SoftwareDesignTheoryandRailroadApplicationofSimpleDraperySystem

GiorgioGiacchetti
OFFICINEMACCAFERRIS.p.A.
ViaKennedy10
40069ZolaPredosa
Ph:01139051646000
giorgio.giacchetti@maccaferri.com

GhislainBrunet
Maccaferri,Inc.
10303GovernorLaneBlvd.,
Williamsport,MD217953116
Ph:3012236910
gbrunet@maccaferriusa.com

AlbertoGrimod
MaccaferriCanadaLtd.
400CollierMacMillanDr.UnitB
Cambridge,Ont,Canada,N1R7H7
Telephone:5196239990
agrimod@maccaferri.ca

PreparedfortheAREMA2014AnnualConference&Exposition
September28thOctober1st,Chicago,Il

ABSTRACT
Simple drapery systems are commonly used all around the world as a simple, fast and economical measure to
mitigate rockfall hazards. It consists of installing steel mesh along a slope, as a curtain, which is suspended by
longitudinal ropes and anchors at the crest and toe. The distance between the anchors depends on the design and the
prevailing instability conditions at the site. They are commonly located in a line and are fitted with suitable
terminations (often wire rope anchors or similar) to accept the crest rope. Once the crest anchors and the upper
longitudinal cable are installed, the mesh can be fixed to them and left free all along the slope.
The design of simple drapery depends on different variables related to the geometry of the slope, the type of the
mesh and the hypothetical debris accumulation on the toe of the system. One of the most resent researches carried
out to give a design guideline for these applications was done by Washington State Department of Transportation
(Muhunthan et al. 2005).
Using these studies, the catenary theory and the results obtained from several laboratories and field tests, Maccaferri
has developed a new software (MacRo 2) to design the type of mesh, the diameter of the up-slope cable and the steel
and geometric (diameter and length) characteristics of the up-slope anchors.
This paper will cover the theory used in this new software and railroad application.

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INTRODUCTION
The natural processes of weathering, increased by climate change, generate geological instabilities, which
frequently expose populated areas and infrastructures to a wide range of shallow instabilities varying from erosion to
rockfall. Shallow instabilities should not be underestimated because they frequently cause rockfall events. Due to
the fact that they happen with a high frequency over large areas, the probability of rock strikes and accidents is
elevated. In this situation, the design must consider the efficiency of a remedial solution in terms of performance and
low maintenance costs. The rockfall mitigation solution is divided into two different design approaches related to
their means of stabilizing the slope area:
Active Protection Systems: are applied directly on an unstable zone in order to prevent or control the movement of
the shallow instability. The most common solutions inside this category are the following:
o

Soil Nailing: is to improve soil stability by inserting reinforcement bars in the soil in a regular
pattern, the nails are then grouted and fixed soundly to the ground for their entire length (nailing).
The frequency and the length of the nails can be calculated in accordance with FHWA, EN 1997 1
or BS 8006. The ground surface is reinforced with a structural facing which can be flexible (steel
mesh) or rigid (shotcrete).
Pre-stressed Soil Anchors (tie back anchors): pre-stressed anchors are installed in a shallow
instability to modify the internal stability since an external force is applied to tie the instability
into the slope area.
Secured Drapery System: composed of an anchor system spaced at regular intervals where the
rocks are held in place by a surficial structural, flexible (steel mesh), or rigid (shotcrete) facing
interconnected to ground anchors.

Passive Protection Systems: are not implemented at the source area, but rather mitigate the hazard of instabilities by
affecting the trajectories of falling rocks or arresting or reducing the falling rock velocities. They are generally
applied far from rockfall source areas. This category includes the following solutions:
o
o

Simple Drapery System: consisting of a steel mesh drape system, secured at the top of the slope
with ground anchors and steel wire rope cables.
Rockfall or Debris Flow protection Barriers: structures composed of posts, cables, energy
dissipaters and interception structures (steel or wire mesh) capable of arresting and containing
falling rocks. The barrier is also composed of elements to anchor support cables, post
foundations, and ground anchors;
Hybrid Barriers: structures composed of posts, cables, energy dissipaters, and a tail of mesh
designed to reduce the energy and the velocity of falling rocks which are driven into the slope by a
steel drape system reducing energy through ground collisions; and
Rockfall or Debris Embankments: a gravity or mechanically stabilized earthfill structure forming a
steep berm to contain falling rocks or debris, generally installed at the toe of a slope.

