-segment
depression as well.
Laboratory Tests
Living myocardial cells contain enzymes and proteins (e.g., creatine kinase, troponin I and T, myoglobin)
associated with specialized cellular functions. When a myocardial cell dies, cellular membranes lose integrity, and
intracellular enzymes and proteins slowly leak into the blood stream. These enzymes and proteins can be
detected by a blood sample analysis. These values vary depending on the assay used in each laboratory. Given
the acuity of a STEMI and the need for urgent intervention, the laboratory tests are usually not available at the
time of diagnosis. Thus, good history taking and an ECG are used to initiate therapy in the appropriate situations.
The real value of biomarkers such as troponin lies in the diagnosis and prognosis of NSTEMI (Fig. 3).
Imaging
An echocardiogram may be performed to compare areas of the left ventricle that are contracting normally with
those that are not. One of the earliest protective actions of myocardial cells used during limited blood flow is to
turn off the energy-requiring mechanism for contraction; this mechanism begins almost immediately after normal
blood flow is interrupted. The echocardiogram may be helpful in identifying which portion of the heart is affected
by an MI and which of the coronary arteries is most likely to be occluded. Unfortunately, the presence of wall
motion abnormalities on the echocardiogram may be the result of an acute MI or previous (old) MI or other
myopathic processes, limiting its overall diagnostic utility.
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Treatment
The goals of therapy in acute MI are the expedient restoration of normal coronary blood flow and the maximum
salvage of functional myocardium. These goals can be met by a number of medical interventions and adjunctive
therapies. The primary obstacles to achieving these goals are the patient's failure to recognize MI symptoms
quickly and the delay in seeking medical attention. When patients present to a hospital, there are a variety of
interventions to achieve treatment goals. Time is muscle guides the management decisions in acute STEMI,
and an early invasive approach is the standard of care for acute NSTEMI.4
Medical Options
Antiplatelet Agents
The use of aspirin has been shown to reduce mortality from MI. Aspirin in a dose of 325 mg should be
administered immediately on recognition of MI signs and symptoms.4, 9 The nidus of an occlusive coronary
thrombus is the adhesion of a small collection of activated platelets at the site of intimal disruption in an unstable
atherosclerotic plaque. Aspirin irreversibly interferes with function of cyclooxygenase and inhibits the formation of
thromboxane A2. Within minutes, aspirin prevents additional platelet activation and interferes with platelet
adhesion and cohesion. This effect benefits all patients with acute coronary syndromes, including those with
amyocardial infarction. Aspirin alone has one of the greatest impacts on the reduction of MI mortality. Its
beneficial effect is observed early in therapy and persists for years with continued use. The long-term benefit is
sustained, even at doses as low as 75 mg/day.
The Clopidogrel and Metoprolol in Myocardial Infarction Trial/Second Chinese Cardiac Study (COMMIT-CCS 2)
trial evaluated the use of clopidogrel versus placebo in patients who were taking aspirin but not undergoing
reperfusion therapy. It demonstrated a benefit in favor of clopidogrel when used with aspirin.10 The Clopidogrel as
Adjunctive Reperfusion TherapyThrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 28 (CLARITY-TIMI 28) study compared
clopidogrel versus placebo in patients receiving fibrinolytics within 12 hours of STEMI and showed a benefit in
favor of clopidogrel as well.11 The current recommendations for antiplatelet agents is summarized inTable 1.
Aspirin
Clopidogrel
Medical
Optional: 75 mg/day 1
management
Bare Metal stent
month
162-325 mg/day 1 month, then 75-162 mg/day
indefinitely
75 mg/day 1 month
Sirolimus eluting
stent
indefinitely
75 mg/day 1 year
Paclitaxel eluting
stent
indefinitely
75 mg/day 1 year
(Cypher)
(Taxus)
Supplemental Oxygen
Oxygen should be administered to patients with symptoms or signs of pulmonary edema or with pulse oximetry
less than 90% saturation.4 The rationale for using oxygen is the assurance that erythrocytes will be saturated to
maximum carrying capacity. Because MI impairs the circulatory function of the heart, oxygen extraction by the
heart and by other tissues may be diminished. In some cases, elevated pulmonary capillary pressure and
pulmonary edema can decrease oxygen uptake as a result of impaired pulmonary alveolar-capillary diffusion.
Supplemental oxygen increases the driving gradient for oxygen uptake.1
Arterial blood that is at its maximum oxygen-carrying capacity can potentially deliver oxygen to myocardium in
jeopardy during an MI via collateral coronary circulation. The recommended duration of supplemental oxygen
administration in a MI is 2 to 6 hours, longer if congestive heart failure occurs or arterial oxygen saturation is less
than 90%. However, there are no published studies demonstrating that oxygen therapy reduces the mortality or
morbidity of an MI.
