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Design,whatisit?
Theprocessoftakinganideatosomethingconstructible.
Creatingdocumentation.
Engineeringdesign(5%calculation,95%context),strengthanddurabilityneedtobe
satisfied.Thegeneralsequenceisasfollows:
1. Idea
2. Conceptdesignadesignthatissufficienttocommunicatethatthe
designerscorrectlyconceivetheidea.Conceptdesignmusthavesufficient
detailinordertotenderandproducethedetaildesignbyaD&Ccontractor
toavoidvariations
3. Tenderdesignifdesignandconstructsufficientdetailhastobeproduced
togetreliableinformation(quotes,pricesetc)fromcontractors.
4. Detaileddesign
B&B
Beltandbracesapproach:usingmorethan1methodtomakesuresomethingissafe
E.g.2typesofwaterproofing.Backupsystemneededaswaterproofingisalways
lesseffectivethaninitialplanned.
PSD
Plans,Sections&Details
Conservatism(ProjHFL
load)
Designingconservativelycanhavemanylongtermbenefitsinaproject.ProjectH
wasdesignedconservatively,andasaconsequencewhenthemachineloadsduring
constructionwerefoundtobesignificantlylargerthanhadoriginallybeenadvised,
thebuiltstructurewasrecheckedfortheseloadsanddidnothavetobemodified
savingalargeamountoftimeandmoney.
FlatArchDesign
Usedwhenexcavationisnearthegroundsurface(i.e.minimaldepthofcover
betweenarchandgroundsurfaceabove).Inherentlyriskyaslittlesupportis
providedbynaturalarchshape.Setscannotbeusedforlongspans,mainarchof
OHCPflatarchdesign.Supportprovidedbyanchorsandmeshreinforcedshotcrete.
Roadheader
Trackedmachinewithcuttinghead.Rotatesanticlockwise.Suitableforirregular
shapes.Howfarroadheadersadvancedependsonthetheirsize.Theyadvance
between15m^3/hrto40m^3/hr.
Alpineroadheader=boomforcuttingheadmovesupanddowntheface.Usesa
conveyorsystemwhichismadefromfibrereinforcedrubber.Thistypeofconveyor
canchangedirection,itismoreflexiblethanotherconveyorsused.
Mitsuiheadrotatedontheendofthebeam
Headings
Toexcavateacabininitialheadingshavetobeundertaken,followedbybulk
excavation.Initialheadingsdonebyaroadheader.Heightofinitialheadingaround
5mforinstallationofanchorandtoaccommodatebulkexcavationequipment.
CrownAnchors
Rockanchorsintothecrownofatunneltosupporttherockandpreventcollapse.
HalfColumn(Split
Column)
Splitcolumnswillperformbetterthancorbelsascorbelshavecomplexinternal
stressesthatareoftennotwelldesignedfor.Splitcolumnsaresimplertodesignand
build.Formbypouringonecolumn,puttingpolystyreneatjoint,pouringsecond
columnagainstpolystyreneandthendissolvingthepolystyrene.
Corbel
Structuralpiecethatjuttingfromacolumntocarryasuperincumbentweight.
HighCostRoadheader
Excavation
RoadHeaderApproximatley$220/m3
Usedforinitialheadingsduetoitsversatility.
LowCostBulkExcavation
Excavators&DozersApproximatley$85/m3
Usedforlowerexcavations.
Span/depthofcoverratio
Thespanreferstothespanofthetunnelcrownandthedepthisthedistance
betweenthetopofthecrownandthesurface.Youneedsomethicknessoverthe
crowntosetupastablerockbeamorrockslaboverthetunnel.
Engagementofstructure
againstexcavationface+
anexampleofthewayin
whichaminoraspect(eg
architectural)canhave
suchanenormousimpact
onD+C
Useofrockfacetosupportstructure.Avoidthisatallcosts.
e.g.Columnshorteningduetoincreasedloadasstructuregetsbiggermaycausethe
concretetocrack(similareffectcausedbycolumnsettlement)
AspectsofReinfConcrete
detailingandfixingfrom
TextbookonBlackboard
.(2013)
Thethreebartrick:usingthreebarsinsteadoftwotocontinuereinforcementabouta
joint,ensuringductility.Aswehavelossofeffectivecoverinthecornerdueto
openingforcesbarsareterminatedinthecompressionzone.
WallSlab
Staircase(top)
Staircase(bottom)
Week2
TBM
Tunnelboringmachine.Suitableforlongdriventunnels,longsetup.Stuckwith
shapeofcuttinghead,onlyabletodolongradiusturn.Suitableforhardrockandsoft
groundtunnelling.Thecuttingshieldrotatesunderhardpressure(thecuttingshield
islocatedbehindthecuttinghead.)andpulverizestherock.Rotationcomesfroma
collectionofhydraulicmotorsthatarerotatingagearagainstarack(flatorcircular
platewithteethonit).