Simple Drapery System

A simple drapery system consists of a rockfall steel mesh installed along the face of the slope. As
mentioned before, the drapery is hung as a curtain (figure 1), suspended by longitudinal ropes and anchors at the
crest (Rc). Anchors are positioned along the crest (AC) and toe (AT) of the slope and their distance depends on the
design and the prevailing rockfall conditions at the site. They are commonly located in a line and are fitted with
suitable connections (often eye nuts, or plates, or similar) to accept the crest rope (RC). Once the crest anchors and
the upper longitudinal cables are installed, the mesh can be fixed to them and left free-hanging all along the slope.

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Figure 1 Sketch of a simple drapery system application (left) and disposition of the anchors (right)

Figure 2 (left) Mesh installation at the crest (left)

Figure 3 (center) Debris accumulation at the toe of the simple drapery system
Figure 4 (right) West Virginia (USA) more than 30,000 sqm of drapery system were installed in a rocky
slope higher than 150 m

The steel mesh can be fixed as well at the bottom where space is limited, so that the falling debris can pile
up into a pocket (figure 3). In order to reduce the stress on the mesh and reduce the costs as well, the mesh at the toe
of the slope can be unsecured; in this case, a catchment trench or a fence is required to collect the fallen debris. This
type of system is usually installed on a large rocky slope (figure 4), where the secured drapery systems are not costeffective, or where the rockfall barriers and rockfall embankments cannot be installed because the slope morphology
is either too uneven or too steep.

DESIGN: PRELIMINARY REMARKS

In order to design the most cost effective and suitable mesh system, the designers must first analyze the
main factors affecting the effectiveness of the mesh.
First of all, the stress applied on the mesh and the performance of the simple drapery system largely
depends on the slope morphology. For example, for a very uneven slope, the drapery system may only be in contact
with the slope on the crest area and convexities, whereas the debris can freely run down into the gullies and
concavities. In this situation the drapery has a negligible capacity to control erosion, and the falling rocks can reach
higher velocities. The installation of the drapery then requires particular care to maximize the contact between the
ground and the steel mesh, or the slope must be preventively re-shaped and scaled.

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Another important factor affecting the selection of the mesh is the existing rock slope instability. If erosion
is the main problem, typically on a gentle slope, the appropriate selection of drape system should have a small mesh
opening and enough weight to maintain constant pressure on the ground surface. When there is contact between the
mesh and the ground, the drapery is quite effective in erosion control and allows both the re-growth of the
vegetation and the confinement of large boulders. If the slope is vertical, the drapery must be stronger to absorb
impacts and funnel falling debris to the toe of the slope. In cases of large blocks (i.e. in the basalt cliffs), a
dynamic drapery, like cable panels or ring nets, should be considered, whereas in cases of small blocks (i.e. thin
layered limestone cliff) lighter draperies, like steel composite Rock Mesh or double twist wire mesh could be
suitable.
Other important design factors are the expected life span of the drapery and its maintenance costs.
Concerning the life span, designers should consider exposure to atmospheric conditions (i.e. salt spray or wind), and
abrasion due to movement of falling debris. If the drapery is applied for temporary protection, as in the mining
industry, a light corrosion protection could be enough. If the application must be permanent or it is close to
aggressive environments (i.e. seaside), a stronger corrosion protection is required. In the last case, the designer has
to plan for maintenance suggesting the maximum size of the debris pocket acceptable for the mesh.