Nitrates
Intravenous nitrates should be administered to patients with MI and congestive heart failure, persistent ischemia,
hypertension, or large anterior wall MI.4, 9 The primary benefit of nitrates is derived from its vasodilator effect.
Nitrates are metabolized to nitric oxide in the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide relaxes vascular smooth muscle
and dilates the blood vessel lumen. Vasodilatation reduces cardiac preload and afterload and decreases the
myocardial oxygen requirements needed for circulation at a fixed flow rate. Vasodilatation of the coronary arteries
improves blood flow through the partially obstructed vessels as well as through collateral vessels. Nitrates can
reverse the vasoconstriction associated with thrombosis and coronary occlusion.
When administered sublingually or intravenously, nitroglycerin has a rapid onset of action. Clinical trial data have
supported the initial use of nitroglycerin for up to 48 hours in MI. There is little evidence that nitroglycerin provides
substantive benefit as long-term post-MI therapy, except when severe pump dysfunction or residual ischemia is
present.4 Low BP, headache, and tachyphylaxis limit the use of nitroglycerin. Nitrate tolerance can be overcome
by increasing the dose or by providing a daily nitrate-free interval of 8 to 12 hours. Nitrates must be avoided in
patients who have taken a phosphodiesterase inhibitor within the previous 24 hours.4
Pain Control
Pain from MI is often intense and requires prompt and adequate analgesia. The agent of choice is morphine
sulfate, given initially IV at 5 to 15 minute intervals at typical doses of 2 to 4 mg.4 Reduction in myocardial
ischemia also serves to reduce pain, so oxygen therapy, nitrates, and beta blockers remain the mainstay of
therapy. Because morphine can mask ongoing ischemic symptoms, it should be reserved for patients being sent
for coronary angiography. This was downgraded to a IIa recommendation in the latest STEMI guidelines.
Beta Blockers
Beta blocker therapy is recommended within 12 hours of MI symptoms and is continued indefinitely.4, 9 Treatment
with a beta blocker decreases the incidence of ventricular arrhythmias, recurrent ischemia, reinfarction, and, if
given early enough, infarct size and short-term mortality. Beta blockade decreases the rate and force of
myocardial contraction and decreases overall myocardial oxygen demand. In the setting of reduced oxygen
supply in MI, the reduction in oxygen demand provided by beta blockade can minimize myocardial injury and
death (Table 2).
Dosing
Original Trial
Metoprolol
MIAMI19
Atenolol
ISIS-120
Carvedilol
CAPRICORN21
ISIS-1, International Studies of Infarct Survival-1; MIAMI, Metoprolol in Acute Myocardial Infarction.
The use of a beta blocker has a number of recognized adverse effects. The most serious are heart failure,
bradycardia, and bronchospasm. During the acute phase of an MI, beta blocker therapy may be initiated
intravenously; later, patients can switch to oral therapy for long-term treatment. The COMMIT-CCS 2 trial raised
safety concerns about the use of early intravenous beta blockers in high-risk patients.10 In some patients who are
considered high risk due to age or hemodynamic instability, it may be reasonable to hold off on early intravenous
therapy.
According to the 2007 guideline updates, anticoagulation should be added to standard medical therapy for most
patients after myocardial infarction.4
Unfractionated Heparin
Unfractionated heparin is beneficial until the inciting thrombotic cause (ruptured plaque) has completely resolved
or healed. Unfractionated heparin has been shown to be effective when administered intravenously or
subcutaneously according to specific guidelines. The minimum duration of heparin therapy after MI is generally
48 hours, but it may be longer, depending on the individual clinical scenario. Heparin has the added benefit of
preventing thrombus through a different mechanism than aspirin (Box 1).
60 U/kg IV bolus
Max 5000 U if >65 kg or 4000 U if <65 kg
Maintenance Dose
12 U/kg/hr IV
Max 1000 U/hr if >65 kg or 800 U/hr if <65 kg
Titration Goal
Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin
Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) can be administered to MI patients who are not treated with fibrinolytic
therapy and who have no contraindications to heparin. The LMWH class of drugs includes several agents that
have distinctly different anticoagulant effects. LMWHs are proved to be effective for treating acute coronary
syndromes characterized by unstable angina and NSTEMI.4 Their fixed doses are easy to administer, and
laboratory testing to measure their therapeutic effect is usually not necessary (Table 3).
