COOLING TOWERS

SECTION 1
OPERATION AND CONSTRUCTION

'There aTe exhibits placed in the center of Ihe book that will be referred
to later in the program. The1J should be removed and set aside now so
Ihal they will be handy when needed.

1. A refinery uses as much as 25 barrels of water for every barrel

of crude processed.

A 200,OOObal'l'ei-a-day refinery might

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ barrels of water.

use as much as
5,000,000

. 2. Of all the water used by a refinery, 80 to 90 % is used as coolant to absorb

energy.

heat

3. Look at tn15 heat exchanger.

HOT

COOL

~-LIQUID

As the liquid travels through the pipe, the heat from the
liquid is exchanged or transferred to the _ _ __ __ _

water

4. Heat always travels from areas of higher te'm perature to areas

of (higher / lower) temperature.

lower

5(, Water can absorb only so much heat.

As water becomes hotter, its effectiveness as a coolant (increases / d ocreases).

6. After a while, the temperature of

that it can no longer absorb

liquid .

t~e

water becomes so hillh

from the hot

decreases

heat

7. The water in this heat exchanger works as a coolant only as

than the liquid being cooled.
long as it is

cooler

8. Maximum cooling IS achieved by constantly replacing hot

water with _ _ _ _ _ _ _ water.

coo1

9. In order to provide for further cooling, two things are possible.

First, the hot cooling water can be discharged and _ _ _ __

with fresh water.

replacE'(t

10. Or, the hot cooling water can he _______ and reused

cooled

(or further cooling.

11. The amount oC water needed for cooling in a large refinery is

in the range of (tho.usands/millions) of barrels per day.

millions

12. Drawing millions of barrels o( water per day from the water

supply would be extremely _ _ _ _ _ __

co~tly,

13. The amount of water needed is so large that many water supplies (would /would not) be able to provide enough.

or expE'nsive

would not

14. A refinery must be careful about the quality of the water it

discharges.
Discharging millions of barrels of hot water per day might
cause a
problem.

pollution

15. Cooling the hot water enables the refinery to _ _ _ _ __

water over and over again.

reuse

16. The liest way to handle hot water is to (discharge it / cool and
reuse it).

cool and reuse it

17. Hot water is cooled for reuse in special cooling _ _ .. _ __

tower!:::

MmlODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

18. Suppose a steel rod is heated at one end.

",

(The entire rod heats up evenly./Section A gets hot first.)

19. AJ3 s~tion A becomes hot, it acquires thermal, or _ _ _ __

Section A gets hot first.

heat

energy.
20. Thermal, or heat, energy always travels from higher to
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ temperature regions.

lower

21. As one seetion of the steel rod beeomes hot, the rod (cond ucts/
does not conduct) the heat to the colder sections.

conducts

22. In this example, the heat transfer from section A to C (occurs/

does not occur) by conduction.

occurs

23. Conduction occurs when heat or thermal energy flows

through a substance from a _ _ _ _ _ to a _ _ _ __
temperature region.

higher; lower

24"Suppose a hot baT of steel is placed in contact with a cold one.

COLO BAR
HOT BAR

POINT OF CONTACT
A

will transfer

The. heat energy from baT A (will transfer/will not transfer)

to baT B.
25. The cold bar becomes hot first at the point of _ _ _ __ _

contact

26. Then, the heat is transferred through the bar by _ _ _ __

conduction

27. Another method of heat transfer is convection.

WATER

rn---BURNER

'"

The burner heats the water in the vessel (all at once/at the
bottom only).

at the bottom only

28. As the water at the bottom of the container gets hot, it becomes less dense.

A volume of hot water weighs (more/ less) than the same

less

volume of cold water.

29. As the water at the bottom of the vessel gets hot, it will (float
to the top / stay at the bottom).

fioat to the top

30. In this case, heat is carried to other parts of the vessel by

(conduction / physical movement).

physical movement

31. Convection is the transfer of thermal or heat energy by actual

______________ within a 5ubstance.

physical movement

32. Heat transfer also occurs in another way.

If you bring your hand near any hot object you (feel / do not
feel) the heat from it.

feel

33. Usually, solids, liquids or gases have a high enough temperature to emit OT radiate
energy.

hent, or thennal

34. This method of heat transfer or flow is called (convection /

radiation).

radiati on

Review

35. There are three methods of heat transfer: rad iation, conduction, and _ _ _ _ _ __

convection

36. Heat flowing within a substa:lce from a higher temperature

region to a lower temperature region is heing transferred by
conduc tion

37. This shows a flame heating the bottom opening of , duct.

~:

COLD AIR

Ai;

it enters, the, cold air absorbs thermal energy and

becom~

hot
88. As the air becomes hot, it rises and leaves th e duct, taking its
_______ energy with it.

heat, or thennal

39. The method of heat traMler by physical movement is calleu

convection

HOW COOLING TOWERS COOL WATER

Result, "f Evaporation

;-. 40. Sorr.~ Conn of energy is required for any movement or change

in matter.
To boil water) a source of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ energy is needed.

heat

41. The molecules in any body of water move due to the heat
_ _ _ _ ___ in them.

energy

42. The speed of the molecules depends upon the amount of heat
energy in them. The more heat, the
the

faster

molecules move.

43. In any body of wat er, some molecules move faster than others.
/

more

The molecules which move faster have (more / less) heat

energy.
44. Some molecules moYe fast enough to break away from the
body of water and mix with the air.

The molecules that break away first have a (higher/lower)

higher

amount of heat energy.

45. As the molec ules leave the body of water, they take their
_______ energy with them.

heat

46. The ",olecules that remain have a lower level of heat energy.
With a lower level of energy, these molecules move (slower.'
faster).

slower

47. In order for them to escape from the body of water, the slowmoving molecules have to
in speed.

increase

48. Adding heat energy to the molecules will cause them to move
faster

,,

?nce moving fast enough, the molecules will es;ap:. ;hi;)

IS evaporahon.
.
_"
. ' ._- . _ - After partial evaporation, a bod y of water (is cooler/ stays the
same) .

is cooler

5O' I,;Cooling towers are designed to expose hot water to the air.

allows

This (allows/ does not allow) partial evaporation of the water.

51. This partial evaporation (cools/ does not cool) the water.

cools

What Affects Evaporation

52. In order for water to evaporate, it (needs/ does not need ) to

be in contact with air.

needs

53. The 'larger the surface in contact wi th air, the (more/1ess)

molecules can leave a body of water at a given time.

more

54. The more water molecules that leave a body or water at a

given time, the (faster / slowe,') the rate of evaporation.

faster

\':

55. These two basins contain the same amount of \vater.

The rate of evapOl'ation is faster from basin (A / B).

56. The faste,' the rate of evaporation from a body of water, the
(fasteri slower) the body of water will cool.

faster

57. Cooling towe''S are designed to provide the hot water with a
_ _ _ _ _ __ surlaceato-air contact.

large

58. The hotter the water, the more (fast / slow) -moving molecul.s
in it.

fast

59. Hot water will evaporate _______ than cold lVater.

faster

60. Atmospheric pressure (exerts / does not exert) pressure on a

body of water.

exerts

I 61, Atmospheric pressure (resists / does not resist ) the molecules

escaping from a body of water.

resist!'

62. It is easier for water molecules to leave a body of water at

(high / low) atmospheric pressures.

low

63. As air acquires moisture (water molecules), its humidity

rises, or increases

64. Air can hold only a certain amount of water molecules. If it

becomes water saturated, it will no longer _ _ _ _ _ __
water molecules.

/ 65. The higher the humidity of th e air in contact with the water,
the

the rate or evaporation.

Review

slower

66. Hot water evaporates at a (higher/ lower) rate than cold water.

t . : ,:
:~"
: '

higher

/ 67. Which of the following affect the rate of water evaporation:

a) humidity of the air
b) surface of contact betwe~n water and air
c) the temperature of the water
6

n;b;c

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CONSTRUCTION OF COOLING TOWERS

:.;' , .,

68. In the early days of continuous processing, no attempt was

made to cool process water. Water that was cool already was
taken into the plant from the outside, then discarded when hot.

.'

/' When a plant was located near a river or stream, the cool water

.'

was taken into the plant upstream and released _ _ _ __

downstriam

~.