Thepulverizedexcavationproductpassedthroughtheopeningsinthecuttingface
anddropsdowntobepickedupbyorge/screwconveyor.
TypesofTBMSdependentontypeofsoilbeingexcavated:
1.SlurryMachine:soilsofvaryinghardness.Excavatedsoilismixed
withslurrytocreatepositivefacepressuretosustainexcavation.
Closedmachinesoilremovalinvolvespumpingsoilmixedwith
slurrytoplantlocatedoutsidetunnelthatseparatesslurryfrom
muchallowingrecirculation
Advantages
Higheradvancerates
Continuousoperations
Lessrockdamage
Lesssupportrequirements
Uniformtunnelcharacteristics
Greaterworksafety
Potentialforremote,automatedoperation
Disadvantages
Fixedcirculargeometry
Limitedflexibilitytoextremegeologicalconditions
Longermobilisationcosts
Highercapitalcosts
TBMinhardrock
methodofforward
movement
grippers
Thereappeartobemultiplewaysthatthisworks,butforthemostpartthegrippersare
attachedtohydraulicramsandareextendedagainstthesidewallsofthetunnel.To
propeltheTBMforward,additionalhydraulicramsmovethegrippersbacktowards
therearoftheTBMbody.ForsoftgroundTBMs,howevertheforwardmovementis
providedbyramspushingagainsttheconcretesegments.
GrippersareneededforhardrockTBMstogripontotheinnerwallsofthetunnel.
ThisensuresthatthetheTBMdoesnotmovebackwardswhenpressureisapplied,it
hastomoveforwards.SoftrockTBMsdonothavegrippersbecausetheywould
sinkintothegroundcouldnotgetagrip
Grippersareusuallylocatedabout15metresfromthecuttinghead.
Bendsintunnelingareachievedbymanipulatinggrippers.(e.g.onlyputtinggrippers
ontherightside)
rateofexcavation
TBM250m/Week,Roadheaderuptoabout20m^3/hour
crownsupport
CrownSupport(thehighriskareafordesignerandconstructor)
Principles
RockBoltTypes(Bar,Cable,Fibreglass,Swellex)
Anchorage(Mech,Grouted,Chemical)
Atthecrownthereismuchmorepotentialofrockfall.Naturalarchhelpsdetermine
thecrownsupportarrangement.
miscellaneouscrown
supportsystems
CrownSupportwithRockboltspenetraterightuptoabovethenaturalarchandinto
thesupportingzone.Formoderatelyfracturedrock.
CrownSupportwithboltsnotpenetratedintosupportingzone.Forhighlyfractured
rock.
rockbolts
Rockboltsareusedtosupportanexcavationwallorforcrownsupportinatunnel.
Groutisoftenwrappedaroundthebolttoprovideadhesionandreducecorrosionof
rockbolts.Whendrillingaholeupwardsintothecrownawholelotofwatercomes
out,thisisaproblemthatcanbeaddressedbytheuseofgrout.
Agrouttubeiswrappedaroundthebolt,passedthroughaholeinthewasherand
thenthetubeisfilledwithgrout.Aresinbagcanbeusedinsteadofgrout.The
wholerockboltisoftennotwrappedwithgrout,thegroutisonlyusedabovethe
naturalarch,inthesupportingzone.Youdon'twantthegrouttoengagewith
supportingrockinsupportedzone,toomuchtensioninsupportedzone.
Rockboltsarenotusedforsoftcrowntunnels,onlyusedinhardrock.
extentofcollapsetoa
naturalarch
Ifanopeningwithacurvedroofisexcavatedinajointedrockmassanaturalarchis
formedatsomedepthintotherock,abovetheceilingoftheopening.Theformation
ofthearchisaresultofstressredistributionintherockastheopeningisformed.The
rockinthearchissubjectedprimarilytocompressivestresses.Thedistancebetween
theceilingandthelowerboundaryofthenaturalarchdependsonthetypeofground
inwhichtheopeningisexcavatedandthespanoftheopening.
supportedzone&
supportingzone
Supportedzone:
Thezoneofrockbelowthenaturalarch
Thesizeofthesupportedzonewillincreasewithdecreasingrockquality
Youdonotwanttogroutthesupportedzone,sothatloadscanbeproperly
transferredbytheanchorsintothesupportingzone.Theungroutedlength
oftheanchoriscalledthefreelength
Supportingzone:
groutedanchor
Thezoneofrockabovethenaturalarch
Anchorsshouldbegroutedintothesupportingzone
Itistheresponsibilityofthegeotechnicalengineertoestimatethelocation
ofthenaturalarchbasedontherockstrength,inordertonominatethe
correctanchorlength,freelengthandgroutedlength.
Typicalinstallationprocedureforagroutedanchor:
1. Drillaholeoftherequireddiameter(typically75100mm)
2. Wrapagrouttubearoundthebolt.Thistubewillpassthroughaholeinthe
washer
3. Insertrockboltintohole
4. Pumpgroutdownthetubetofillholefromtopdown
5. Tensiontestboltaftercuring
Groutprovidesadhesionandalsocorrosionprotectionspacersareusedtoensure
thattheboltstaysinthecentreofthehole
Groutthesupportingarea.