Generic
name
Dalteparin
t1/2
(after SC
Dosing in ACS
dosing)
3-5 hr
NSTEMI
Enoxaparin
4.5 hr
SC q12h
Warfarin
Warfarin is not routinely used after MI, but it does have a role in selected clinical settings. The latest guidelines
recommend the use of warfarin for at least 3 months in patients with left ventricular aneurysm or thrombus, a left
ventricular ejection fraction less than 30%, or chronic atrial fibrillation.
Fibrinolytics
Restoration of coronary blood flow in MI patients can be accomplished pharmacologically with the use of a
fibrinolytic agent. Fibrinolytic therapy is indicated for patients who present with a STEMI within 12 hours of
symptom onset without a contraindication. Absolute contraindications to fibrinolytic therapy include history of
intracranial hemorrhage, ischemic stroke or closed head injury within the past 3 months, presence of an
intracranial malignancy, signs of an aortic dissection, or active bleeding. Fibrinolytic therapy is primarily used at
facilities without access to an experienced interventionalist within 90 minutes of presentation.9
As a class, the plasminogen activators have been shown to restore normal coronary blood flow in 50% to 60% of
STEMI patients. The successful use of fibrinolytic agents provides a definite survival benefit that is maintained for
years. The most critical variable in achieving successful fibrinolysis is time from symptom onset to drug
administration. A fibrinolytic is most effective within the first hour of symptom onset and when the door-to-needle
time is 30 minutes or less.9
Contraindications to ACE inhibitor use include hypotension and declining renal function. The most commonly
Dosing (PO)
Original Trial
Captopri
tid
<40%22
Ramipril
bid
Captopri
bid
Lisinopril
5 mg/day titrated to
10 mg/day
AIRE, Acute Infarction Ramipril Efficacy; EF, ejection fraction; GISSI-3, Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza
nellInfarto Miocardico; ISIS-4, International Studies of Infarct Survival-1; MI, myocardial infarction; SAVE, Survival and
Ventricular Enlargemen.
ACE inhibitors decrease myocardial afterload through vasodilatation. One effective strategy for instituting an ACE
inhibitor is to start with a low-dose, short-acting agent and titrate the dose upward toward a stable target
maintenance dose at 24 to 48 hours after symptom onset. Once a stable maintenance dose has been achieved,
the short-acting agent can be continued or converted to an equivalent-dose long-acting agent to simplify dosing
and encourage patient compliance. For patients intolerant of ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB)
therapy may be considered.
Agent
Abciximab
0.25 mg/kg
Maintenance Dose
Duration of
FDA Approved
(IV)
Infusion
Indications
0.125 g/kg/min
12-24 hr
Coronary intervention
Up to 72 hr
Acute coronary
max 10 g/min
Eptifibatid
180 g/kg
2 g/kg/min
syndrome
Coronary intervention
Tirofiban
0.1 g/kg/min
12-24 hr
Acute coronary
syndrome
Coronary intervention
Evidence is less well established for the direct thrombin inhibitor, bivalirudin. The 2007 American College of
Cardiology (ACC) and the American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines recommend bivalirudin as an alternative
to heparin therapy for patients who cannot receive heparin for a variety of reasons (e.g., heparin-induced
thrombocytopenia).4, 9
Statin Therapy
A statin should be started in all patients with a myocardial infarction without known intolerance or adverse
reaction prior to hospital discharge. Preferably, a statin would be started as soon as a patient is stabilized after
presentation. The Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and InfectionThrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22
(PROVE IT-TIMI 22) trial suggested a benefit of starting patients on high-dose therapy from the start (e.g.,
atorvastatin 80 mg/day).12
Aldosterone Antagonists
In the Epleronone Post-Acute Myocardial Infarction Heart Failure Efficacy and Survival Study (EPHESUS) trial, a
mortality benefit was seen with eplerenone administration in all post-MI patients, provided multiple criteria were
met. The criteria included concomitant use of an ACE inhibitor, ejection fraction less than 40%, symptomatic heart
failure or diabetes, a creatinine clearance greater than 30 mL/min, and a potassium level less than 5 mEq/dL.13 In
patients that meet these criteria, the use of eplerenone has a Class I indication.