"
69. When a plant was not located near a river, the water was taken
from a pond. Hot process water was returned to the pond
surface and cooled by surface exposure to the ______.

,.
air,

or itmosphere

;.~,.. :,.."'.~

70. The open pond cooling system was eventually modified.

.,

:;.;.., ~

HEAT EXCHANGER

.
"

COOL
WATER

'.
SPRAY POND COO LING SYSTEM

. '

In this system, hot cooling water is _______ over the

;' .:;!;

.6

.'

sprayed

pond surface.

71. By spraying the hot water, more water-to- _____ __

surface contact is reached.

air

I~

72. With a larger water-te-air surface contact. the rate of evaporation (increases / decreases).

Increases

~'73. However, wind could blow away the sprayed water, resulting

in water

and damage to nearqy structures.

", .

74. The spray pond . ystem was also modified.

'"

FENCE

To reduce water loss due to drift, and to prevent property

damage. this system includes _ _ _ _ __ around the pond.
7

. .~ ,

.,.

".

75. The air contacting both of these ponds is at the same humidity
level.
NO WINO

"'U!~luAIR

WINO

B
As evaporatio~ occurs, the air in conlact wilh the water
becomes (morelless) saturated.

76. As the ail' becomes

mOTe

more

saturated, the rate of evaporation

decreases

77. The air over pond B never becomes saturated because it is

constantly being
with new air.

replaced

78. The rate of evaporation is mnre constant in pond (A/ B).

79. The rate of evaporation in the open pond, t he spray pond,

and the spray type cooler is greatly affected by the prevailing

wind
80. The rate of evaporation is also aflected by the . _ _ _ _ __
of the air.

humidity

Atmospheric Cooling Towers

81. Exhibit 1 shows an atmosphen'c cooling tower .
This cooling tower, like a pond system, depends on the

_-:-_.,-_ __ velocity and the relative _ _ __ _ __

of the air.

wind; humi'dity

82. Some of the wind entering the tower is carried upward, but
most of the wind blows straight
the tower.

through

83. The wind flow through the tower is interrupted and changed
by the
and
bars.

louvers ; splash

84. The louvers help direct wind and also prevent water
loss

85. The hot air and water vapors leaving the top of the tow ....
have to pass through the
.

drift eliminators

86. Some atmospheric cooling towers have adjustable sections of

_______ and drift

control of air flow.

to aid in the

87!':The splash bars slow down the raU of water and break it up
into small _______.
8

....
"

louvers; eliminators'.
.
.
" .'
".

drops

l,

. ~.
,

Cooling
,

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TOW~~~Si

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EXHIBIT BOOKLEY::
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EXHIBIT 1

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ATMOSPHERIC COOLING TOVIER

"

..

~"

___?HOT AIR ANO WATER VAPO

.,
FROM HO '
WATER

WATER
SPRAY

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,

,
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LASH
ARS

"!!'".oC l f

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liND (AIR)

=::>

,,
j

!
LOUVERS

---11rb~~~~~~.-

MAKE
WATE

:OLUMN

COOLED

WOTl:"

BASIN

COOL WATER

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NA TURAL - DRAFT COO LING TOWER

;,

i, " "

HOT AIR AND WATER VAPOR

'.

I--CHIMNEY

. HOT

W4-r<=O

c"J!--

,.

HOT WATER

COOL WATER

"

WATER BASIN
AND SUPPORT

SPRAYS

MAKEUP WATER .

EXHIBIT 3
FORCEO-ORAFT COOLING TOWER

HOT AIR
DRIFT

IMIN AT OR

HOT WATER IN

SPLASH BARS

--+- SO LID SIDES

~COOLED WATER BASIN

COOL WATER

INDUCED-DRAFT COOLING TOWER (CROSS-FLOW)

HOT AlA AND VAPOR

,
\

"

ROSS FLOW AIR

~.! ",

,'"

~~.

,.

f. " . .I' .
"

MAKEUP WATER

,~

;OOLED WAT.'Q BASIN

COOL WATER

INDUCED-DRAFT COOLING TOWERS

A. COUNTERFLOW

AIR~

B.. CROSSFLOW

AIR
......",,- LOUVERED SIDES

88. The longer contact of water with air causes quicker_ _ _ __

and faster
than in a spray pond.
89. Due to evaporation and drift, there is some \vater _ _ _ __

which has to be replaced with makeup _ _ _ __

90. As the quantity of air passing up and through the cooling tower
changes, water loss due to evaporation and drift _ _ _ _ __

91. The longer air remains in a cooling tower, the (more / less)

,'.

evaporation
cooling
loss
water

changes..~

~.

more

moisture it absorbs .

92. rl'he more moisture the

ac(:.epts more moisture.

alT

contains, the :faster/ slower) it

slower

93. In order to get maximum evaporation in a cooling tower, the

quickly

air should pass through (quickly/ slowly ).

94. Look at this drawing.

D IRECTION OF PREVAILING WIND

.....

More evaporation will take place in tower (A / B).

95. For best operational results, atmospheric cooling towers
should be placed so that the prevailing wind blows through
the (shortest / longest) dimension of the tower.

/96':

In an atmospheric cooling tower, a lO-mile-per-hour wind wi!l

cause (more/ less) cooling than a I-mile-per-hour wind.

97. Without wind, an atmospheric cooling towel' operates (more

efficiently/ less efficiently).

shortest
more

less efficiently

98. Atmospheric cooling towers are designed to operate best under

the normal prevailing wind conditions at each site.

If wind velocity is much higher than normal, there will be ...

higher than normal loss of water due to (drift/ evaporation).
99. High winds will cause water to be blown (rom atmospheric
cooling towers. Such towers are placed so that' water blown
from them will not cause
to surround ing
buildings or equipment.
9

drift

damage

100. Whenever watel' is cooled by evaporation,

some water _ ______.

1 here IS

always

loss

/ 101. When cooling water 10F by evaporation, one percent of the

water is lost due to evaporation. In cooling 100 gallons of
water 10F, a tower loses
ga;lon(s) of water
due to _ _ _ _ __

1
evaporation

; 102. Drift loss is usually about 0.2% of the water flow or about
_ _ _ _ _ _ gallon(s) per 100 gallons.

0.2

'"

103. Makeup water is used to replace water loss due

_____ , or leaks.

evaporation
drift

10_ _ _ __

104. If there are no leaks and a cooling tower cools 100 gallons of

water 10F, there will be

loss due to evaporation and
drift.

gallon(s) of water
,!!alIon(s) due to

1
0.2

Review

105. An atmospheric cooling tower depends upon wi nd _ _ _oC-_

and the relative

velocity
humidity

of the air for effe<tive operation.

106. The spray of water falling down the tower is hroken up into
~mall droplets by
bars.

splash

107. In atmospheric cooling towers, evaporation and drift are

major causes of water _ _ _ _ _ __

loss

108. For best operational results, the atmospheric cooling towers

are placed so that the prevailing wind blows through the
(shortest/longest) dimension of the tower.

shortest

109. Atmospheric cooling towers usually operate hest at (high/

mod~rate)

moderate

wind velocities.

, 110. The towers are located so that water blown from them will

not

damage

nearby buildings or equipment.

Natural-Draft Cooling Towers

111. Heat in a furnace causes hot Rue gases to Row _ _ _ __

through the stack causing a draft.

up
-

112. Exhibit 2 shows a natural-draft cooling tower. The top part

of the tower is a _ __ _ _ __
/ 113. The hot water

IS

sprayed in above the _ ._ _ __ _

10

chimney, or stack
splash
bars

114. The splash bars break the falling water into fine drops in order
to provide better air-tocontact.

.,
water

.-

115. Some of the heat in water transfers to the air. As the air
heats uP. it beeomes (lighter/heavier) .

lighter

116. When it is light enough. the air

rises

in the chimney.

117. ;'J.l1e heateu air is replaced with cold air that ente~'s the tower
through the _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

air inlet

_.

..... ..:J
,

118. Beeause of its design. a natural-draft tower (does/ does not)

does not

120. This difference in temperature causes a constant _ _ _ __

to exist.
/

121. The natural-draft cooling tower (needs/ does not need) drift
eliminators.
122. Makeup water is needed to replace water loss due to leaks
and _ __ _ __

oj

..-,'

depend as much on the wind direction as the atmospheric

tower.