Youdonotwantgroutinthesupportedzonethereshouldbegroutinthebond
lengthintheloadcarryingstrata
Aplasticsheathcanbeusedinthesupportedzone,wheretheboltiscoveredin
grease,todisengagethebolt
chemicalanchor
1. Pusharesingroutbagupthehole
2. Pushrockboltthroughthebagandrotaterockbolt
Resincanattainfullstrengthinaslittleas8secondsandisnotaffectedbywater
unlikegrout.
mechanicalanchor
Similartodynabolt:metalrodwithanexpansionshellattheendwhichisactivated
andexpandswhentheboltistightenedbyinstallationdrill.Consideredtemporaryas
theycorrodequicklyunlikegroutedbolts.Dontprovidedowelactionduetoairgap
betweenboltanddrillholethereforelackoftransverseshearresistance.
SwellexBolt
Themostpopulartypeofmechanicalanchor.(swellexnail)Fortemporarysupport
Madeoutofsheetmetal.Providesgoodtemporaryfrictiontooutsideoftheholeand
worksinpulloutandtransverseshear
1.Drillholeintorock
2.Pushswellexbolt(nail)intohole
3.Waterorgroutispushedintoboltfold
4.Duetopressureboltexpandstotheperipheryofthehole
domewasher
Domedwasherallowstherockbolttobeeffectiveatarangeofanglesbyensuring
thattheanchornutstaysincontactwiththeanchorplate.
meshreinforcedshotcrete
Whenanchorssecuremeshinthecrownandshotcreteisthenappliedontop.
temporarysupport
Anchoringusingrockboltsisconsideredtemporarysupport,althoughitcanlastup
to100years.
permanentsupport
Insitureinforcedconcreteliningistheonlysupportmethodconsideredpermanent,
if
thismethodisrequireditcanoftenbecostprohibitive.
waterproofinginrail
tunnels
Railindustryinsistsoncastinsitureinforcedconcretetunnelforwaterproofing.This
isexpensiveandprohibitsfuturedevelopment.Waterproofingshouldnotbe
necessaryforrailtunnels.
Itisawastetorequirewaterproofingfortunnelsgiventhatwhenthetrainsareabove
groundanditrainstheygetwetandoperatefine.Sowhyshouldtherebeaneedfor
thetunnelstobewaterproofed,allthatisneededisasufficientdrainagesystemin
thetunneltopreventbuildupofwater.
Theliningofarailtunneldriveninrock,should,inprinciple,benodifferentfromthe
liningofaroadtunnel.I.e.economically,itinvolvesrockboltingandmeshreinforced
shotcrete,withoutexcessiveconcernaboutoccasionalseepagethroughthemesh
reinforcedshotcreteliningintheCrown.
crowncollapsewhere
tunnelgradientvs
beddingslopecreates
reducingthickness
wedge(longsectional
view)
Theplanesofweaknessinthebeddingcancausewedgestodropoutofthecrown
andkillwhoeverisunderneath.Solutionsaretotapthemoutsafelywitha
roadheader,ortorockbolt+mesh+shotcretethem.
Set(eg250UC)
Installationofsetsprovidesaddedcrownsupport.Setsareencapsulatedin
shotcreteorfibrecrete(hasmildsteelfleckswhichincreasethetensilestrength).The
crownisexcavatedroughly,shotcreteisusedtofillinthegapssothatthesetscan
beputinplace(thegapsbetweenthesetsandrockisfilledwithshotcrete).Welded
steel,hardwoodtimberpackingtoapplymutualsupporttothesets.Setsnormally
havelegs.Setsareusually200or250UC.
legsupported/
(springline(not
mentionedinclasswill
explainweek3))
supported
Referstowhetherarchissupportedataspringlineoratitsbase.
WStrap
AWStrapiscommonlyusedwhenadditionalsupportisrequiredinconjunctionwith
rockbolts.Thesesteelstrapsarepulledintotherocksurfacebytheboltsandtendto
conformtomajorirregularitiesintherock.Theyprovidelargesurfaceconfinementto
anylooserockthatmayformbetweeninstalledrockbolts.
Week3
CanopyTubeINEXAM!
Canopytubescanbeusedtoexcavatewhencutandcoverisnotanoptionorrock
boltdonotprovideenoughsupportinthelowrockqualityarea(i.e.portalzone)
Typicalinstallationprocedure:
1. Excavatesmallinitialsection(about2m)
2. Installcanopytubestomax15mlength(thickwallCHSsteeltubeswitha
slightinclineabovethecrownofthetunnel)
3. Excavate1mbeneaththecanopytubes.Canopytubeswillactasa
cantilevertosupporttheloadofthesoilabove.
