RESEARCH METHODS PAPERS

A SIMPLE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC METHOD TO IMPROVE QUANTITATIVE IMAGE ANALYSIS IN

GEOSCIENCE RESEARCH
JESUS E. CARACUEL, JAVIER CARDENAL, JORGE DELGADO-GARCIA, AND SANTIAGO GARCIA-LOPEZ
Departamento de Ingeniera Cartografica, Geodesica y Fotogrametra, E.P.S. Universidad de Jaen, 23071-JAEN, Spain
e-mail: caracuel@ujaen.es, jcardena@ujaen.es, jdelgado@ujaen.es and sgarcia@ujaen.es

ABSTRACT: Sedimentary field surveying uses 2D outcrop images to

rapidly and easily obtain quantitative information. Although photogrammetry is capable of a complete and accurate 3D analysis, this
technique requires great technical expertise, as well as intricate and
expensive software and hardware. Rectified digital images, instead,
represent a cost-effective and easier method to obtain accurate 2D images for outcrop modeling and mapping. The present methodology describes a simple technique to improve quantitative image analysis for
outcrop analysis, based on widespread conventional PC software and
inexpensive hardware.
The proposed methodology treats outcrop digital images with a software developed by us in order to solve for colinearity equations, which
calculate coordinates of terrain points. Thus, the geometric correction
on the terrain-point coordinates to obtain the rectified images can be
done with some commercial and widely distributed G.I.S., remote sensing, or photogrammetric programs. The final rectified image represents
a metrically consistent perpendicular view of the outcrop that favors
the quantitative image analysis. This technique can also be used to
improve the photo-mosaicking of different perspective-corrected images of the same outcrop, avoiding the usual misfit of the image frames.

INTRODUCTION

Geoscience field surveying often uses photographs or photomontages

(overlapping image frames) of outcrops to gather information about morphology, spatial distribution, and linear or surface measurements of features. The simplest and least time-consuming method is taking photographs
with the focal axis roughly perpendicular to the object plane (controlling
the height and tilt of the camera), and joining together the resulting paper
copies, or the digital-image files with any widely used commercial software, such as Adobe Photoshopy, or Corel Photo-Painty (Arnot et al.
1997). Nevertheless, difficulties arise when photographs cannot be shot
with the focal axis perpendicular to the object plane (outcrop face), or when
the distance between the object and the camera is not constant. Digital
photogrammetry, instead, enables a precise 3D analysis with ample possibilities in approaching metrically consistent images for any spatial orientation. Unfortunately, these techniques require great technical expertise, and
an intricate non-public software and expensive hardware (Dueholm and
Pedersen 1992; Dueholm and Olsen 1993). The aim of the present paper
is to present a cost-effective, quicker, and easier method of acquiring accurate images for geoscience image analysis.
Outcrop faces are usually uneven, irregularly curved, and/or oblique to
the focal axis for a ground-based shot (Fig. 1). Thus, it is frequently not
possible to take ground-based frontal photographs of an area by varying
only the camera height and tilt. Moreover, even for vertical and planar
outcrops, ground-based shots permit only frontal views in the lower part
of the outcrop (around the elevation of the camera station, generally limited
to 12 m above terrain level), if no natural (e.g., opposite side of a canyon)
or artificial (e.g., hydraulic platform, helicopter) camera positioning is
available. Photographs oblique to the focal axis impede the collection of
accurate quantitative data, because the oblique perspective distorts the imJOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARY RESEARCH, VOL. 70, NO. 6, NOVEMBER, 2000, P. 13371340
Copyright q 2000, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1073-130X/00/070-1337/$03.00

age along the frame. Moreover, such oblique photographs result in overlapping areas with inconsistent scale, hampering photomontage assembly.
Rectified images solve this problem by rescaling the whole image to a
single scale, thereby making the focal axis of the digital image perpendicular to the object plane, which is considered the mean enveloping plane
with respect to the outcrop surface. Thus, rectified images become metrically consistent views, suitable for quantitative image analysis, both in a
single image and in multiple images (photomontage).
Application of quantitative image analysis in geoscience includes modeling and statistical treatment of feature size and morphology, as well as
the spatial distribution of components. The data collection requires finer
metric precision, because the more accurate the input data, the more consistent the quantitative modeling will be.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