119. The temperature of th e air inside the chimney is always

_ _ _ _ _ __ t han the atmospheric temperature.

....
..

~'"

'>-

'.

'.

,~

higher, or warmer .
.. . 'f';
draft, 01" flow, or movemen1

...

. ,',

does not need

,.!

"/

:: \ ' I

. ',

"

..
evaporation

123. Louvers or baffles at times are installed around the air inlet

of the natural-draft tower.

9p.ch louvers or baffles (can / cannot) control the amount of
aIr entering the tower.

can
'.

124. By regulating the amount of air entering the tower, the

amount of cooling due to _______ can be regulated.

evaporation

", ' I

"
I ;'1

. Mechanical-Draft Cooling Towers

125. Atmospheric cooling towers depend upon the natural flow of

_ _ _ _ ___ up and across the falling water.

.... aIr

126. Natural-draft cooling towers create an upward flow of

_ _ _ _ ___ throug~ the falling water.

au'

127. Exhibit 3 shows a forced-draft cooling tower. The air flow

through the falli ng water is produced by

fans

128. The internal construction of a forced-draft cooling tower is

c;imilar to an atmQspheric tower, but the sides are ,______

closed. or solid

129. Motor...{)riven fans force air into the tower through openings
near the
of the tower.

bottom, or base

11

'

..,

..

'., I.

130. The cooling of the water in all towers depends mainly on t he

amount and
DC air passing through.

humidity

131. Fans uSed in forced-draft cooling towers should produce a

large
of air with a low velocity .

volume. or amount

I
~
ft
,.

132. Both mechanical-draft and atmospheric towers are provided

with _-:-_:--:-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ to prevent water loss

drift eliminators .

due to air velocity:

133. If one 01' more of the fans is shut down, the cnoling rate is
_ _ _ _ _ _ due to low
-to-water contact.

less; air

,,

134. The degree of cooling can be adjusted by controlling one .or

more of the

and the rate of

(ans; air

flow.

,~

Induced-Draft Cooling Towers

push

135. In a forced-draft cooling towel', the fans (push 'pull) the air
through the towe,..
136. Look at Exhibit 4. In the induced-draft cooling tower, the fan
is located at the
of the tower.

top

137. As the fan rotates, it (pulls/ pushes) t he air thro ugh the tower.

pulls

138. The air is driven upward. from the top of the tower, where it
can be carried away easily by the _ _ __ _ _

wind

139. This reduces th e possibilit y of wet air reentering the

_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ at the bottom.

cooling tower,

01'

140. Exhibit 5 shows two types of induced-draft cooling towers.

The tower with its sides open is the _ __ _ _ type.

crossnow

air intake

.."".

141. In the counterflow t ype, the largest part of the tower has
_ _ _ _ _ _ sides.

enclosed , or solid

142. In a tower with solid sides, the induced air trav els most of the
time in (the same direction as/ an opposite direction from) the

an opposite direction from

falling water,

143. Both towers have. movable s ide louvers t o regulate the

-'-_ _ _ _ _ intake.
144. In both t owers. the air volume flowing through the tower is
controlled by the
of the fan and the amount
of opening of the side _ _ _ _ _ __

12

speed
louvers

!-Cell Cooling Towers

Large eooHng towers are usually constructed in cells or sections

which can be operated independently.

The cooling capacity of a multi-eell cooling tower can be decreased by taking one or more
out of service.

sections, or cells

. This is ' :lower side view of an atmospheric cooling tower.

The drawing indicates that the tower has _ _ _ _ _ cells.

three

47. If a tower with only one cell needs cleaning or repairs, the
entire tower has to be ______________

shut down

48. Any cell can be operated independently. If one cell in a multicell tower must be shut down, the entire tower (must also bel
need not be) shut down.

need not be

Review

149. An atmospheric cooling tower depends greatly upon the

natural _______ velocity for effective operation.

wind

150. The natural-draft tower is constructed in such a way that it

causes its own _ _ _ _ _ __

draft

, 151. Mechanical-draft towers depend upon motor-driven

_ _ _ _ _ _ to force the air through them.

. fans
pulls

152. The induceddraft tower (pushes / pulls) air through the tower.

a forced

,153. A tower with fans at the bottom is (an induced / a forced)

-draft tower.
154. All cooling towers cool water primarily by the process of

. evaporation

155. The rate 'of evaporation of water depends upon the water
surface-to-air contact and on the relative _ _ _ _ _ __

of the air.

13

humidity

l56: The greater the water-to-air surface contact, the _ _ _ __

(aster, or greater

the rate of evapolation.

157. The greater the water-toair contact, the more _ __ _ _
is accomplished.

cooling, or evaporation

158. The .plash bars in cooling towers break up the spray of water
into smaller droplets as well as prolonging the water-to_ _ _-''--_ contact.
L59. If the air passing th;'ough a cooling tower is watersaturated
to the maximum, there (will 'will not) be any cooling due to
evaporation.

will not

l60. If there is no e"aporation taking place, but the air is cooler

than the watel', there will be (no / some) cooling du!' to con
duetion, convection, and radiation.

some

L6I. In a cooling tower there is always some cooling oC water due

to conduction, convection, and _ _ _ _ _ __

radiation

162. However, most of the cooling of water in a cooling tower is

accomplished by _ _ _ _ __

evaporation

163. In any other type of cooling tower, drift eliminators are needed
to minimize water
because of the wind.

loss

164. However, in a natural-draft cooling tower, drift eliminators

. (are/ are not) used.

are not

165. Any cooling tower is subject to water losses produced by drift,

ll?'aks, and evaporation.
These losses are compensated for by

water.

makeup

166. In mechanical-draft towers, the volume of air passing through

the tower can be adjusted by controlling one or more of the

Cans

167. Controlling the volume of air passing through the tower

(controls/ does not control) the amount of cooling.

controls

168. It is easier to control the amount of cooling in a (n} (atmospheric/mechanical-draft) cooling tower.

mechanicaldraft

169. Mechanical-draft towers (can/cannot) regulate or control the

can

amount of air passing through the tower.

170. They cannot control the relative _ _ _ _ _ _ of the air.
171. They cannot control the temperature of the _ _ __ _ __

humidity

air

used for cooling.

172. Mechanical-draft towers' can control the amount of all'

passing through them, as well as the _ __ _ _ _

evaporation of the water.
~.

14

of

rate, or amount

'.

nstruction Materials
S. When iron is exposed to water and the oxygen in the air, it

corrodes, or rusts

.,

4. In a cooling tower, practically all parts are exposed to

____________ and ____________

'.

water; air

6. Iron and' carbon steel are used to a very limited extent in

cooling tower construction because they corrode or rust
(rapidly I slowly),

rapidly

76. The best grades of California redwood are used because they
resist cOT!"osion caused by
and ____,-_

water; ail'

77. laetals WhlCh resist corrosion are used in certain parts of redwood towers. Copper-coated nails resist _______

corrosion

78. Cast-iron is used in anchoring members that hold the tower

on its concrete basin, but it does corrode and has to be
_________ occasionally ,

replaced

179. Brass boltS, washers, and nuts are used because they also
_______ corrosion and rust.

resist

'I' . ,.. ,'

180. Fir wood is used as well as redwood because it resists rot due
to moisture. Like fir, synthetic materials such as tensile, fiberglass, and other plastics resist moisture rot (poorly / well) .

"

well

181. Although some wood resists corrosion and rot and has relatively little expansion due to heat, wood swells when it absorbs
water and
when it dries.

' ''"J'

contracts, or shrinks "';i,

,,

182. Expansion and contraction from either temperature change

or water content change can _____ the tower structure.

"
"
.!,

weaken

'":

188. Treating the tower wood with creosote increases its resistance
to 1.t0th water-logging and moisture __________

."

,,
.'
. ;

rot, or damage

..
"

184. Synthetic materials are (more / less) damaged by corrOSIon,

less

.'

water-log and, rot than wood.

.":

./;

186. Regardless of the material used in construction, cooling towers,

like other refinery units, should be
odically for structural soundness,

'I..

inspected, or checked ;'

peri-

.J"

-til

..

".

Cooling Tower Mechanical Equipment

186. The fans on forced- and induced-draft towers are driven QY
electric ____________

..

