Differences

Only measurable data are being gathered and analyzed in quantitative research.
Qualitative research focuses on gathering of mainly verbal data rather than measurements. Gathered
information is then analyzed in an interpretative manner, subjective, impressionistic or even diagnostic.
Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
Heres a more detailed point-by-point comparison between the two types of research:
1. Goal or Aim of the Research
The primary aim of a Qualitative Research is to provide a complete, detailed description of the research
topic. It is usually more exploratory in nature.
Quantitative Research on the other hand focuses more in counting and classifying features and
constructing statistical models and figures to explain what is observed.
Read also: Aims of Research
Qualitative

Quantitative

Hypothesis

Broad

Narrow

Description

Whole picture

Focused

Exploratory

Conclusive

Type of Research

2. Usage
Qualitative Research is ideal for earlier phases of research projects while for the latter part of the
research project, Quantitative Research is highly recommended. Quantitative Research provides the
researcher a clearer picture of what to expect in his research compared to Qualitative Research.
Qualitative
Phase

Early

Quantitative
Late

3. Data Gathering Instrument

The researcher serves as the primary data gathering instrument in Qualitative Research. Here, the
researcher employs various data-gathering strategies, depending upon the thrust or approach of his
research. Examples of data-gathering strategies used in Qualitative Research are individual in-depth
interviews, structured and non-structured interviews, focus groups, narratives, content or documentary
analysis, participant observation and archival research.
On the other hand, Quantitative Research makes use of tools such as questionnaires, surveys,
measurements and other equipment to collect numerical or measurable data.
4. Type of Data
The presentation of data in a Qualitative Research is in the form of words (from interviews) and images
(videos) or objects (such as artifacts). If you are conducting a Qualitative Research what will most likely
appear in your discussion are figures in the form of graphs. However, if you are conducting a
Quantitative Research, what will most likely appear in your discussion are tables containing data in the
form of numbers and statistics.
5. Approach
Qualitative Research is primarily subjective in approach as it seeks to understand human behavior and
reasons that govern such behavior. Researchers have the tendency to become subjectively immersed in
the subject matter in this type of research method.
In Quantitative Research, researchers tend to remain objectively separated from the subject matter.
This is because Quantitative Research is objective in approach in the sense that it only seeks precise
measurements and analysis of target concepts to answer his inquiry.
Qualitative research is an in-depth exploration of what people think, feel or do and, crucially, why. If
you want to know why your customers behave as they do and what barriers there may be to their
changing that behaviour, you would use qualitative research to explore those issues. Qualitative
research does not give statistically robust findings.
Quantitative research provides a measure of how many people think, feel or behave in a certain way
and uses statistical analysis to determine the results. If you want to know how many of your customers
support a change in a product or service - and how strongly they support it so that you can
determine whether you have a business case for making that change, you would use quantitative
research.
While these are often used as standalone methodologies they can also be valuably combined into
mixed-methodology research. You may be considering a customer satisfaction survey for the first
time. While you may have an idea of what is important to your customers, they may have a different

view. An initial piece of qualitative research could identify their needs and priorities; a subsequent
quantitative survey could measure how satisfied your customers are that you are meeting those needs.
How does qualitative research work?
Qualitative research follows a semi-structured discussion guide to ensure that all topics under
consideration are covered and that the discussion stays relevant. However, the questioning is open and
participants are encouraged to explore the reasons for their responses. The discussion process can
reveal underlying views and motivations, behavioural triggers and barriers. It can explore reactions to
messages, printed material, design features and new products, test understanding of terminology, help
generate new concepts and much more.
The most commonly used qualitative approaches are focus groups and depth interviews.
Focus groups (also called group discussions) normally comprise five to eight participants brought
together to discuss a number of topics, guided by a moderator. The dynamics of the interaction
between participants is an important feature of a focus group.
Depth interviews are one-on-one interviews conducted by telephone or face-to-face. The more intimate
environment allows participants to talk openly and is particularly appropriate where participants are
competitors who would not agree to come together in a focus group.
Qualitative research is usually audio-recorded and transcribed. The transcriptions form the data which
is then analysed by the moderator. Groups can also be video-recorded and can also be observed in realtime at venues specially designed for that purpose.
You can expect a report or a presentation of the findings supported by verbatim quotes from the
participants.
How does quantitative research work?
Quantitative research uses a structured questionnaire with mostly closed questions, ie the respondents
select their answers from given lists of possible responses. A range of question types may be used. For
example, rating questions can measure strength of feeling such as importance or satisfaction, ranking
questions can determine preferences, and so on.
Quantitative research may be paper-based, as in a postal survey, or computerised, as in a telephone or
online survey. A computerised survey can also be conducted face-to-face using a laptop or on site (eg
in-store, on street) using PDAs (hand-held computers).
Because of its statistical nature, sample size is important for quantitative research. Thirty is generally
held to be the minimum number of responses for any area of interest although a larger sample size will
produce more reliable data.
You can expect a report or a presentation of the findings supported by tables and graphs.