To test the method, we selected a slightly rugose and strongly dipping

(508 dip and 70 m high) outcrop face, where just the lower part was accessible for measuring. The outcropping beds were subvertical rhythmic
limestones and marls, Triassic in age. Five convergent ground-based photographs (film Fuji Provia 100 ISO) were taken with a conventional nonmetric 6 3 6 camera (Hasselblad CM-500) with 80 mm lens (Tab 1, Fig.
1; Data acquisition). Shooting distance was arbitrarily selected (around 15
20 m from the base of the talus), seeking camera stations that enabled
coverage of the entire area of interest. Cameras were stationed with height
5 1.5 m (tripod height), and tilt , 108. Original images were scanned
with an Agfa Duoscan T1200 scanner, equipped with a transparency tray,
at 600 dpi optical resolution and stored in compressed JPEG format. This
resolution has proved appropriate for the case studied, determining a terrain
pixel size ranging from 8 mm in the talus base to 23 mm in the upper talus
(15 m and 50 m away from the camera positioning, respectively). The
whole images were scanned without cropping. The images were treated by
the image-processing software ENVIy (the Environment for Visualizing
Images, from Research System Inc.). Processing hardware was a conventional PC (Pentiumq II MMXy) at 350 Hz and 128 Mb RAM.
The first step in any photogrammetric work is the inner orientation of
the images (Tab 1, Fig. 1; data reduction). This implies measurement of
the fiducial marks (calibrated marks in the frame of the photogrammetric
cameras), and analytical coordinate transformation between measured image (pixel coordinates; u, v system in Figure 1) and fiducial coordinates (x,
y system referred to the center of the format, or principal point, in Figure
1, see Ghosh 1987 for an extended treatment), which also corrects for film
deformation. Nevertheless, because a conventional camera was used, the
lack of calibrated fiducial marks forced us to measure the four corners of
the frame, referring the measured points to the coordinate system defined
by these corners. Thus, no film deformation and scanner distortion were
corrected, and error up to 0.10.3 mm (even higher) in the image coordinate
appeared. To reduce this error, we accurately measured the camera frame
size in many exposed films and averaged the results.
Other errors related to conventional cameras, in contrast to photogrammetric cameras, include, mainly: high lens distortion, which makes straight
lines to appear curved; lens focal length inaccurately known; lack of film

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J.E. CARACUEL ET AL.

FIG. 1.Flow chart for working methodology. DATA ACQUISITION: A) Shooting at least three convergent images (60 3 60 mm, 35 mm format, or digital cameras)
of the outcrop face from arbitrary camera positioning, seeking to cover the entire area of interest in every photograph, and with one of the images (final rectified image)
frontal with respect to the talus toe. B) Film development and images scanning (Desktop or photogrammetric scanner at a minimum of 400 dpi optical resolution).
Alternatively, digital camera with comparable resolution can be used to avoid scanning. C) Image files stores in compressed JPEG, TIFF or RAW file format. DATA
REDUCTION: D) Inner orientation changes the coordinate system for some selected points covering the entire area of interest in the three analyzed images from image
system (pixel coordinate; u 5 0, v 5 0) to photocoordinate system (center of the frame; x 5 0, y 5 0). The considered points were few tens of natural points easily and
precisely recognisable in all images. This coordinate change was accomplished using an affine transformation implemented in a spreadsheet. E) The photogrammetric net
adjustment transforms the 2D photocoordinates into the real-world 3D coordinate system by solving the colinearity equations for the points measured in all the images.
Real scale was adjusted by using field tape-measured distances in an accessible part of the outcrop. This was done using a routine programmed under IDLTM 5.1. Alternatively
non-public photogrammetric programs can do this. F) The image rectification relates the photocoordinates of the measured points in the frontal image with respect to the
talus toe, with their planimetric position in the 3D real world. This was done under ENVITM program applying a second-order polynomial transformation between the two
sets of coordinates, resulting in a warping image of the original frontal photograph with respect to the talus toe. This transformation is also implemented in most of the
commercial G.I.S. and remote sensing programs. See text for extended comments.

flatness; and offset of principal point. Some of these errors can be partially
corrected during the photogrammetric net adjustment after inner orientation
(Tab 1, Fig. 1; data reduction). In the net adjustment, image coordinates
(x, y) were transformed in the real-world 3D coordinate system (X, Y, Z ).
In the case studied, this was achieved by the colinearity equations, which
also correct for focal length errors and lens distortion (c, K1 coefficients,
in Eq. 1). These equations state that the object 3D point, the camera station,
and the image 2D point lie in the same line:
(x i 2 x 0 )(1 2 K1 r 2 )
5 2c

m11 (X i 2 X 0 ) 1 m12 (Yi 2 Y0 ) 1 m13 (Z i 2 Z 0 )

m 31 (X i 2 X 0 ) 1 m 32 (Yi 2 Y0 ) 1 m 33 (Z i 2 Z 0 )

(yi 2 y0 )(1 2 K1 r 2 )
5 2c

m 21 (X i 2 X 0 ) 1 m 22 (Yi 2 Y0 ) 1 m 23 (Z i 2 Z 0 )
m 31 (X i 2 X 0 ) 1 m 32 (Yi 2 Y0 ) 1 m 33 (Z i 2 Z 0 )