MACRO 2: CALULATION APPROACH

The design of simple drapery depends on different variables related to the geometry of the slope, the type
of the mesh, and the assumed debris accumulation at the base of the system. One of the available references to give
as a design guideline for these applications was prepared by the Washington State Department of Transportation
(Muhunthan et al. 2005).
Using this study and the results obtained from several laboratory and field tests, Maccaferri has developed
new software (MacRO 2) able to perform stability analysis for the selected mesh, the diameter of the crest wire rope
cable and the steel and geometric (diameter and length) characteristics of the crest anchors. If time and money are
not a problem, a complex numerical analysis with very precise data from the field could be completed, but this is not
practical for every project, especially if the system has a modest size and has to be done in a short period of time
(emergency protection). MacRO 2 allows designers to have a quick and reliable solution for design. The design
procedure that is the basis of the software is simple, but it gives reliable results considering the low level of accuracy
generally available from the input data.

Mesh design
The simple drapery system is a passive system capable of controlling rockfalls and containing the debris at
the bottom of the slope. It is designed considering all the different components able to transmit loads on the mesh
per linear of slope section:
1) The proper weight of the selected mesh
2) The weight of the debris accumulated at the toe of the slope
3) External weight like the snow or ice accumulation on the drapery
These three loads may be described with the following formulas, based on the research from the U.S.
Department of Transportation FHWA (note: formulas 1, 2 and 4 are multiplied by unit length for
simplification).Total load due to the mesh (Wm) has to be defined:

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Wm = m Hs / sin (sin cos tan) g

(1)

Where:
m = steel mesh unit weight
Hs =total height of the slope
= inclination of the slope
= friction angle between mesh and slope
g = acceleration of gravity

It is possible to identify the load transmitted from the debris to the mesh (Wd) as follows:

Wd = d Hd2 (1/tand 1/tan) (sin cos tand) g

(2)

Where:
d = debris unit weight
Hd =debris accumulation height
d = debris friction angle
d = debris external inclination value (Muhunthan equation) :

d = arctan[Hd / (Td + Hd / tan)]

(3)

Td = debris accumulation width

Figure 5 Geometrical input data to calculate the load on the mesh due to the debris accumulation

The last load acting on the mesh is due to the snow thickness above the mesh (Ws). It is considered that for
a slope with an inclination () higher than 60 degrees this load is neglected since the snow cannot be accumulated.

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Ws = s ts Hs / sinsincos tans) g

(4)

Where:

s = snow unit weight

ts = snow thickness
s = friction angle between soil and snow

To design the drapery system at a limit equilibrium state, three safety factors have to be introduced in the
calculation to increase the acting forces and decrease the resisting one:

Safety factor reducing resisting forces:

mts = safety coefficient which reduces the tensile strength of the mesh ( 1.0; from the in-situ and
laboratory tests, this factor would not be lower than 2.0)
Safety factors increasing acting forces:
vl = safety coefficient for the variable loads, like the snow thickness and the debris accumulation (
1.0; suggested value according to the Euro Code = 1.5)
pl = safety coefficient for the permanent loads, like the drapery ( 1.0; suggested value according to
the Euro Code = 1.3)
The acting and resisting forces at the limit equilibrium state can be calculated introducing the partial safety
factor coefficients listed above:
The total stress on the drape (S) will be:
Sw = (Wd + Ws) vl + Wm pl

(5)

The serviceability tensile strength of the mesh (Rm) is calculated as:

Rm = Tm / mts

(6)

Where:
Tm = ultimate longitudinal tensile strength of the mesh (defined by laboratory tests)
The design is satisfied if:
Rm - Sw 0

(7)

Thus, the safety coefficient of the mesh equals:

FSmesh = Rm / Sw 1

(7.a)

Cable design
The mesh is secured on the crest with a wire rope cable connected to ground anchors. To design the wire rope cable,
the maximum load acting on the drapery (defined above) and the spacing between the crest anchors is used to