Probability methods
This is the best overall group of methods to use as you can subsequently use the most powerful
statistical analyses on the results.
Method

Best when

Simple random sampling

Whole population is available.

Stratified sampling (random

within target groups)

There are specific sub-groups to investigate (eg.

demographic groupings).

Systematic sampling (every nth When a stream of representative people are available (eg.

person)

in the street).

Cluster sampling (all in limited

groups)

When population groups are separated and access to all is

difficult, eg. in many distant cities.

Quota methods
For a particular analysis and valid results, you can determine the number of people you need to
sample.
In particular when you are studying a number of groups and when sub-groups are small, then you will
need equivalent numbers to enable equivalent analysis and conclusions.
Method

Best when

Quota sampling (get only as many

as you need)

You have access to a wide population, including subgroups

You know the population distribution across groups,

Proportionate quota sampling (in
and when normal sampling may not give enough in
proportion to population sub-groups)
minority groups
Non-proportionate quota sampling
(minimum number from each subgroup)

There is likely to a wide variation in the studied

characteristic within minority groups

Selective methods
Sometimes your study leads you to target particular groups.
Method

Best when

Purposive sampling (based on

intent)

You are studying particular groups

Expert sampling (seeking

'experts')

You want expert opinion

Snowball sampling (ask for

recommendations)

You seek similar subjects (eg. young drinkers)

Modal instance sampling (focus When sought 'typical' opinion may get lost in a wider study,
on 'typical' people)
and when you are able to identify the 'typical' group
Diversity sampling
You are specifically seeking differences, eg. to identify sub(deliberately seeking variation) groups or potential conflicts

Convenience methods
Good sampling is time-consuming and expensive. Not all experimenters have the time or funds to use
more accurate methods. There is a price, of course, in the potential limited validity of results.
Method

Best when

Snowball sampling (ask for

recommendations)

You are ethically and socially able to ask and seek

similar subjects.

Convenience sampling (use who's

available)

You cannot proactively seek out subjects.

Judgment sampling (guess a goodenough sample)

You are expert and there is no other choice.

Ethnographic methods
When doing field-based observations, it is often impossible to intrude into the lives of people you are
studying. Samples must thus be surreptitious and may be based more on who is available and willing to
participate in any interviews or studies.
Method
Selective sampling (gut feel)

Best when
Focus is needed in particular group, location,
subject, etc.

Theoretical sampling (testing a theory)

Theories are emerging and focused sampling may

help clarify these.

Convenience sampling (use who's

available)

You cannot proactively seek out subjects.

Judgment sampling (guess a goodenough sample)

You are expert and there is no other choice.

Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics,
chemistry, biology and medicine etc.
It is a collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal
processes. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effect on a dependent
variable.
The experimental method
is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or more
variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables.
Experimental Research is often used where:
1. There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect)
2. There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect)
3. The magnitude of the correlation is great.
(Reference: en.wikipedia.org)
The word experimental research has a range of definitions. In the strict sense, experimental research is
what we call a true experiment.
This is an experiment where the researcher manipulates one variable, and control/randomizes the rest
of the variables. It has a control group, the subjects have been randomly assigned between the groups,
and the researcher only tests one effect at a time. It is also important to know what variable(s) you
want to test and measure.
A very wide definition of experimental research, or a quasi experiment, is research where the scientist
actively influences something to observe the consequences. Most experiments tend to fall in between
the strict and the wide definition.
A rule of thumb is that physical sciences, such as physics, chemistry and geology tend to define
experiments more narrowly than social sciences, such as sociology and psychology, which conduct
experiments closer to the wider definition.
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Experimental Research
Oskar Blakstad 1.2M reads 15 Comments