(1)

where (xi, yi) are image coordinates of a given point i; (x0, y0) are the
principal point coordinates; c is the lens focal length; r is the radial distance

of image point i to principal point; K1 is the radial lens distortion coefficient;

(Xi, Yi, Zi) are object coordinates of point i (in the real world); (X0, Y0, Z0)
are camera station coordinates (in the real world) and m11, m12, . . . , m32,
m33 are the elements of the rotation matrix (rotations around the three basic
coordinate axes); see Ghosh (1987) for an extended treatment.
Every image point measured in each image contributes two colinearity
equations. An overall adjustment by least squares of all the equations solves
for all the unknowns (spatial coordinates of points, camera stations and rotations elements of all cameras, focal length, principal point coordinate, and
lens distortion). The adjustment is made in an arbitrary reference system (e.g.,
one camera station could be taken as the origin: X0, Y0, Z0 5 0, 0, 0) and
some distances measured in the object space can help to recover the spatial
coordinates of all measured points (Atkinson 1996). This approach eliminates
the need for a measuring survey (the classical way to give control points in
photographs), often time-consuming and costly, because it requires an experienced survey crew and expensive equipment. This adjustment has been
programmed under IDL 5.1 (Interactive Data Language from Research System Inc.) in order to solve the colinearity equations simultaneously for all
points in all photographs. This program (for license-protected IDL 5.1 environment) is available by request from the authors.

IMPROVING QUANTITATIVE IMAGE ANALYSIS FOR OUTCROP SURVEYING

TABLE 1.Step-by-Step procedure for the case study.
Steps
1
2
3
4
5
6
7a
7b

8
9
10

11

Procedure
Field work
Select camera positioning to cover the entire area of interest.
Shooting 5 convergent photographs with a conventional non-metric Hasselblad 60
3 60 mm camera, equipped with an 80 mm lens.
Tape measuring reference distances in accessible outcrop areas.
Laboratory
Slide-film development.
Original slide-film scanning with a desktop Agfa Duoscan T1200 scanner at 600
dpi optical resolution, without cropping.
Image files stores (JPEG file formats).
Workshop
Inner orientation. Measurement of frame corners coordinates under ENVITM program.
Inner orientation affine transformation implemented in a spreadsheet (Quattro
ProIM ), between measured and real corner coordinates to refer image points to
principal point, allowing for film deformation correction.
Measurement of image points (15 points in the 5 images) under ENVIIM program.
Transformation of coordinates of image points (pixel system) to photocoordinate
system trough the affine transformation parameters (computed in step 7b)
Photogrammetric net adjustment through a routine programmed under IDLIM 5.1
for solving the colinearity equation (lens distortion correction is included). Spatial XYZ coordinates of the 15 points are computed with the real scale adjusted
by means of field tape-measured distances.
Image rectification of the frontal image, with respect to the talus toe, applying a
second-order polynomial transformation under ENVIIM program. The polynomial transformation parameters are computed by comparing the photocoordinates
of the 15 control points and their planimetric position in real world coordinate
system (calculated in step 10).

After the spatial coordinates of measured points in the images were calculated, they were transformed in order to fit the mean plane that contains
the talus. Finally, we rectified the photograph (using ENVIy), relating the
image coordinates of points in a particular photograph and their planimetric
position in the 3D real world (similar to a geometrical correction of a
satellite image). This was applied through a second-order polynomial transformation between the two sets of coordinates:
x i 5 a0 1 a1 X i 1 a2 Yi 1 a3 X i Yi 1 a4 X i2 1 a5 Y i2
yi 5 b0 1 b1 X i 1 b2 Yi 1 b3 X i Yi 1 b4 X i2 1 b5 Y i2

(2)

where xi, yi are image coordinates; Xi, Yi are planimetric coordinates in

the real world, and a1, a2, . . . , b5 are fitting coefficients.
This second-order polynomial transformation proved appropriate for dipping planar taluses, because it enabled the rotation, translation, scale changes,
and nonlinear fitting coefficients for systematic error corrections, from the
actual image to the rectified plane. Other alternative analytical expressions
for rectification can be found in Novak (1992). The geometric correction can
be also made with some commercial and widely distributed G.I.S., remote
sensing, and photogrammetric programs, such as Idrisiy (Clark University),
ER Mappery (Earth Resource Mapping Pty Ltd.), DVPy (Digital Video
Plotter, from DVP Geomatics Systems Inc.) and others. The final rectified
image represents a perpendicular view of the talus.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Figure 2 shows the final rectified image (Fig. 2D) and three selected
images (Figs. 2A, B, C) used in the net adjustment by Eq. 1. Figure 2B is
the frontal image with respect to the talus toe from which the rectified
image was obtained by Eq. 2. Metric accuracy has been tested by tape
measuring some distances in the field at accessible points of the lower parts
of the outcrop. Distances measured on the outcrop and the calculated data
on the rectified image show deviations of less than 1% in metric accuracy.
The metric accuracy of the rectified image (Fig. 2D) ensures an appropriate
quantitative 2D image analysis. Nonrectified images are not perspective corrected, and perspective distortion may be excessive for accurate metric pur-