4. Installaset(usuallywithlegs).Bydrivinginhardwoodpackersthesetwill
beabletosupportthecanopytubes.
5. Repeat3and4untiltheendofthecanopytube.Thelengthofthecanopy
tubezonecanbeincreasedbydrivingasecondtubebelowtheendofthe
firstthisisthereasonfortheinclineofthetubeabovethetunnelcrown.
Portal
Issues
1.
2.
3.
4.
Terrain(favourable/unfavourable)
Geology
AdditionalCrownSupportrequirementsegpipecanopyServicesgas,
electricity,stormwaterdrainage,water,sewage,propertyissues
Constructionaccess
Thepossiblelocationofportalsisanimportantfactorindeterminingatunnel
alignment(bothverticalalignmentandhorizontalalignment).Otherissuesinclude:
1. EntryandExitpoints
2. Availabilityofsuitableportal(seeM5andLaneCoveexamples)Terrain/
Geology(egM5BardwellPark)
3. Obstaclesegriver,creek
4. Gradients(affectventilationsystem)(roadmax68%)Ventilationfacilities
5. Drainage
6. Propertyissues
7. Politics
portalzone
Thezoneatthebeginningandendofatunnel.Theportalzoneisgenerallythemost
problematicareawithtwomainproblems:
1.
2.
Qualityofrock/soil
Depthofrock/soillimitedrockcover
Generallythepreferedconstructionmethodiscutandcover.Ifthisisnotanoption
duetothesurroundingconditions,canopytubescanbeused.
cut&covermethod
Whentheentiretunnelisexcavatedasalongtrenchwithstruttingacross
thetrench,thetunnelisinstalledandthetrenchcoveredinagain.The
EasternDistributorwasconstructedwiththismethod.
Trenchisexcavatedandthenroofedoverwithanoverheadsupportsystem
.
Watercontrolcanbeasignificantissue.
SoftgroundneedtoinstalldiaphragmwallsorCFAwallsgenerallyto
supportusestruttingoranchors.
Anchoringcanbedifficultinacutandcoverjobduetolegalissueswith
puttingananchoracrossprivatepropertyboundaries.
Bexleyroadusedcoverandcutmethod
Thesectionofthetunnelthatconnectsthetwoportalzones.
Thedrivenzonerequiresrepetitiveengineeringcomparedtotheportalzone
Generallyhasabetterspancoverratiocomparedtotheportalzone.
driventunnelzone
Issuesforcrosssectionalsizeandshape:
Futureusage(RoadRailfluidetcetc)
ExcavationMachinetobeuseddependsonavailabilityofmachinesRH
quicktomobiliseTBMtakes>1yearGeology(affectsGeotechnical
separation)
ConsiderDOUBLEDECKERCROSSSECTION
Ventilationrequirement(naturalrelieformechanical)
VentilationsystemFireSmokeexhaustsystem
crownsupport(inheavily
jointedrockin
moderatelyjointedrock)
HeavilyJointedrock
beamisformedthroughtensionedrockboltswhichcreatedanartificialarchnear
theceilingthelooserockneartheceilingrequiredsupportfrommeshandshotcrete
Moderatelyjointedrock
Rockboltsareplacedthroughtothenaturalarchprovidingasupportedand
supportingzonethelooserockneartheceilingrequiredsupportfrommeshand
shotcrete
canuseuntensionedrockbolts
typicalSydneysituation
lowerriskandcheaperthanheavilyjointedsituation
groutedbolt/anchor
Groutisoftenwrappedaroundboltstoprovideadhesionandreducecorrosion.
Whendrillingaholeupwardsintothecrownawholelotofwatercomesout,thisis
aproblemthatcanbeaddressedbytheuseofgrout.
Agrouttubeiswrappedaroundthebolt,passedthroughaholeinthewasherand
thenthetubeisfilledwithgrout.Aresinbagcanbeusedinsteadofgrout.The
wholerockboltisoftennotwrappedwithgrout,thegroutisonlyusedabovethe
naturalarch,inthesupportingzone.Youdon'twantthegrouttoengagewith
supportingrockinsupportedzone,toomuchtensioninsupportedzone.
mechanicalbolt/anchor,
Descriptionalreadyabove
swellexbolt
Shorttermsupportconsistingofahollownaillikeanchorthatisinsertedina
collapsedstate.Afterinsertionthenailispumpedwithwaterathighpressure,which
expandstheboltandfillsthehole,providingfrictionalresistance.
springline
Pointatwhichanarchbeginstocurve(i.e.thepointwherethewallmeetsthe
crown).
haunch
Thickeningatthecornerofthecrowntoimprovestrength.
tensioned
anchor/untensioned
anchor
Provideameansofprestressingalloraportionofafoundation.Thisminimizes
undesirabledeformation/settlements.Tensioningtransfersloadfromtheelement
intothegroutandthenontothesurroundingrockmass.