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calculate the deformation and the stress distribution within the rope. This method uses the principle of the catenary
loading to verify that the tensile strength of the cable is sufficient to support the total weight of the system: Wm + Wd
+ Ws.
The cable is verified if the following equation is satisfied:
Twlc Fcbl 0

(8)

Where:
Twlc = cable working load limit [MLT-2]:
Twlc = Tcbl /cbl

(9)

Tcbl = ultimate tensile strength of the designed rope (varies with steel grade, wire rope construction and
the diameter)
cbl = safety coefficient decreasing Tcbl ( 1.0)
Fcbl = max tensile strength acting on the cable (calculated with catenary theory)

Thus, the safety coefficient of the cable is:

FScable = Twlc / Fcbl 1

(8.a)

Moreover, using this theory it is possible to define the maximum length of the rope and its maximum sag
between two anchors.

Figure 6 Example of the deformation of the crest wire rope cable between two anchors (A and B) calculated
by the Catenary theory

Tm = ultimate longitudinal tensile strength of the mesh (defined by laboratory tests)

The design is satisfied if:

Rm - Sw 0

(7)

Thus, the safety coefficient of the mesh is equal to:

FSmesh = Rm / Sw 1

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(7.a)

Anchors design
Anchors design may be divided into 2 different steps:
1. The first step is for designing the anchor diameter taking into consideration the shared load transmitted
from the system, composed of the mesh + wire rope cable
2. The second is designing the minimum anchor length, which depends on soil or rock characteristics
Evaluation of the anchor diameter
Using catenary theory it is possible to determine the maximum force acting on the intermediate and lateral
anchors. These two forces have to be related to the working capacity of the designed anchors:
Sbar(j) N(j) 0

(10)

Where:
Sbar(j) = working shear resistance of the anchor j :
Sbar(j) = (Ybar(j) / st) 3-1/2

Ybar(j) = yield load of the steel bar j :

Ybar(j) = ESS(j) adm(j)

(12)

ESS(j) = effective area of the steel bar j [L2]:

ESS(j) = / 4 {[fe(j) 2 fc(j)]2 fi(j)2}

(11)

(13)

adm(j) = yield stress of the steel of the bar j

fe(j) = external diameter of the steel bar j
fc(j) = thickness of corrosion on the external crown of the steel bar j
fi(j) = internal diameter of the steel bar j
st = safety coefficient for the steel strength of the bar (> 1.0)
N(j) = force that the cable and the mesh develop on the anchor j (calculated with the catenary solution)
j = position of the anchor: intermediate or lateral

Thus, the safety coefficient of the different cable may be calculated as follows:
FSanchor(j) = Sbar(j) / N(j) 1

(10.a)

Evaluation of anchor length

The evaluation of the anchor length takes into account the following:
1. The anchor plays an important role because it has to support the entire system. Its length must be deep
enough to reach the stable section
2. The steel bar and the grout are exposed to weathering influences (ice, rain, salinity, temperature
variations, etc.)
The minimum theoretical length is derived by the equation:
Lt(j) = Ls(j) + Lp

(14)

Assuming:
Ls = minimum foundation length [L]:
Ls = P / (drill lim / gt)

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(15)

Lp = length of hole with plasticity phenomena in firm part of the rock mass
With
drilldiameter of the drill-hole
lim = adherence tension between grout and rock
gt = safety coefficient of the adhesion grout rock
P = maximum pullout forces depending on the cable load (Figure 7)

Figure 7 Scheme of the load on up slope anchors

The minimum length of the anchor that was determined by the formulas will need to be verified onsite.
The final suitable length of the bars has to be evaluated during drilling in order to verify the exact nature of the soil
and be confirmed with pull out tests.
TYPE OF MESH
Today, the market offers a wide portfolio of rockfall draperies: single twisted or double twisted wire
meshes, steel composites mesh with wire rope cables and wires, cable meshes, cable panels and ring panels. To
define the drapery to be used, the designer should take into account different aspects of the material:

No unraveling phenomena if a part of the mesh is cut (i.e. a wire, a cable or a connection element): single twist
mesh should be rejected;
Resistant to dynamic impact: ring nets or cable panels are the most suitable;
High tensile resistance: it depends on the input parameters, but generally no lower than 50 kN/m;
Capacity to transfer the load to the anchors: meshes with vertical support rope included are the most
appropriate;
Easy installation.