1339

poses. In roughly frontal views with respect to the talus toe (e.g., Fig. 2B),
scale remains constant through approximately horizontal lines but decreases
upward on the talus (Fig. 2). Thus, if no reference scale (scaled rod, stratigraphic marker) can be placed in inaccessible areas, no measurements can
be made, because the scale remains unknown. Variation of scale through the
frame can produce large errors if this scale variation remains unknown and
cannot be calculated for each point (Figure 2B shows this scale variation
clearly). Moreover, if no frontal views with respect to the talus toe can be
obtained (oblique and tilted photographs, e.g., Figs. 2A and 2C), scale will
vary throughout the photograph frame, making any measurement difficult to
take. In addition, the analytical treatment permits correction of systematic
errors. For example, in the case of the camera used, with lens distortion
errors up to 0.5 mm (at image scale), the propagated error to the terrain
ranges from 80 to 300 mm at photo scales of 1/150 and 1/600, respectively.
These scales are the approximate photo scales at the proximal and distal parts
of the outcrop with respect to the camera positioning.
According to the photo scale (obtained from Eq. 1), rectified images favor
dimensional photointerpretation and metric outcrop mapping. Main applications
are related to the quantitative analysis of feature size (e.g., bed thickness and
length), morphology (bed surfaces, component shapes, clasts, fossils, sedimentary structures), spatial distribution of components (within and between beds),
and spatial orientation (angles between lines in the outcrop surface, apparent
dips). Moreover, rectification of photographs improves the photo-mosaicking
of different perspective-corrected images of the same outcrop, avoiding the
usual bad fit in the overlapping areas of the image frames.
Similar to the case in which the optical axis of the rectified image was
made perpendicular to the outcrop face, fitting coefficients in Eq. 2 can be
adjusted to any other dip and tilt. This can be useful in studying oblique
views of outcrop surfaces, which are perpendicular views with respect to
significant features and sedimentary structures (e.g., continuous beds, channels and pinch-out morphologies, slides, slumps). Other applications, as in
structural geology, of tilt/dip forced images can be implemented for controlling the deformation: measurement of 2D finite strain, study of fold profiles,
or analysis of fracture array geometry.
Although the case studied is a relatively simply talus morphology (planar
talus), the above methodology can be applied to other real situations. For
cases of large taluses with or without variable dip and/or orientation, the
current methodology can be applied, but different rectification processes
must be used in each planar part of the talus. Then, every rectified photograph can easily be rescaled and merged. Because the approach is basically a 2D analysis, the more the talus fits to a planar surface, the easier
and more accurate the rectification. Thus, excessively complex taluses (high
rugosity, too many break-lines, strongly curved surfaces) can preclude the
application of this methodology. In these cases, more sophisticated photogrammetric techniques, beyond the scope of this paper, have to be applied
(e.g., orthorectification combined with a detailed digital elevation model;
see Novak 1992; or conventional photogrammetric techniques). Nevertheless, the 2D mapping of relatively planar outcrop surfaces can be extended
in many selected orientations, favoring the reconstruction of 3D geological
models, although it can be more easily achieved by specific photogrammetric 3D modeling software; see web page of the V Commission of the
I.S.P.R.S. (International Society for Photogrammetric and Remote Sensing;
V Commission: Technical Commission for Close Range Photogrammetry).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported financially by the Evolucion de los Margenes Mesozoicos de Iberia (RNM-178) and Ingeniera Cartografica (TEP-164) groups
(Junta de Andaluca) and Projects HID980983, PB970803 (DGICYT). Reviews
by S. Bachtel (Exxon Production Research, Houston, Texas, USA) and T. Olsen
(Statoil, Norway) are much appreciated. The final version was linguistically corrected by D. Nesbitt.

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J.E. CARACUEL ET AL.

FIG 2.Selected ground-based photographs

(A, B, C) used in the photogrammetric net
adjustment of the area of interest (white polygon
in B). Image points measured to form the Eq. 1
system were natural points (around 15, covering
the area regularly). Digital rectified image of the
area of interest (D) is a perspective corrected
and scaled view.

REFERENCES

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ATKINSON, K.B. (ED.), 1996, Close Range Photogrammetry and Machine Vision: Scotland, U.K.,
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DUEHOLM, K.S., AND PEDERSEN, A.K., 1992, Geological analysis and mapping using multi-model
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Received 30 September 1999; accepted 17 May 2000.