Surgical Revascularization
Emergent or urgent coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is warranted in the setting of failed PCI in patients
with hemodynamic instability and coronary anatomy amenable to surgical grafting.9 Surgical revascularization is
also indicated in the setting of mechanical complications of MI, such as ventricular septal defect, free wall
rupture, or acute mitral regurgitation. Restoration of coronary blood flow with emergency CABG can limit
myocardial injury and cell death if performed within 2 or 3 hours of symptom onset. Emergency CABG carries a
higher risk of perioperative morbidity (bleeding and MI extension) and mortality than elective CABG. Elective
CABG improves survival in post-MI patients who have left main artery disease, three-vessel disease, or twovessel disease not amenable to PCI.
Treatment Outcomes
An individual patient's long-term outcome following an MI depends on numerous variables, some of which are not
modifiable from a clinical standpoint. However, patients can modify other variables by complying with prescribed
therapy and adopting lifestyle changes.
Stress Testing
Cardiac stress testing after MI has established value in risk stratification and assessment of functional
capacity.4 The timing of performing cardiac stress testing remains debatable. The degree of allowable physiologic
stress during testing depends on the length of time from MI presentation. Stress testing is not recommended
within several days after a myocardial infarction. Only submaximal stress tests should be performed in stable
patients 4 to 7 days after an MI. Symptom-limited stress tests are recommended 14 to 21 days after an MI.
Imaging modalities can be added to stress testing in patients whose electrocardiographic response to exercise is
inadequate to confidently assess for ischemia (e.g., complete left bundle branch block, paced rhythm, accessory
pathway, left ventricular hypertrophy, digitalis use, and resting ST-segment abnormalities).4
From a prognostic standpoint, an inability to exercise and exercise-induced ST-segment depression are
associated with higher cardiac morbidity and mortality compared with patients able to exercise and without STsegment depression.4 Exercise testing identifies patients with residual ischemia for additional efforts at
revascularization. Exercise testing also provides prognostic information and acts as a guide for post-MI exercise
prescription and cardiac rehabilitation.
Smoking Cessation
Smoking is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease and MI. For patients who have undergone an MI,
smoking cessation is essential to recovery, long-term health, and prevention of reinfarction. In one study, the risk
of recurrent MI decreased by 50% after 1 year of smoking cessation.18 All STEMI and NSTEMI patients with a
history of smoking should be advised to quit and offered smoking cessation resources, including nicotine
replacement therapy, pharmacologic therapy, and referral to behavioral counseling or support groups.4, 9 Smoking
cessation counselling should begin in the hospital, at discharge, and during follow-up. The American Lung
Association maintains a website (http://www.lungusa.org) with updates on public health initiatives to reduce
tobacco use; it is a resource for smoking cessation strategies for patients and health care providers. Other public
and private sources of smoking cessation information are available online as well.
Long-Term Medications
Most oral medications instituted in the hospital at the time of MI will be continued long term. Therapy with aspirin
and beta blockade is continued indefinitely in all patients. ACE inhibitors are continued indefinitely in patients with
congestive heart failure, left ventricular dysfunction, hypertension, or diabetes.4, 9 A lipid-lowering agent,
specifically a statin, in addition to diet modification, is continued indefinitely as well. Post-MI patients with
diabetes should have tight glycemic control according to earlier studies. The latest ACC/AHA guidelines
recommend a goal HbA1c of less than 7%.
Cardiac Rehabilitation
Cardiac rehabilitation provides a venue for continued education, reinforcement of lifestyle modification, and
adherence to a comprehensive prescription of therapies for recovery from MI including exercise training.
Participation in cardiac rehabilitation programs after MI is associated with decreases in subsequent cardiac
morbidity and mortality. Other benefits include improvements in quality of life, functional capacity, and social
support. However, only a minority of post-MI patients actually participate in formal cardiac rehabilitation programs
because of several factors, including lack of structured programs, physician referrals, low patient motivation,
noncompliance, and financial constraints.
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Summary
MI results from myocardial ischemia and cell death, most often because of an intra-arterial thrombus
superimposed on an ulcerated or unstable atherosclerotic plaque.
Despite advances in therapy, MI remains the leading cause of death in the United States.
MI risk factors include hyperlipidemia, diabetes, hypertension, male gender, and tobacco use.
Diagnosis is based on the clinical history, ECG, and blood test results, especially creatine
phosphokinase (CK), CK-MB fraction, and troponin I and T levels.
Outcome following an MI is determined by the infarct size and location, and by timely medical
intervention.
Aspirin, nitrates, and beta blockers are critically important early in the course of MI for all patients. For
those with STEMI and for those with new left bundle branch block, coronary angiography with
angioplasty and stenting should be undertaken within 90 minutes of arrival at facilities with expertise in
these procedures. Fibrinolytic therapy should be used in situations in which early angiographic
intervention is not possible.
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