"

motors

"

187. The pressure necessary to circulate the cooling water through

the plant cooling water system is provided by direct-acting
steam or motor-driven __'______

.~ .
"
",

pumps

.
,

",

'

188. All mechanical equipment with rotating or moving parts must

be lubricated on a definite schedule to prevent exceSSIve

wear
15

'

. ;,

.',

189. The operator must lubricate equipment regularl y and

all equipment daily for other co nditions
which require repair or replacement.

,
check. or

jnspe\;~

CONDITIONS AFFECTING COOLING TOWER PERFORMANCE

190. The most important factor in any kind of cooling tow. r is how
fast the water _ _ _ _ __

evaporates

191. Therefore, any condition which prevents water from evaporating

.'.
the efficiency of the cooling tower.

reduces

192. Air contains moisture or water vapor.

On a damp day, the air holds (a lot of/ very little) water.
193. If the air surrounding a cooling tower is very humid, the water
in the cooling tower does not evaporate as much as it would
if the air was _ _ _ _ _ __

a lot of

dry
o.

194. On damp, humid days, a cooling tower works (bet.ter than /

not as well as) it does on dry days.

not as well as

195. One factor that affects the rate of evaporation is the amount
of
in the air in contact with the \vater.

humidity. or moisture

Absolute and Relative Humidity

196. Air becomes denser as the temperature decrea.,"s.
Air is densest when temperatures are (very hot / very cold ).

very cold

197. More moisture can be contained in air if it is less dense.

Very cold air can contain (more/ less) moisture than hot air.
198. Temperature (is/ is not) an important factor in measuring
humidity.

less
is

199. Here is one way to express humidity measurements.

Suppose we have a humidity measurement that reads 1 pound
of water in 10 pounds of air. This reading is expressed as
(degree of saturation/ weight per given volume) .

weight per given volume

200. Pound is an expression of a specific quantity.

1 pound and 10 pounds are (relative/ absolute) expressions

of quantity.

201. Humidity expressed as weight per quantity is (relative /

absolute) humidity.

a0so1ute

absolute

202. Temperature is not considered in measurements of absolute

humidity.
~:t>solute

humidity readings tell how much water is in a given

quantity of air, but (do/ do not) tell how much more water
. the air can absorb.
16

do not

. order tc... know how much evaporation can take place, it is

_sary to know how much more
the air
absorb.

water .

ipposewe have a humidity reading that says air at 85 0 holds

of the maximum it could hold at that temperature.

~~\~~~I;'~S expressed as (degree of saturation/ weight per

humidity reading is given

"p~rcentage

degree of saturatio_n

of maximwn

Humidity "erprE:S.Sed as a fJf:'T~ntage Cot maximum humidity at

a given tan~tU!e is (rtlative / e;bso\utE: / humidity.

relative

206. A reIati..-~ humidity reading (doc do.,; not) give an indica

tion of how much more wa"ter air can absorb.

doos

207. If air bolds all the water vapor it can hold at any temperature,
it is aaid to be _ _ _ _ __
.208. The relative humidity of air at the point of sat uration

saturated

lS

-----0/0.

100

209. AJ. relative humidity increases, evaporation _ _ _ _ __

210.

decreases

Th~\.performance of a cooling tower (increases/ decreases) as

the relative humidity increases.

decreases

211. Relative humidity is the (least/ most) important variable af

most

fecting the performance of cooling towers.

Dry.and Wet-Bulb Temperatures

212. This combination of thermometers and wick is a hygrometer.

'"
'"

THERMOMETER

The thermometers are identical except that one bulb is covered

bya _ _ _ _ __
17

wick

:213. Beeause the wick is saturated with water, the thermometer

it covers is called a
bulb thermometer.

wet

214. Evaporation has a cooling effect.

I
If the water in the wick of the wet-bulb thermometer is

evaporating, it wiJI show a (warmer/cooler) temperature than

the other thermometer. .

215. The faster evaporation occurs, the (greater/ less) difference

!
there will be in flte readings.
216. Evaporation will occur faster If the air surrounding the wick
is (moisUdry).

cooler

greater

dry

217. In dry air, the wet-bulb reading is always (lower/ higher) than
the dry-bulb reading.

lower

218. Suppose the dry bulb reads 90F and the wet bulb reads 75F.

100' 90% 80 %

/b

90
0:

w 80
fw

v.

70

::E

a:
W
:x:
f-

ro
--'
=>
ro

60

f-

50

;0:

40

~v::
;:::::

~V

60~~

-.e

50'/.

40 ' "
30 '~

20'1

10 0

":nm
,:....
<
m
I
C

3:

>2
-<

-i

:/'
50

II:

/. ~ f0
~ :& ~ ./'
V; t%= / / V
0 ~ V /. Vy V
V
~ ~ V/
,,:% ~ ~ V V / ' V
~ t:% V V . /V
./
~ / V ./

70 ~'

60

70

80

90

100

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE

The chart shows that the relative humidity is _ _ _ _ _ %.

50

ZI9. If the dry bulb reads 60F and the wet bulb reads GOF, the
relative humidity is
%.

100

l20. The greater the difference between readings, the (higher I

lower) tbe relative humidity.

lower

18

, . A sling psychrometer also measures relative humidity.

GAUZE WICK

.. . .. . ...... . .... _- .
DRY BULB

The operator whirls the sling psychrometer

In

the outside

atmosphere after saturating the wick with _____---'_

water

22. If the atmosphere is not saturated , there will be _ __ _ _

different

readings on the two thermometers.

:23. When the wet bulb reads lower than the dry bulb, it is because
water has
from the wick.

evaporated

124. Evaporation causes _____ __

cooling

!25. Cooling tower performance is (highest/ lowest) when wet- 'and

, .. dry-bulb temperatures are equal.

lowest

~6.

Even when the air is saturated in the tower, some cooling

occurs by convection and conduction.
Therefore, cooling t owers do not depend entirely on
_ _ _ _ _ __ to accomplish cooling.

evaporation

1Zl. When the outside air is cooler than the water being cooled,
conveetion
conduction

some cooling occurs due to radiation,

and
_______ , even though none occurs due to evaporation.

228. ")ve'\thoullh no evaporation occurs, if the air is cooler than the

'.

, water; heat

IS

transferred from the water to the

229. The heated air then carries the heat with it out of the tower
by _ __ _ _

convection

230. Cooling towers are never 100 % efficient.

If the wet-bulb temperature is 65F, that would be the minimum a.pproach temperature of the water.
The lowest possible water temperature after cooling with the

above condition would be (60'F/above 65'F).

above 65'F

23I. The efficiency of cooling t owers, regardless of type, increases

as the difference between wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperature
increases

19

Winter Operation
232. The degree or cooling in"cooling towers in part depends on the

amount of air flowing through the _ _ _ _ _ __

tower

233. In addition, il the air is hot and humid, the degree 01 cooling
is (more/less) than when the air is cold and dry.

less

234. Low air temperature may result in too much _ __ _ _ __

cooling

235. Water freezes at 3Z0F.

In winter, air temperatw"e well below 32F may cause cooling
water to
on parts of the cooling tower.

freeze

236. Because of more cold air contact, water broken up into small
droplets freezes (faster/slower) than if it was in a solid stream.

laster

237. Ice (onnations may

block

_~_

_ _ _ _ the passages between

splash bars.
238. The operator has to watch (or fannation of ice around the fan.

I! ice builds up around the Ian too much, it may shut off the
How 01 _ _ _ _ __
239. In cold weather, moisture-filled air is likely to form _ _ _ _-,

Ice

on the fan blades and other moving parts.

240. This may cause overloading 01 the fan motor and costly
~:

damage, or repairs

24.1. The operator"needs to know how to prevent _ __ _ _ __

. formation in the tower and on moving parts.

ice

242. One way to control freezing is to limit the quantity of cold

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ entering the tower.

alf

243. In atmospheric towers, adjustable louvers can limit the intake

01 _ _ _ __

...

244. To limit the intake of air in induced-and forced-draft towers,

the

fans

can be slowed or shut down .

245. Decreasing the pitch of the Ian blades will also reduce the
_ _ _ _ _ _ intake.
246. If ice has formed in the fill deck, it can be melted by reducing
the amount of cold

entering the tower.

air

247. The incoming water will melt the ice because the water is
hot, or warm
.~ ,

248. Fans which do not have variable-pitch blades are usually

equipped so that the direction of rotation can be _ _ _ __
Now tum the page,
turn the boo&t over, and go on .

changed. or reversed

20

249. On a forced-draft towel', the fan pushes the aIr into the
(top !bottom) of the tower.

bottom

..