Experimental research is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics,
chemistry, biology and medicine etc.
It is a collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to
understand causal processes. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to
determine their effect on a dependent variable.
The experimental method
is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or more
variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables.
Experimental Research is often used where:
1. There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect)
2. There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect)
3. The magnitude of the correlation is great.
(Reference: en.wikipedia.org)

The word experimental research has a range of definitions. In the strict sense, experimental research is
what we call a true experiment.
This is an experiment where the researcher manipulates one variable, and control/randomizes the rest
of the variables. It has a control group, the subjects have been randomly assigned between the groups,
and the researcher only tests one effect at a time. It is also important to know what variable(s) you
want to test and measure.
A very wide definition of experimental research, or a quasi experiment, is research where the scientist
actively influences something to observe the consequences. Most experiments tend to fall in between
the strict and the wide definition.
A rule of thumb is that physical sciences, such as physics, chemistry and geology tend to define
experiments more narrowly than social sciences, such as sociology and psychology, which conduct
experiments closer to the wider definition.

Aims of Experimental Research

Experiments are conducted to be able to predict phenomenons. Typically, an experiment is constructed
to be able to explain some kind of causation. Experimental research is important to society - it helps us
to improve our everyday lives.
Identifying the Research Problem
After deciding the topic of interest, the researcher tries to define the research problem. This helps the
researcher to focus on a more narrow research area to be able to study it appropriately. Defining the
research problem helps you to formulate a research hypothesis, which is tested against the null
hypothesis.
The research problem is often operationalizationed, to define how to measure the research problem.
The results will depend on the exact measurements that the researcher chooses and may be
operationalized differently in another study to test the main conclusions of the study.
An ad hoc analysis is a hypothesis invented after testing is done, to try to explain why the contrary
evidence. A poor ad hoc analysis may be seen as the researcher's inability to accept that his/her
hypothesis is wrong, while a great ad hoc analysis may lead to more testing and possibly a significant
discovery.
Constructing the Experiment
There are various aspects to remember when constructing an experiment. Planning ahead ensures that
the experiment is carried out properly and that the results reflect the real world, in the best possible
way.
Sampling Groups to Study
Sampling groups correctly is especially important when we have more than one condition in the
experiment. One sample group often serves as a control group, whilst others are tested under the
experimental conditions.
Deciding the sample groups can be done in using many different sampling techniques. Population
sampling may chosen by a number of methods, such as randomization, "quasi-randomization" and
pairing.

Reducing sampling errors is vital for getting valid results from experiments. Researchers often adjust
the sample size to minimize chances of random errors.
Here are some common sampling techniques:

probability sampling
non-probability sampling
simple random sampling
convenience sampling
stratified sampling
systematic sampling
cluster sampling
sequential sampling
disproportional sampling
judgmental sampling
snowball sampling
quota sampling

Creating the Design

The research design is chosen based on a range of factors. Important factors when choosing the design
are feasibility, time, cost, ethics, measurement problems and what you would like to test. The design of
the experiment is critical for the validity of the results.

Typical Designs and Features in Experimental Design

Pretest-Posttest Design
Check whether the groups are different before the manipulation starts and the effect of the
manipulation. Pretests sometimes influence the effect.
Control Group
Control groups are designed to measure research bias and measurement effects, such as the
Hawthorne Effect or the Placebo Effect. A control group is a group not receiving the same
manipulation as the experimental group. Experiments frequently have 2 conditions, but rarely
more than 3 conditions at the same time.
Randomized Controlled Trials
Randomized Sampling, comparison between an Experimental Group and a Control Group and
strict control/randomization of all other variables
Solomon Four-Group Design
With two control groups and two experimental groups. Half the groups have a pretest and half
do not have a pretest. This to test both the effect itself and the effect of the pretest.
Between Subjects Design
Grouping Participants to Different Conditions
Within Subject Design
Participants Take Part in the Different Conditions - See also: Repeated Measures Design
Counterbalanced Measures Design
Testing the effect of the order of treatments when no control group is available/ethical