The following table summarizes the main meshes available on the market giving also the principal
characteristics.

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Table 1 Rockfall mesh features Note: (*) Value from literature; (**) Average value defined by Officine
Maccaferri Full Scale Test carried out in Fonzaso (BL Ita) on a sample 2.0x2.5m (6.6 ft x 8 ft), restrained on
4 sides; (***) supposed values
Longitudinal Tensile
Resistance (*)

Dynamic
Resistance (**)

Unraveling when
one or more
wire/cable fail

Double twist mesh

Up to 100 kN/m
(6,854 lb/ft)
(usually 60 kN/m)
(4,112 lb/ft)

Up to 15 kJ
(3.69 ft-ton)
(usually < 10 kJ)

No

Steel composite:
cables woven in a
double twist mesh

Up to 180 kN/m
(12,337 lb/ft)

15 to 20 kJ
(5.53 7.38 ftton)

No

Cable panel

Up to 250 kN/m
(17,135 lb/ft)

20 kJ
(7.38 ft-ton)

No

Ring net

Up to 350 kN/m
(23,989 lb/ft)

> 50 kJ (***)
(18.45 ft-ton)

No

Type of Mesh

Photo

Figure 8 comparison between the theoretical and the real case after the mesh installation

From figure 8, it is highlighted that the higher stress is on the mesh (black arrow), which deforms
transversally (narrow neck) and stretches longitudinally (elongation). Using the Rock Mesh composite, the forces
acting at the bottom of the system are directly transferred to the interwoven cables which reduce the load on the
mesh increasing the reaction on the top anchors.

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Figure 9 comparison between the theoretical and the real case after the installation of the Steelgrid HR
The previous figure illustrates that Rock Mesh allows higher loads to be supported by the drapery system
with less deformation on the mesh and lower loads on the crest line ropes due to the direct connection of the load
supporting integrally woven steel ropes to the crest line anchorages.
CASE HISTORY
Dunsmuir is a city in Siskiyou County, California, United States. The population was 1,650 at the 2010
census, down from 1,923 at the 2000 census. It is currently a hub of tourism in Northern California as visitors enjoy
fishing, skiing, climbing, or sightseeing.
During steam engine days, it was notable for being the site of an important Central Pacific (and later
Southern Pacific/Union Pacific) railroad yard, where extra steam locomotives were added to assist trains on the
grade to the north. The area is still extremely important for rail traffic moving along the West Coast.
When UPRR started a modernization of track at Dunsmuir they had to resolve continuing safety issues
caused by rockfall. The solution was designed to control rock falls with a system that would be easy to install,
economic and low maintenance, and of course reliable.

Figure 10 General overview of the protected slope

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The height of the slope was around 34 m (100 ft) and the falling block sizes were between 60 to 100 cm (24
to 36 inches). A hybrid barrier was the retained solution to catch the rocks coming from the upper area and safely
control the falling rocks to the bottom of the slope.
A Rockfall Attenuator or Hybrid Rockfall Barrier combines features of a simple drapery and a Flexible
Rockfall Barrier. The upslope portion of the drapery is raised off of the slope. Rock falling from above the drapery
is caught by the lifted leading edge of the drape system and guided safely to the bottom of the slope by the mesh
drapery system.

Figure 11 None secured lower section of the drapery.