:250. R',d'sing the pitch of the fan blades causes air to be (pushed
.;:: into /;ucked out of) the tower.
.

sucked out of
,,'

::t-.'",,'

can

251. Since the ail' in the tower is hot, reversing the fan (can/cannot)

melt an ice buildup.

1.:252. The quantity of ail' flowing through the forced- or induceddraft towel' can be controlled:

: ; :(:1::"

,..

'." .

by shutting off one or more _ _ _ _ _ __ ;

fans

by changing the pitch 01' direction of rotation of _____

_ _ _ _ _ _ ;and

fan
blades

by changing the _______ of fan motors.

speed

.. .
"

. . . .:.:.
,r- , .,
.. .

.,.. t,

t I::
'

..

,'.

..
RevIew and Summary

253. Cooling towers are needed in modern refineries to reduce the

temperature of cooling water. Cooling water needs cooling so
that it can again be used in exchangers to:

. ~ ' :'

condense petroleum _ _ _ __ __

vapors

cool products enough so that they do not go off _ _ _ __

in storage due to heat; and to
products to

specification
cool

..

"

pressure- or fire-safe storage temperature.

..~
. '.~'

254. Cooling towers depend mostly on the (conduction of heat

,;

partial evaporation of watt

from water to air/ partial evaporation of water).

"

255. Evaporation depends on water-to- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ contact.

air

256. The most important condition affecting the rate of evaporation: is the (temperature / relative humidity) of the air.

relative humidity

.
. 257. Atmospheric cooli ng towers depend primarily upon the pre-

,".

., :

t f.

r. .j
:258.

"i

vailing

.....

.'

draft

.'

.'.

259. In fo""ed- and induced-draft cooling towers, the draft is

.~l. caused by motor-driven _ _ _ _ _ __

260. The draft in forced- and induced-draft cooling towers is

(eaaier/harder) to control than the draft in atmospheric
\~:;
towers:

....'.

.'t,.

The natural-draft tower is designed in such a manner that the

heat of hot water causes a
through it.

':'f-

'-;-

wind

for performance.

fans

,.

:': 1>

.. .

.i',

easIer

. 'I
"

, ~.

. , .1

'I',,.
, t.

:~

261. Redwood and fir is used in the construction of cooling towers

because it resists wet _ _ _ _ _ __

21

rot

:. ~ ;
' :".

,.

...':i
.;~

J :

262. Ideally, metal parts of the towers should be highly _ __

to con-osian .

reslstan ~

263. Metal parts are coated with special _ _ _____ to in

crease their corrosion resistance.

coating, or paint

264. The operator should keep alert to evidence 01 excessIve

_ _ _ _ _ _ and wet _ _ _ _ __

corrosion. or rust: rot

265. Cooling towers perlorm best when the air passing through
them- is cool .and (dry j wet).

dry

266. Hygrometers and psychrometers .are instruments used in

determining the _-,-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 01 the air.

relative humidit}''

267. If there is no difference in the temperature readin g of a dry. and

wet~bulb thermometer, the relative humidity is
%.

100

268. At 100% relative humidity, there will be (some / no) cooling

no

due to evaporation.

269. Even though there might not be any cooling due to evapora
tion, a cooling tower will still cool water slightly due to
radiation,

and _ _ _ _ _ __

conduction; convection

270. In cold climates, where temperatures get belol. Ireezing, the

- operator must guard against the (ormation 01 _ _ _ _ __

in the tower as wen as the fans.

ice

271. A naturaldralt tower (needs / does not need ) drift eliminators.

272. All other towers have _ _ _ _ _ __

does not need

_ _ _ _ _ to

drirt eliminators

reduce loss of water due to wind .

273. Makeup water is needed in cooling towers to replace water

loss aue to leaks,

and _ __ _ _ __

evaporation; drift

SECTION 2

..-

WATER CONDITIONING
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. H20 is a chemical symbol (or water. It shows that a water

molecule is a compound made up of two atom s of hydrogen

and one atom of _ _ _ _ __

2. wnen hydrogen and oxygen combine to (orm water, the
process is a (chemical/physical) change.
22

oxygen

chemical

-.

3. The drawings show different changes that water can undergo.

E:J

.. .

t~~)

'

, ,)",,)
( "-' r ))

}I

"'-_ _- - l

ICE (SOLID)
BELOW 32' F

WATER (L IQUID)
32'F TO 212'F

STEAM (GAS)
ABOVE 212'F

These changes are (chemical/ physical).

physical

4. Whether water is a solid, liquid, or vapor, its molecule$ are

. still composed of two
a toms and one
_ _ _ _ _ _ atom.

hydrogen
oxygen

5.~Heating

or cooling water causes it to change state from one

form to another.

. Changing the state of water is only a

change.

physical

occurs only when atoms or molecules

change from one substance into an entirely _ _ _ _ _ __
substance.

different

.
6. A ehemical change
.

: 7 . .Water does not undergo chemical change easily.

Chemically, it is relatively (stable / unstable).

!.

stable

il'
, 8:' Water also has
. a good heat capacity. That means that it has

i'

.a good capacIty to absorb

heat

! 9. BTU stands for British Thermal Unit. It is a measurement of

~~
quantity of
energy.

heat

10. Spteiji Mal is the number of BTU's required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of any substance 1F. For water, this

takes 1 BTU.

,.

To raise 2 pounds of water by 1 OF, for example, requires

_ _ _ _ _ BTU's.

11. Here is a table of specific heat values for different substances.

,
~

\r "

,.

Specific Heats

toY;'

l!'.'

t'
b*_

't ....'

Substanee

Air .

i"~ ...::! Alcohol

r 'Aluminum
....
....

Sp. Ht .

Substance

Kerosine
Lead
Lube Oil

0.24
0.60
0.22
0.091
. 0.093
0.20
0.21
0.032
0.51
0.115

Sp.Ht.

0.50
0.03
0.45
0.033
0.48
0.192
0.055
1.00
'0.42
0.093

Mercury
Brass
Steam
Copper
Stone
fj>;;
Earth
(dry
soil)
cTin
''.
, ..: Glass
" ;
Water
Gold
,.J. !ce
Wood (avg.)
Zinc
Iron (steel)
;; "
.,". .'( .'Kerosine
..
has a specific heat value of _ _ _ _ _ __

"

~.

23

,-

,,..

0.50

12. To raise the temperature of 2 pounds of kerosine by 1F

BTU.
",requires

13. When any 1iquid or fluid is used as a coolant, it absorbs heat

energy from the material being _ _ _ _ __ _

cooled

14. As a coolant absorbs heat energy, its temperalllre'_ _ _ __

rIses

15. Raising the temperature of 1 gallon of ker osine a certain

amount requires (more/ less) heat than raising a gallon of
water the same amount.

less

'.

16. A substance with a high specific heat can absorb (more/ less)
heat per degree of temperature change than a substance with
a low specific heat.

more

17. A substance with a high specific heat should make a (good /

poor) coolant.

good

18. Water can'disso1ve m!l.ny things. Water is norrnally a (good /

poor) solvent.

good

19. Many tiny, inso~uble particles, such as grains of sand, rust,

and calcium carbonate, become suspended in water.

Water can contain two kinds of solids : (1) dissolved solids

and (2)
solids.

suspended, or undissolve

Review

20. Water is made up of two _______

_______ atom.

~ to m s

and one

hydrogen
oxygen

21. Chemically speaking, water is (stable/ unstable ' .

stable

22. Water makes a good coolant because it has a _ _ _ _ __

specific heat.

high

23. Because of its properties. water can _ __ ._ _ _ and

carry various solids.

dissolve

, ,~

24. The two types of solids that can be found

_ _ _ _ _ _ and _ _ _ _ _ _ solids.

In

water are

EFFECTS OF TOTAL SOLIDS ON COOLING

dissolved; suspended

", 25. The makeup water used in refineries comes from natural
sources such as rivers, lakes, and wells.

Such waters are likely to contain both

and
solids even though they may appear perfectly clear.

24

dissolved
suspendod

..