Matched Subjects Design

Matching Participants to Create Similar Experimental- and Control-Groups
Double-Blind Experiment
Neither the researcher, nor the participants, know which is the control group. The results can be
affected if the researcher or participants know this.
Bayesian Probability
Using bayesian probability to "interact" with participants is a more "advanced" experimental
design. It can be used for settings were there are many variables which are hard to isolate. The
researcher starts with a set of initial beliefs, and tries to adjust them to how participants have
responded

Pilot Study
It may be wise to first conduct a pilot-study or two before you do the real experiment. This ensures that
the experiment measures what it should, and that everything is set up right.
Minor errors, which could potentially destroy the experiment, are often found during this process. With
a pilot study, you can get information about errors and problems, and improve the design, before
putting a lot of effort into the real experiment.
If the experiments involve humans, a common strategy is to first have a pilot study with someone
involved in the research, but not too closely, and then arrange a pilot with a person who resembles the
subject(s). Those two different pilots are likely to give the researcher good information about any
problems in the experiment.
Conducting the Experiment
An experiment is typically carried out by manipulating a variable, called the independent variable,
affecting the experimental group. The effect that the researcher is interested in, the dependent
variable(s), is measured.
Identifying and controlling non-experimental factors which the researcher does not want to influence
the effects, is crucial to drawing a valid conclusion. This is often done by controlling variables, if
possible, or randomizing variables to minimize effects that can be traced back to third variables.
Researchers only want to measure the effect of the independent variable(s) when conducting an
experiment, allowing them to conclude that this was the reason for the effect.
Analysis and Conclusions
In quantitative research, the amount of data measured can be enormous. Data not prepared to be
analyzed is called "raw data". The raw data is often summarized as something called "output data",
which typically consists of one line per subject (or item). A cell of the output data is, for example, an
average of an effect in many trials for a subject. The output data is used for statistical analysis, e.g.
significance tests, to see if there really is an effect.
The aim of an analysis is to draw a conclusion, together with other observations. The researcher might
generalize the results to a wider phenomenon, if there is no indication of confounding variables
"polluting" the results.
If the researcher suspects that the effect stems from a different variable than the independent variable,
further investigation is needed to gauge the validity of the results. An experiment is often conducted
because the scientist wants to know if the independent variable is having any effect upon the
dependent variable. Variables correlating are not proof that there is causation.
Experiments are more often of quantitative nature than qualitative nature, although it happens.