More than 1,850 m2 (19,800 ft2) of wire rope cable panels and double twisted mesh were installed to
protect the railroad from debris. The dimension of the wire ropes cable net panels of 3.65 m x 7.3 m (12 x 24 ft)
was selected to resist to the rock impact. In this case cable net is used not only for its high tensile strength but also to
add weight to the system. The extra weight from the wire rope cable net is providing extra stability by maintaining
the falling rocks in better contact with the soil and reducing the bouncing.
To prevent the small rocks from passing through the 30 cm x 30 cm (12 inches x 12 inches) mesh opening
of the cable netting. The HEA panels were lined with double twisted wire mesh. To facilitate and accelerate the
installation of the cable nets, the cable nets were pre-assembled in the factory in form of rolls of 12 ft by 96 ft long
and lined with the double twisted mesh in the factory.

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Figure 12 Detail of the cable of the Rock Mesh and the secured toe of the upper section.
The bottom of the drape system was not secured (Fig 11) at the toe allowing the rocks to fall between the
grade rail and the rock face. But for the design, we have considered that a 1 meter cubic (1.3 yd3) could be trapped
under the drape mesh system and increase the load on the rope cable and anchors. According to MacRO 2
calculation, the safety factor for the tensile strength of the wire rope cable net 8 with a design total stress 11.88
kN/m (815 lb/ft). If the system was a simple drapery and not a hybrid system, we could have selected a less robust
material at a lower cost. But, the cable net was selected because of its capacity to reduce the bouncing of the rocks
and its resistance to punch test. The selected head cable was 18 mm (3/4 inches) diameter steel core wire rope. The
calculated maximum tensile force on the wire rope was 117.74 kN (26,000 lb) with a total safety factor of 1.74.
The minimum shear resistance of the treaded bar anchors should be 117.74 kN (26,000 lb) as per the
maximum forces in the top wire rope cable. But because the steel bar anchors are working more on shear stress than
on tension, the minimum steel bar required is 30 mm diameter (1.25 inches) with a reduction factor of 1.73 for the
shear only. Where cable anchors are flexing under lateral load, the minimum are working on tension required for
cable anchors was 117.14 kN (26,000 lb).

CONCLUSION
Simple drapery is an effective rockfall protection system for rock slopes. This type of solution is
economical, easy to install, and has a low level of maintenance. It is recommended in areas where other mitigation
systems (i.e. pinned drapery or rockfall barriers) cannot be applied because their cost and/or the morphology of the
site are not suitable.
Based on the researches done by Muhunthan et al. 2005 and the in-situ and laboratory tests, Maccaferri has
developed a calculation approach (MacRO 2) able to design all the components of the drapery system, such as the
mesh, crest cable and support anchors.
The latest advancements in mesh, marked Steelgrid, is a new concept of mesh to be used as a simple
drapery system in order to reduce the stress acting on the mesh, and consequently the maintenance costs, even if the
amount of debris volume potentially accumulated at the base of the slope is larger.

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REFERENCES
Bertolo P., Oggeri C. & Peila D. (2009). Full-scale testing of draped nets for rock fall protection. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 46, 306-317
Bustamante M., Doix B. (1985). Une mthode pour le calcul des tirants et des micropieux injects, Bull. Liasion
Labo. Ponts et Chaussss, Paris, 149
Geldsetzer T. and B.Jamieson. 2000. Estimating dry snow density from grain form and hand hardness. Proceedings
ISSW 2000. Big Sky, Montana, USA, 121-127
Giacchetti G & Bertolo P. (2010). Approccio al calcolo dei sistemi di reti con chiodi per il consolidamento delle
pareti rocciose. Geoingegneria Ambientale e Mineraria, XLVII(1), 33-43
Peila D., Oggeri C. & Baratono P. (2006). Barriere paramassi a rete. Interventi e dimensionamento. GEAM ,
Quaderni di studio e di documentazione, 26
Muhunthan, B., Shu, S., Sasiharan, N., Hattamleh, O. A., Badger, T. C., Lowell, S. M. & Duffy, J. D. (2005).
Analysis and design of wire/mesh cable net slope protection - Final Research Report. Washington State
Transportation Commission - Department of Transportation, U.S. Department of Transportation - Federal
Highway Administration.

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