26. Because the water circulates many times through pipes, exchangers" rooling towers, and basins, it picks up (more/ less)
solids.

"

more

27. ,The total solids increase because the water _ _ _ _ _ __

a little bit of the substances it contacts.
;;~ . '

dissolves

,i8'.'When water evaporates, it (takes/does not take) the solids

: , ~: with it.

does not take ,"

,,'

. "i

"
.' 29. Mter partial evaporation,

,"

; ~R'

"

the solids tend t o concentrate in

'v-"l'the remaining water. Ccx.>led water leaving a cooling tower
},~! has (mOl'e:1ess) total sohds per gallon than the hot water
, i . entering the tower.
-.\~t .
' .. I..
'

more

H {

."

80. The circulating water in a cooling system has (more/less)

more

~11ir.~ 't otal solids than the fresh makeup water.

. ji}:!.

:' slf, So, the discarding of some cooling water and the addition of

~ makeup water tends to keep the total volume of solids

l"!'

.(up/down).

)J

r "

down

'

~' S2., Suspended solids tend to settle out in sections o( the cooling
~~g
': .system where the velocity o( the water is (slowed/increased).
C'

f 3S.'Some diasolved solids are less soluble in hot water than in cold
i;l"iiw.ater. When the water becomes hot, these dissolved solids
'., . ,Decome
solids .
.:;.... ~~),'
" , .
34. Calcium and magnesium carbonate are less soluble in hot
", ,:: water than in cold water. When cooling water goes through

t!.: heat exchanger, calcium and magnesium carbonate become

0"

, . .
, 'j

solids.

':'1-

:~1:~

",.>

~3~,:~,~e~ ~ter containing calcium and magnesium carbonate

!>otled In a vessel,
~(~t bottom of the vessel.

form on the sides and

,_ .'., \8

t-f ~l'f>: ,
.l-" .... ' .oj. ~:

136.'
" The aame thing happens when the water passes through a
~" '.'h e a t .
'
J\ ~ "","
....
. . ...
.}1 " "

~~

"

,)

~3'i:'Deposits or scales (ormed in the tubing o( heat exchangers

'-"

decrease

,will {increase/decrease} heat transfer.

...... r

D; I '. ~.

>1 :1/

exchanger

,:

~ S8. ,The 'buildup of deposits in an exchanger, regardless of the

t .'-. 'cause or source of the deposit, is called fouling. Fouling makes

~ilt(Periodic

necessary.

'

A~i~oarse,
suspended solids also cause wear in narrow passages
.. ;or
in the flow. This kind of wear is (erosion/ corrosion).
~~' ~
~:

'

~40.

..

turns

ri.too much buildup of solids is permitted in a cooling tower,

,. . ;. it, too, has to be

periodically.

25

cleaning

::.:!
, .

erosion'

.~

.~

cleaned

-!

"

"

41. Tiny, microscopic plants sometimes thri ve in cooling water

systems.
These tiny growths, often green in color, require ligh t in ord er
to grow. They start growing on the walls of (closed/open)
parts of the system.

open

42. Parts of the growth break away from the walls and start
floating in the water. They become part of the _ _ _ _ __

solids.

suspended

43. They Cfl,n plug narrow passages in the system and damage
woodinthe _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

cooling towers

44. These are biological, or living, substances. To control or stop

their growth they have to be _ _ _ _ __ _

killed, or poisoned

45. The biological growths are algae and slime. There are a number
of varieties; all cause

to cooling systems.

damage, or fouling

46. Cooling water, in addition to dissolved soli ds and suspended

solids, contains some dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide

which are (solids/ gases).

gases

47. It is not the water in the system that causes corrosion, erosion,
and fouling.
It is the disSolved _ _ _ _ _ _ , suspended solids, and
dissolved _ _ _ _ __

solids
gases

KEEPING COOLING WATER IN CONDITION

48. Waters from different water sources are likel y to contain

_______ kinds and quantities of solids and gases.

different, or various

49. The chemical analyses and the physical tests made on the
different waters are likely to be _ _ _ __ _ _

different

50. The chemist prescribes what the operator must do to keep

the cooling water in good _ _ _ _ __

condition

51. The operator may be required to make a few simple tests and
of the water as the t est may indicate.
change his

l: eatrnent; "."r eonditi

52. Because each cooling system is different and t he natural make

up water is different, methods of treatment are _ _ _ __

different

CONTROLLING SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS

,63. If it is necessary (or the operator to make certain tests on

cooling water, his supervisor will arrange f or the necessary

instructions and

for the test.

equipment, or tools

. 54'. Chemists use two measures to express the quantity of various

f/- . impurities in water: grains per gallon (gr./gal. ) and parts per

: million (PPM).
One grain per gallon equals 17 parts per million. If the total
solids in cooling water is 10 gr. / gal., the PPM is _ _ _ __

26

170

 : 55: Cooling water analyses usually are reported in PPM. 50 PPM

.. . total solids means that in one million pounds of water there
. ; ". are
pounds of suspended and dissolved solids.

50

.t

, . .j ~,

; 56.;rhere are both suspended and dissolved solids in the natural

;;: ~~ ' r: makeup water. These solidc; increase in the cooling tower water
;'(,)r~~ beca~ of
..~ l~:r chemIcals that are added.
, . ,',"',',

evaporation

and because of the treating

.-

., .

'.'

.! ...

. 57. Some small increase of both kinds of solids also comes from
"the basins, pipes, and wood in the cooling system .
1

J\. :t

~,~

.' . ~;;; :rhe total of solids in cooling waters varies from one PPM in
:.(.;,j;lt relatively clear water to 50,000 PPM in muddy river water .
..}~"!. Muddy rive,' water probably has (more / less) suspended solids
~.t .:::~ than dissolved solids.

:r: ..

. ..',

.'

more

:':~' .~.~:., .

' ."

.t

.","

',1,' ..;,,(-

... -".4.,

:'.:

I.,:.\i.i"

-~. ; .:.~."

sedimentation Ba$in$
" - ' , I' ~

.," '1!<i:f
if',.._',.
, :",

'-j.J

;\' 58:' jf there is so much suspended solid matter

l:~;.~ can be seen easily, the water is turbid.
' ~ r~

in water that it

.'

~~.'.~, ~

:::. :,.,. Turbid water has a (high / low) PPM of suspended solids.

high

~.~ ~.
"1'

.,

;~ 59,. Suppose
t~e

:"',

.J:~

the water is flowing rapidly.

It;;:
The soli'ds are (more/ less) likely to settle out.
t .,.

" 60.
.

less

One way to settle out the solids would be to (speed up/

slow down) the flow of the water.

;;.

slow down

."

61. One process for removing suspended solids from the water by
. causing them to settle out is called sedimentation.
1 ~The

process uses a sedimentation basin which is large enough

,,'

.;'~. i!"' 'that the flow of water through it is extremely _____

slow

.. ,
\'
..
' 62 ...Then the particles of suspended solids can drop to the bottom

'.

~ - -

'

i,e','" of the basin due to (gravity/ pressure).

gravity

"rL~:i ';}. :

ISS.' Clear water is drawn from near the (top/ bottom) of the basin.
f'

top
'"

; 64. If the basin is being used continuously, sediment must be

: '. removed from the bottom of the basin ___ _ _ __
<.
> "

: 65. If a battery of two or more sedimentation basins is used., the

L flow through at least one can be
completely.

I ,'.

66. If t~. flow is stopped completely, suspended particles settle

:: jfaster/slower).
,,'
:1 . ,:

67. Good settling basins of sufficient size provide sufficient

, . _______ of natural waters to make it suitable for

cooling.
27

.
..

"

. . 1

Mechanical and Chemical Clarifiers

"'L'

68. Mechanical clarifiers take up less space t han sedimentation

basins.

."
CHEMICA,L FEED INLET

VARIABLE SPEED DRI

OUTLET

LAIU~~~~==r

".