Examples of Experiments

This website contains many examples of experiments. Some are not true experiments, but involve
some kind of manipulation to investigate a phenomenon. Others fulfill most or all criteria of true
experiments.
Here are some examples of scientific experiments:
Social Psychology
Stanley Milgram Experiment - Will people obey orders, even if clearly dangerous?
Asch Experiment - Will people conform to group behavior?
Stanford Prison Experiment - How do people react to roles? Will you behave differently?
Good Samaritan Experiment - Would You Help a Stranger? - Explaining Helping Behavior
Genetics
Law Of Segregation - The Mendel Pea Plant Experiment
Transforming Principle - Griffith's Experiment about Genetics
Physics
Ben Franklin Kite Experiment - Struck by Lightning
J J Thomson Cathode Ray Experiment
Quasi-Experimental Design
A quasi-experimental design is one that looks a bit like an experimental design but lacks the key
ingredient -- random assignment. My mentor, Don Campbell, often referred to them as "queasy"
experiments because they give the experimental purists a queasy feeling. With respect to internal
validity, they often appear to be inferior to randomized experiments. But there is something compelling
about these designs; taken as a group, they are easily more frequently implemented than their
randomized cousins.
I'm not going to try to cover the quasi-experimental designs comprehensively. Instead, I'll present two
of the classic quasi-experimental designs in some detail and show how we analyze them. Probably the
most commonly used quasi-experimental design (and it may be the most commonly used of all
designs) is the nonequivalent groups design. In its simplest form it requires a pretest and posttest for a
treated and comparison group. It's identical to the Analysis of Covariance design except that the groups
are not created through random assignment. You will see that the lack of random assignment, and the
potential nonequivalence between the groups, complicates the statistical analysis of the nonequivalent
groups design.
The second design I'll focus on is the regression-discontinuity design. I'm not including it just because I
did my dissertation on it and wrote a book about it (although those were certainly factors weighing in
its favor!). I include it because I believe it is an important and often misunderstood alternative to
randomized experiments because its distinguishing characteristic -- assignment to treatment using a
cutoff score on a pretreatment variable -- allows us to assign to the program those who need or deserve
it most. At first glance, the regression discontinuity design strikes most people as biased because of
regression to the mean. After all, we're assigning low scorers to one group and high scorers to the
other. In the discussion of the statistical analysis of the regression discontinuity design, I'll show you
why this isn't the case.
Finally, I'll briefly present an assortment of other quasi-experiments that have specific applicability or
noteworthy features, including the Proxy Pretest Design, Double Pretest Design, Nonequivalent
Dependent Variables Design, Pattern Matching Design, and the Regression Point Displacement design. I
had the distinct honor of co-authoring a paper with Donald T. Campbell that first described the
Regression Point Displacement Design. At the time of his death in Spring 1996, we had gone through
about five drafts each over a five year period. The paper (click here for the entire paper) includes
numerous examples of this newest of quasi-experiments, and provides a detailed description of the
statistical analysis of the regression point displacement design.
There is one major class of quasi-experimental designs that are not included here -- the interrupted
time series designs. I plan to include them in later rewrites of this material.

Introduction to Time Series Analysis

Time series
methods take
into account
possible
internal
structure in
the data

Time series data often arise when monitoring industrial

processes or tracking corporate business metrics. The essential
difference between modeling data via time series methods or
using the process monitoring methods discussed earlier in this
chapter is the following:
Time series analysis accounts for the fact that data points taken
over time may have an internal structure (such as
autocorrelation, trend or seasonal variation) that should be
accounted for.
This section will give a brief overview of some of the more widely
used techniques in the rich and rapidly growing field of time
series modeling and analysis.
Research tools: Focus group discussion
OverviewDownloads
A focus group discussion (FGD) is a good way to gather together people from similar backgrounds or
experiences to discuss a specific topic of interest. The group of participants is guided by a moderator
(or group facilitator) who introduces topics for discussion and helps the group to participate in a lively
and natural discussion amongst themselves.
The strength of FGD relies on allowing the participants to agree or disagree with each other so that it
provides an insight into how a group thinks about an issue, about the range of opinion and ideas, and
the inconsistencies and variation that exists in a particular community in terms of beliefs and their
experiences and practices.
FGDs can be used to explore the meanings of survey findings that cannot be explained statistically, the
range of opinions/views on a topic of interest and to collect a wide variety of local terms. In bridging
research and policy, FGD can be useful in providing an insight into different opinions among different
parties involved in the change process, thus enabling the process to be managed more smoothly. It is
also a good method to employ prior to designing questionnaires.
Detailed Outline of the Process
FGD sessions need to be prepared carefully through identifying the main objective(s) of the meeting,
developing key questions, developing an agenda, and planning how to record the session. The next
step is to identify and invite suitable discussion participants; the ideal number is between six and eight.
The crucial element of FGD is the facilitation. Some important points to bear in mind in facilitating FGDs
are to ensure even participation, careful wording of the key questions, maintaining a neutral attitude
and appearance, and summarising the session to reflect the opinions evenly and fairly. A detailed report
should be prepared after the session is finished. Any observations during the session should be noted
and included in the report.
FGDs can be also done online. This is particularly useful for overcoming the barrier of distance. While
discussion is constrained, the written format can help with reporting on the discussion.
Textbooks for conducting FGD are available, such as:

Krueger, R.A. (1988) Focus Groups: A practical guide for applied research. Sage, UK.
Morgan, D.L. (1988) Focus Group as qualitative research. Sage, UK.
Stewart, D.W. and Shamdasani, P.N. (1990) Focus Groups: Theory and Practices. Sage, UK.

This tool first appeared in the ODI Toolkit, Tools for Policy Impact