Untensionedrockboltsallowthelooserocktorelaxwhichwillputtensiononthe
rockbolt
domewasher
Seeweek2.
ventilation
Threemaintypesofventilation:
1. Longitudinalventilationnoductsjusttunnelwithjetfans
2.
Semitransverse(partlyducted)ventilationOneofsupply/exhaustisinthe
ductandtheotheriswithtrafficinthetunnel.
3.
(fully)transverse(fullyducted)ventilationBothsupplyandexhaustair
areinducts.eg.supplyairunderthetunnelinrisersandexhaustfromthe
topmostexpensive
4.
Naturalventilationthefourthoftenforgottentypeofventilationoften
usedinruraltunnels.Thismethodwillstillrequireasmokeextraction
system.
Otherissues:
AirQualityInthetunnelCONoxParticulatesAirIntakelocation
ExhauststackOutletlocationsizeshapeheightInTunnelCleansing
InStackcleansing
shortcircuitingin
longitudinallyventilated
compartments
Occurswhentheexhaustandinletareplacedtooclosetoeachother,resultingin
freshairbeingdrawnthroughtheexhaustagain.Tocounteractthis,ductstakethe
exhaustandinletfarawayfromtheactualventilationstackinoppositedirections.
Waterproofing
constructionjoint
Typesofwaterproofing:
1.Centralwaterstopfoil
2.Backstoppingfoil
3.Waterbar
hydrophyllicwaterbar
Swellswhenittakesinwater.Availableinmanycrosssectionaltypes.
Harbordliftshaftexampleforgottoputinthewaterbarduring
construction.Someofconcretewaschippedawaytoinstallwaterbarand
thenfilledwithhighstrengthmortarwhicheventuallyfailed/crumbled
away.
rearguardwaterstop
Apieceofplasticthatiscastagainstthesoilexposedfaceofaconcretejointto
preventwaterfromentering.
centrewaterstop
Apieceofplasticthatiscastintothecentreofaconcretejointtopreventwaterfrom
entering.
Week4
TBM
(seeweek2)
Assemblyarea(gallery)
AreausedtoassembleTBMmachinenearentrancetotunnel
Initialtunnelexcavation
UseofsimplemachinerytogetthetunnelstartedsothataTBMcantakeover
Conveyor
Carriesspoil(excavatedearth)outfromtheheadoftheTBMtotherearoftheTBM
whereitmaybetransportedawaybytrucks.
Cassette
Thesystemwhereextrabeltmaterialisprovidedintheconveyorsystemsothatwhen
theTBMcontinuesforwardtheconveyorcanexpandfreelywithouthavingtobeslack
atanytime.BeltsusedintheNSSThadbeltsupto2.1kmusingacassette&splices.
SoftgroundTBM
AsoftgroundTBMrequiressupportofthetunnelfacewhilethetunnelisbeing
constructed.Thisisusuallyprovidedbyaslurrybeingmixedwiththespoiland
providingpressureagainstthetunnelface.Thisisthenremoved.
ThetunnelislinedwithconcretesegmentsthatareplacedwithintheTBMshield.The
TBMuseshydraulicjacksagainstthesesegmentstopropelitselfforward.The
pressureofeachjackmaybevariedtochangetheorientationoftheTBM.
BothTBMs(EPBandSPB)areworkinginpotentiallysaturatedsoil.Thepressurein
frontcompartmentreducesthelossofgroundwaterfromsurroundinggroundintothe
tunnel.Thisissignificantassubsidence(depressionofsoil)atsurface,andlossin
bearingcapacitymayoccurasaresult.Limitinggroundwaterloss=limiting
subsidence.
RemotecontrolledTBM
withslurryusedforspoil
removal
(microtunnelling)
ThisTBMissmallandlasercontrolled.Itoperatesverysimilarlytolargesoftground
TBMswiththeexceptionthatthehydraulicjackisattachedatthebeginningofthe
tunnelandnottotheTBMitself.Concretepipesareinsertedatthebeginningofthe
tunnelandpushedagaintheexistingpipestopropeltheTBMforward.
Earthpressurebalanced
TBM
EarthpressureBalanceMachine(EPB):closedmachineusedforsofterfairlycohesive
soils.Suitableforvaryingsoilcomposition.Positivefacepressurecreatedbythe
excavatedgroundkeptunderpressureinthechamberbycontrollingremovalthrough
rotationofscrewconveyor.Muchremovedbyconveyorbelt/skips
Gripper
OneachsideofaTBM,thegrippersystemallowsthemachinetomoveforwardby
grippingontothesidewallsofthetunnelandpushingthemachineahead.Likea
caterpillar!
ForwardmovementforhardrockTBMs
Precastconcretesegment
lining
Precastconcretesegmentsaretransportedthroughthetunnelandinstalledinsidethe
TBMshield.Thesegmentsareboltedtogether.Seeillustrationabove.