HARD
WATER
INLET

~~~~J==iSLUDGE OUTLET
Here, turbid water and coagulating chemicals are fed in

through (the same inlet/ different inlets),

different in 1....ts

69. The design of the clarifier causes the chemicals to be thoroughly

with the raw, turbid ,vater.

mixed

.-

70. Aluminum compounds such as aluminum sulfate, sodium

aluminate, and iron compounds, such as ferrous sulCate and
ferric chloride. are coagulants.

When added to turbid water with other chemicals, they speed

up _ _ _ __

sedimentation,
or purification

71. Coagulants with other chemicals form a spongy floc which

settles rapidly, taking with it sediments, algae particles, and

other suspended _ _ _ _ __
72. The chemicals coagulate the suspended solids so that they
~ become heavy enough to settle quickly to the _ _ _ _ __
of the clarifier tank.

solids, or matter

bottom

73. The solids pile up as sludge on the bottom of the clarifier tank.
A rotating scraper moves the sludge toward the center where

it can enter the sludge _ _ _ _ _ __

.74. Because the chemicals speed up the settling, these clarifiers

require (more/less) space than a sedimentation basin.

75. Because of the coagulating action of the chemicals, water from

these clarifiers is
than water from sedimentation basins.
28

outlet

'.

less

clearer, or deaner

;.'

,:: - '!.',

Filtration

, :"

:',

- ',

~!

:.

:~
,

',0,
"

:~: ~1

76. Suspended solids can be removed from water by filtering the

solids out. Filte,'s work by either grav ity 01' pressure.

'.:

."

OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE
SAND
GRAVEL

i,'
"

,,1. .."f

WATER INLET
Y:..:7-:;;~~

;~

_.-

' ,'

. ,.?,

'"

.~'! .

.
~,

"iI"
." -i ,

l2::==

'I'

BACKWASH OUTLET

'i

FILTERED WATER
:=ftt=OUTLET

~====~~~~HINLET
This is a _ _ _ _ _ _ filter,

gravity
:.'

77, Note that the tank [or this filter is completely enclosed.

,,':

,',

.f

BACKWASHING FILTER

,;

~:
~ "

.~

BACKWASH OUTLET
'I",'

,,", This is a _ _ _ _ _ _ filter.

78. ' Both gravity and 'pressure filters can produce backwash.
Water can be forced back in the _ _ _ __ __ direction
: ~;~to normal flow.

.
79. ',The solids trapped in and on the filter bed are backwashed or
I( ftusbed into the
disposal system.

:,i:'

:. '

t ' .

"

,r

pressure

opposite, or

.e.en..

~"

BO. Filters are usually installed in batteries of two or more so that

..'< the flow of filtered water can continue through at least one
o ,filter while the other is being _ _ _ _ __

29

"

waste.

backwashed,

Hardness

81. Hard water is water which contains dissolved _ _ _ _ __

solid.

82. Distilled water does not contain either dissolved solids and
gases or suspended solids and gases. It is therefore (soft/ hard).

soft

88. Rain water is not entirely soft because it picks up some hard-

ness from the- solids and gases in the _ _ _ _ _ __

air, or atmosphere

84. Natural water from wells, lakes, and streams is often quite

hard.
When the water is heated, some of the dissol ved solids in the
water fann insoluble

deposits, or solids, or

in the equipment.

85. The hardness itself does not cause corrosion in the system,
but the deposits create a condition favorable to _ _ _ __
by other impurities in the water.

corrosion

Scale Control

86. Cooling water conditioning is necessary to prevent or minimize

..,.corrosion, fouling, and

formation in heat

scale

.exchanger equipment.

87. The dissolved solids which cause calcium and magnesium

hardness also cause scale formation if the cooling water behotter

comes (hotter/ colder).

88. Calcium and magnesium scale on heat exchanger tubes

significantly reduces the transfer of ______ _ through
the tube walls.
89. Scale also reduces the flow of fluid through the heat exchanger
shell, completely plugging some or all of the exchanger
~______ if it is not removed .

heat

tub es, or passages . e,

90. The formation of scale makes the equipmen t less efficient

, . and makes costly

necessary.

cleaning, or repair

91. There are three widely used methods for conditioning water
against scaling.

One method is to soften the water by making the soluble

compounds insoluble so that they can be remoyed by settling
OT _ _ _ __

filtration

30

50

, '. 92. This is a cold-process softener.

: ;.

.,

,....
MECHANICAL

,. ,. .
" ,.
"

MI~:ER

CHEMICAL INLET

.,! ,"
'

....,

.....
'",

.,

~ l'

,',.
The softening reaction is accomplished by feeding in chemicals
such as lime and soda ash and mixing them with the water

'Jli." by
"

mechanical

means.

.; 98.
This softener uses heat as well as chemicals .
..
1I1J'

~.

_1

'-"li;-.,'

!'t#,

HARD WATER

.~ . INLET ==;e::~

", W"
':.~:"
.

;;;.;;;

'.:/~ I '

r,=.~--- S,'EAM IN

CHEMICAL
INLET

~::E==TREATED WATER
TO

FILTER~

..,

".:-

1~,

SLUDGE BLOW-QFF

",: ..

.,

it::I'
.

7~'

~(y '

U !>~f'tHere the raw water and the chemicals are heated by

~~~ ..
~~ L .
i94;;,There (is/ is no) mechanical mixing.
tr~~

~96.I Heat speeds up the softening reaction.

~rBecause the reaction is speeded up, in a given amount of time
!i~the hot-process softener can soften (more/ less) water.

IS

no

more

,.
"

i.,. ,
'.

steam

31

96. If the processing rate for bot.h hot and coJdprocess unit!; i5
the same, the size of the (hot / cold ) uni i can be smaller.

hot

97. Heat makes the softening reaction mor' complete.

For a given amount of processing time, the water from

:1

(hot/cold) unit is likely to be softer.

hot

98. Because its reaction is faster and more complete. chemical

costs for the hot-process unit are usually (higher/ lower) than
the cqsts for the cold unit.

lower

99. The amount of chemicals used depends, however, on the

hardness of the raw _ _ _ _ _ __

water

100. Generally, the higher the hardness of the raw water, the
higher

(higher flower) the chemical costs to soften the water.

101. Zeolites, chemicals that produce ion exc hange, are also used
. to soften water .

.'

'==o;'\lV ION EXCHANGE

UNIT
HARD
WATER
INLET
ZEOLITE

'.'.
SOFT
WATER
OUT LET
REGENERANT TANK
(SODIUM CHLORIDE BRINE)

In this kind of softener, the water (intim ately mixes with /

passes through) the zeolite.

passes through

102. An ion is an atom that either has extra electrons or is mj~ing

some electrons.
An ion exchange involves one substance collecting ions from,
or giving up ions to, another substance.

Passing the water through the zeolite (makes possible/

makes possible

prevents) ion exchange.

32

103. Usually, the zeolite has sodium ions attached to it.

When hard water passes through the zeolite, the sodium ions
of the zeolite exchange with calcium or magnesium ions of

the raw _ _ _ _ __

:.;,' !:;l ",

water

.
"

104. With calcium 01' magnesIUm removed, the water is now

_______ than it was.

105. When all the sodium attached to the zeolite has been removed,
the zeolite (can still .'can no longer) exchange ions.

softe~ .

.:~:

.'

can no longer

106. Suppose a sodium chloride brine is flushed through the

saturated zeolite.
There (now can be' still can't be) an ion exchange.

..

'.

.
now can

107. The zeolite now exchanges _ _ _ _ _ _ or _ _ _ _ __

ions with the brine.

calcium;

108. The brine gives up _______ ions to the zeolite.

sodiwri ; , .

109: With sodium once more attached to it, the zeolite is reactivated .
.' It can (once again / still no longer) soften water passed through
' to

once again

.,

110. The zeolite can only be reac tivated a certain number of times.
...' Eventually, the zeolite must be _ _ _ _ _ __
" ,

:.V

111. Zeolite softeners yield much softer water than is usually

needed in a .cooling system.

Their use is generaJly limited to providing very soft boiler

feed water and some of the _______ water in the

I'

makeup ,

cooling system .

. 112. Sulphuric acid also can be used in water to control scale.

Sulphuric acid is highly _ _ _ _ __

.,
corrosive

; 113. Therefore, the quantity of acid added to the water has to be

carefully _ _ _ _ __
114. The sulphuriC acid acts on scale-forming substances to keep
tbem dissolved in the water.
Tbis means tbat adding sulphuric acid to the water makes
seale-forming substances (morelless) soluble . .

more

: 115. So long as these substances remain soluble, it is (easy / difficult)

for them to settle out and form scale.