Forwardmovementforlargetunnels(>1.8mdiameter)eg.EPBM
Jackedpipeliner
Theentirepipeisjackedfromthemainshaft.Newconcretesectionsarelowereddown
theshaftandthemainjackpushesagainstthenewsectionofthepipe.Usingthrust
cylinderstheTBMadvanceshalfthelengthofapipesection.Alsosectioninterjacks
canbeusedwhichallowittoactlikeacaterpillar.
Forwardmovementforsmallertunnels(<1.8mdiameter)eg.SPBS
Entryshaft
Theentryshaftisaholethatisoftenlinedwithconcrete.Thejackingrigisatthe
bottomoftheshaftandpipesareloweredintoitforjackingtoadvancethemicro
TBM.
Exitshaft
TheexitshaftiswherethemicroTBMwillemergeandbeliftedout.
Directionchangeshaft
AslasersareusedtodirectmicroTBMs,theycanonlymoveinrelativelystraight
lines.Everydirectionchangerequiresanewlaserlevelandthereforeanewshaft.
Ventilation
Thebasicrequirementforaroadtunnelventilationsystemistoprovideasupplyofair
tothetunneltodilutevehicleemissionstoastandardsetbyanauthority.
Fullyductedismosteffective.
Compartment
Apartofatunnelthathasitsownairsupplyanditsownexhaustsystem.Maximum
lengthofaventilationcompartmentinaroadtunnelshouldbeabout1.2km.eg.M53.5
kmoftunnelshouldhave3compartments(3exhauststacksand3intakes)
Limitedlength
Acceptablecompartmentlength=1.2km(Compartmentlengthneedtobelong
enoughtopreventpollutionbuildup)
Dilution
Reducingtheconcentrationofachemical
COandNOx(beforeimprovementinvehicleemissioncontrols)
Airvelocitylimitationsin
duct/tunnel
M5tunnel=36km/hr(10m/s)
Supplyoffreshairismeasuredasavolumetricrateofflow(m3/s)
RelationshipisQ=AV
Maximumairvelocityisupto10m/sinlongitudinalsystemandissignificantlygreater
inaductedsystem(transverseorsemitransverse).ThisprovidesthenecessaryQ
valuetodilutetheair
Ventilationdesignforfire
Thisismostlydesignedassmokeremoval.
Intunnelventilation
system
Externalsystem
Exhaustshaft
Exhauststacks,airintakesandthefansinthosefacilities
Mainaspectofexternalsystemsistheexhauststackheight
Engineerswantexhauststackstobeashighaspossibletogetexhaustairintoreliable
dispersingairways.Thereismuchdebateastowhetherthisisanappropriatemeasure
ofexhaustingpollutantsintotheair.
Thepurposeofanexhaustshaft/stackistoremoveexhaustfromtunnel
Intakefacility
Freshairsuckedintotunnelusinglargefansatintakefacility,oftenlocatedawayfrom
tunnel
Ductingtoavoidshort
circuitingaround
exhaust/intakeshaftarea
Thisductingtakestheexhaustandintakes,whichmaybeveryclosetoeachother,
furtherawayfromeachothertopreventshortcircuiting.
Railtunnelventilation
Thereisgenerallynorequirementforventilationofarailtunneltocontrolairquality.
Thereishowever,aneedforaductedfireproductextractionsystemwhichisableto
targetaparticularlocation.
VentilationDesignFactors:
Allowableconcentrationofpollutants
Trafficdensities
CrosssectionalArea
Gradient
Fleetconditionmix
Fluidtunnelventilation
PIARC(WorldAuthority
establishingdesign
standardsforurban
tunnels)
PIARCcreatedthe"RoadTunnelCommittee"(1957)toaddresstherangeofaspects
concernedintheuseofroadtunnels,suchasgeometry,equipmentandits
maintenance,operation,safetyandenvironment.Sincethen,thiscommitteehas
producedtechnicalrecommendationsacrossallofthesevariousfields.
Week5
Retainingstructures
Structuresusedtoholdbackexcavation.
Generalscenarios
Retainedcut
Retainedfill
Designchecksrequired
Antirotation
Antislide
Groundsupport
Typesofretainingwallstructures
Toeretainingwall:
Option1:useashutterwhenpouringslabsothatyoudontbuildalltheway
totherockface&canputinadrain.ThedrainagepipeMUSTbebelowthe
constructionjointdontwantwatertoseepthroughconstructionjointand
corrodereinforcement.
Option2:Ifoption1isnotpossiblebuildanibsothatdrainagepipewillstill
bebelowtheconstructionjoint
Youwouldnotusuallyusefoilorawaterbarinthissituation(external
retainingwall)asyouareONLYtryingtopreventcorrosionofreinforcement
notseepageintoexcavation.
DownturnCanbeusedtoresistsliding.Easiertoexcavateadownturnatthe
toethanatthebaseofawall.
Heelretainingwallconstruction
Canbeusedforfillonly.
Weightofsoilaboveheelprovidesextrastability.
ReinforcedEarth
Loadfrompotentialwedgeisresistedbythetiebacksystem
Soilactslikeagravitywall
Keystonewall
Prefabricatedconcretesectionsthatslotintoeachotherresistsforceby
deadload
Usuallybuildatanangleof1in10topreventtiltingpastthevertical.
Cribwall
Cellsarebuiltuplogcabinstylefromprecastconcreteortimberandfilledwith
soil.
Usuallybuildatanangleof1in10topreventtiltingpastthevertical.
Canreachback1200,900or750mm
Gabions
Retainingwallmadeofcagesfilledwithstoneandtiedtogetherwithwire.
Dontbotherwithplasticcoatingasitwillgetdamagedpreferedoptionisa
galvanizedcage.
Mobilisationmeansthatcageswillmoveabitbeforetheysettle.
Decisiondiagram
Knowwhereeachtypediffersfromtheothersintermsofdrainage,generalmethodof
designetc.
Diaphragmwall
construction
Nolimittoconstructiondepthduetotheabsenceoffixedconnection
(cableconnection)Cableconnectedclamlowereddownforconstructioninsoft
ground.Goodforuseincongestedareasastheycanbeinstalledwithlittlespaceand
aminimallossofsupporttoexistingstructures.Slotsexcavatedandretainingwalls
thenformedintheslots.Reocageandslurryfedintoslot,thenconcretepouredfrom
bottomupdisplacingslurry.Tremiepipeusedtogetconcretepourbelowslurry
Piling(generalinfofrom
blackboard&classnota
triggerword)
Function
Resistverticalloadsbyendbearingorfriction
Resistlateralloadsbending
Typesofpiles
Driven/Displacementpilesdontremovesoilfromtheholebutdisplacesit
laterallycreatingadditionalcompactionaroundthepileandimprovingskin
friction.E.g.driven,endbearing.
oTimberproblemswithborerattackandrottingjoinbysteelcollar.
oSteelmaybecorrosionprotectede.g.Tefloncoatedjoinby
welding.
oPrecastconcretegoodallroundperformancejoinbycastinscrew
joint.
oAllendbearingdrivenpilesareinstalledtoaset
Bored/Nondisplacementpilesextractsoilwhichisremovedandbecomesspoil.
Largediameter(bored)pilesarenondisplacementpilesE.g.CFA.
oStandardboredpileendbearing(augerhole,caseifnecessaryto
preventcollapse,removeauger,insertreinforcingcage,fillwith
concrete)
oGroutcretepileendbearingorlaterallyloadedwhenusedin
contiguouspilewall.(augerhole,feedconcretethroughaugershaft
asaugerisextracted,addminimalreinforcementthroughwet
concrete)
oFrankipile(expandedbase)seebelow.
Excavated(nondisplacementunlimiteddepth)barette
Screw(displacement)Atlaspile(e.g.easterndistributorparkwaytension
capacitytoresistuplift)
SteelsheetpilesMostcommonintemporarystructuresbutcosteffectivein
permanentstructures.Driventosuitrequiredfunctionse.g.princeshighway
cofferdams.
Drivingandextractingequipment
Drophammer
Dieselhammer
Compressedair/hydraulichammer
Vibratory
Guideframe
Miscellaneoussaspects
Raking
Socketing
Endanchoring
Calculations
Lateralpressuredistributioncohesive/noncohesivesoils
Lateralloadcapacity
Loadbearingtesting
Generallydifficultdoneafterconstructionofapiletotestloadbearing
capacity
Forstaticloadtestingyouneedtodrivethreepilestotestonethisisalotof
work!!
Pacifichighwayexamplebuildingaroadoveresturineclay
Option1preloadingpreloadingwouldtakeupto2yearstoachieve
settlementofclays
Option2limepilelimepilessuchmoisturefromclaydeposittoaccelerate
settlement
Option3wickdrainwillimproveflowrate&acceleratesettlement
FrankiPileCollection
Frankipile(extendedbase):usesapinnedpilejointwhichprestressesthepilesections
together.Frankipilescanbeconstructedinpracticallyallsoilconditions.Shown
below:
Displacementpileseg,Atlaspiles(notoftenused)augerholetorequireddepth,
deliverconcretepriortoremovalofaugertofillhole.
oDisplacementpilesdontremovesoilfromtheholebutdisplacesit
laterallycreatingadditionalcompactionaroundcausingmorefriction.
oAtlaspileshavedeepresistancetopullout
Atlaspileshownbelow:
Nondisplacementpilesextractsoilwhichisremovedandbecomesspoil.Largediameter
basedpilesarenondisplacementpiles
oCFA(continuousflightauger)nondisplacementpile,hasauger
flightsentirewayupshaft,augercontinuestospinsoanycollapsing
materialiscaught,comparablewithdiaphragmwallasconcrete
followsaugerup(likeconcretefollowsbentoniteslurry)
oIfyouneedtogodeeperthanCFA,reverttodiaphragmwallwhich
hasarangeasdeepasnecessary
Antiguousboredpiles&groutcretewallsseriesofpilesinstalledcloseenough
togethertoformastructurallystablewall.Notwaterproof.Putingroundswhichhave
noornegligiblegroundwaterissues.Haveretaininganchorsorsoftgroundanchors
installedathirdofheightfrombase.