.'116. Retarding the rate at which scale-forming substances settle

out (speeds up/slows down) the formation of scale.

"117.

~other

slows

way to control the formation of scale is to blow down

or discard some cooling water continuously,

....

This lost water is then replaced with (hard / soft) makeup water.
33

soft

RROSION CONTROL

I. Cooling water corrodes by destroying the metal which it

contacts
I. ' Perfectly

pure water is not corrosive.

Cooling water corrodes because there are dissolved _ _ _ __

and gases in it.
'"
Dissolved solids in the natural makeup water become can
centrated because of _______ which takes place in
:, the cooling tower.

solids

.,
I

I.

evaporation

:1.:. Gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide are picked up trom

the

:t

:l.

in the cooling tower.

aJr

Carbon dioxide causes the water to become acidic. Acidic

water is (corrosive/non--corrosive).

corrosive

Oxygen in contact with iron causes oxidation or __~_ _

rust, or corrosion

L
These fonns of corrosion are in part eliminated by using
in construction of parts
' corrosion-resisting

metals, or matei ials .'

which come in contact with cooling water.

i
fj. But, using expensive metals entirely is more costly than

_______ the water to lessen its tendency to corrode

: metal.

.
conditioning, or softenins

i. One way to treat the water to prevent corrosion is to inhibit

or stabilize the water chemically so that it will not attack

,.

metal

..

,.

,.' Another approach is to treat the water so that it deposits a

tbin, protective film on the
of the metal.

surface

Ilhoclic Protection

1. The tarnishing of polished metal is a fonn of _ _ _ _ __

J. Oxidation of the metal occurs in dry air. Water is not involved
in the corrosion. This kind of corrosion is called dry

). Because water is involved, the kind of corrosion which occurs

in cooling systems is (wet/dry) corrosion.

wet

1. During wet corrosion, two reactions occur at the same time.

Metal passes into the water and hydrogen p:\SSes out of the
_ _ _ _ _ _ into the metal.

34

water

.:
~"

,
... ..:..

1~2.

When this occurs, there is a tiny flow of electricity between

the water and the _ _ _ _ __

metal

133. The metal is the anode and the water is thecathode.

GALVANOMETER

CATHODE

.;;.,::-\- HYDROGEN

.~j

IRON CONDENSER BOX

The galvan-;~eter indicates a small flow of _ __ _ __

current, or electricity;

", .;

134. Iron is going 'into solution from the metal walls (anode) and

:a

.- ", :.

hydrogen is leav ing the water at the _______

cathode

135. Suppose a strong direct current is applied in the opposite

direction.

ELECTRICAL SOURCE

.,
,

.. ,

.'
,
''',:: .

In this situation, hydrogen leaves the water

is taken from the rod.
and

metal

..

"

136. The anode, which may be scrap iron, corrodes,

metal from the iron condenser box is _______".,~)~.

''Prevented .

137. This arrangement provides cathodic protection ~f metal

in the cooling water system.

To keep the current flowing in the right direction at tbe right
magnitude, the operator may be required to make adiustments of the outside
source.

,1;. .' ~.

current, or'el;oCt!;City~
'."

138. The amount of current that must be applied from the outside

"

source (depends/dOes not depend) on the corrosiveness of the

depends ):.

water and on stray c\PTtnt trom nearby electrical equipment.

.,,'

TESTING FOR ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

139. Water from any source is either acid ic, alkaline, or neutral.

Litmus paper and phenolphthalein and methyl-orange solutions are indicators that do not show neutral water but can
indicate either acidic cir
water.

alkaline

140. If blue litmus paper is dipped in acidic water, it turns red.

If then dipped in alkaline water, the paper turns _ _ _ __
once more.

141. Phenolphthalein solution is colorless and stays colorless

ae:idic water.

hlue
In

It turns red when added to _______ water.

alkaline

142. A drop of methyl-orange solution is yellowish-orange. When

added to alkaline water it remains yellowish-orange, but turns
reddish-orange when added to
water.
143. Litmus paper, phenolphthalein and methyl-orange only
dicate whether a sample of water is acid or alkaline.

acidic

in-

They do not indicate the degree of acidity or _ _ _ _ __

alkalinity

144. The degree of acidity or alkalinity can be established by

finding a pH value for a given sample.
pH SCALE
,

10 11

12 13 14

t--I.---ACIO----,t-I--ALKALINE
NEUTRAL

--1

A sample of water with a pH value of 7 is _ _ _ _ _ __

neutral

145. A sample of water with a pH value of 5 is _ _ _ _ _ __

acidic

146_ A sample of water with a pH value of 9.5 ;s _ _ _ __ __

alkaline

147. If you want to increase the pH value of the cooling water,

you would add (an acid / an alkali) .

an alkali

148. Water with a high pH value is (more/less) likely to form

:Sea!e than to corrode metal.

rnore

149. Water with a pH value of 9.0 causes red litmus paper to tum

150. Water with a pH of 4.0 causes methyl-orange indicator to

turn
- orange.
151. A sample of water with a pH value of 11.3 causes phenol: phthalein indicator to turn _ _ _ _ _ __
36

blue

reddish
red

'

.;.

. ,

~,

152. Phenolphthalein in 4.0 pH water is _ _ _ _ __

colorless'"

153. If applied excessively, the chlorine and phenolic compounds

used as

rf i~ infectants

and algaecides are

to

the wood in cooling towers.

,: .

.'.

154. Excess alkalinity over a long period of time is damaging to

ti i,..\ ~
. '.;.":

cooling tower lumber. Water which is damaging to lumber is

likely to have a (high /low) pH value.

high

155. Wood contains organic acids which act to protect 'i t from
'

rotting.

"

These acids can be washed out by _______ sub-

..

alkaline

stances with high pH values.

156. Excessive chlorine also destroys the natural preservatives in

cooling towel' wood .
Excessive _ _ _ _ _ __

, ,r;.j
. ..

should be avoided,

",,

'".

' ,:.:

REVIEW AND SUMMARY

-.., .
,! .
,,1, ~

157. Water for cooling is (readily available/ scarce) in most areas.

readily:,aVailabj~

158. Water has the capacity to absorb (more/ less) heat than most
available coolants,

more

159. Water is (more/ less) costly than other possible coolants.

.160. Water from natural sources (is/is not) corrosive to metals.

d'.IIil. Water (has / does not have) scale-forming 'and fouling

tendencies.

r ..

less
IS

has
-.s;

162. Water is non-eombustible and therefore does not add to

dangers from fire.
It also responds readily to a large variety of _ _ _ __ __
treatments.

)t.

"~~

chemical,

...

153. Accumulation of suspended solids in cooling water may be

reduced by filtration, adding soft
water,
sedimentation, and continuous

from the

or
,~

fl.

f'

makeup

"

blowdown'~'

system.

~ ,

164. In cloling W81.-.er, the main problem with hard water makeup
is that it (does not evaporate Quickly/increases scale.fonning

tendencies) ,
',.

increases

165. Lime-soda and zeolite processes are used to _ _ _ _-,-__

; ,'

"

alkaline; <:hlorine ~,

and excessive

. ! .

soften

water.

37
,

... .

'

~,

"

'" .

,-

166. The pH value is an expression of (hardn., --softness/ acidityalkalinity) of the water.

acidity-alkalinity

167. Water with a pH value of 3.9 is _ _ ____ _

acid

Water with a pH value of 7.9 is _ _ __ __ _ _ .

168. Water with a pH value of 7.0 is _ _ ____

alkaline

nelltral

169. Algae and slime are (mineral/ biological) m:-\ter.

biological

170. Algae occurs' mostly where water is expo od to (darkness/

sunlight).

sunlight

171. Algae and slime cause heat exchanger __ __ _ __

fouling, or cloggin;'

172. Coagulation is a process which may be aid .d by the use of

chemicals
17&. -Coagulation aids (tiltration only /sedime,' cation only/both
tiltration and sedimentation) .

'.

both tiltration and

sedimentation

. 174. Gases, especially oxygen and hydrog.., sulfide, cause

_ _ _ _ _ _ of metal parts.

corrosion

175. A process for protecting metal equipmen' against electro

chemical corrosion is
prot ction.

cathodic

I THE END I

. ' ,'

..-,
_

. ,'.'

..

...

: .

38

-,

--