CFA/Groutcreteshownbelow:
BarretteFoundationsrectangularsectionpilesdesignedtotakehighverticalloads.
Theyconsistofonepieceofdiaphragmwall.
Secantpilesseriesofpilesinstalledtooverlapandformstructurallystablewaterproof
wall.Nonreinforcedpilesmightbeevery2ndoneuntilchalklikeconsistencyis
reached,andalternatepileshavereinforcementcageputin.
Sheetpilewallsarevirtuallywaterproofandprovidetemp/permapplication.
Diaphragmwallswaterproofcastinsituwalls.Thereisnolimitfordiaphragm
excavationrig.
VibropileGroundisexcavatedusinghighpressurewaterjets.Granularmaterialinform
ofcrushedstoneorsandisintroducedonceaprobehasreacheditsdesireddepth.The
materialiscompactedtoformacolumnasprobeisprogressivelywithdrawn.Diameter
generally0.81.2m
Toefailurewarning
Differenceindepthof
excavationforCFAvs
DiaphragmWall
Diaphragmwallconstructioncanbetolimitlessdepthsduetolackoffixed
connection
RockFace
Retention/Stabilization
(TeachingAssignment)
INEXAM
SeeTeachingAssignmentWeek6
Inseparabilityofdesign&
construction
Inareallybasicsense,gooddesigncanreduceconstructiondifficulty,savemoney,
reduceproblems.
Options(Teaching
Coveredlaterinthisdocument.
Assignment)Illustrations
Drainage
Requiredbehindnonpermeablewallstoallowwatertoescape.Generousamountsof
granularbackfillcanpreventlateralloadingofretainingstructurefromundrained
material.Veryimportantforretainingwallstructurestoavoidbuildupofporewater
pressuresinadditiontosoilpressurethisputsamuchlargerloadontheretaining
structure.
Typesofdrainage:
Draincoilverycommoncangetformedjointsbutoftennotdonecanbe
washedoutbywaterunderpressureifaccesstopipespermittedduring
construction.
SlottedPVCgenerallythebettersolutionasyoucangetaplumberseelup
toclearit.90mmPVC(standardsize)isnotpreferedasitisthinandeasyto
damagewhenwalkedover.100mmispreferedbutdoesnotcomeinslotted
formslotsneedtobecutmanually.
AtlantisDrainageCellhastobewrappedingeofabrictokeepoutgravel.
Stripdraincannotbecleanedout,mayuseifthereisinsufficientspacefora
pipe,around$3.50/msimilarpricetocordrain.
Anchorage
Anchorsusedtoprovidestrengthandsupportwall
RockAnchors
Cost
Constructability
Analysis
Rotatingthesituationto
Cordraincomesinsheets2530mlong,sheetcanbeusedbehindshotcrete,
costsabout$12/m2quiteexpensive.
SoilNails/SoftGroundAnchors
Frictionsystemstraps,mesh,fabric,grid
Deadman
Soldierpiles(egBluesPtRd)t
improveunderstanding.
Week6
Pilingparticularly
DiaphragmWall
Diaphragmwallscanbeusedeffectivelyaspilesastheymaystartatabout
450mmthicknessandgouptoanythingyouwant.Inthiscasetheyneedto
befoundedoncompetentground.
Inthecaseoftheairporttunnel,thediaphragmwallsDONOTneedtogo
torock/competentground,theygotoadepthsuchthatthestructurecan
resistbuoyancy.Toresistbuoyancyyoucanrelyonweightandfriction
betweendiaphragmwallsandsurroundingsoil.
CFApile(contiguous,
secant)
Needtoaugertorequireddepthintosoil,thenfillholewithreinforced
concretewhileaugerisbeingpulledoutideallygroutcretesinceitissofine
youcanpouritthendropareocagedown.
CFAPilesaremostsuitedforuseinsandswithloadcapacitydevelopedin
bothadhesionandendbearing.Alsocanbeusedinrock,butnotweakclay
Secantiswhenthecirclesoverlapinplan,andcontiguousiswhenthecircles
areseparateandthesoil/rockspansbetweenthepiles
M5CooksRiver
Example
Decision:Tobuildabridgeoratunnel?
Tunnelwas34millionmoreexpensive
Lightpolesforabridgewouldintrudeintotheairspaceenvelope
wouldrequireclosingonerunwayoftheairporttoraiseairspace
envelopehoweveritwasnotintheinterestoftheairporttocooperate.
Asaresulthadtogowithatunnel.
CofferDam
Usuallybuiltoutofasheetpilewallallowingtemporaryevacuationof
waterwhereconstructionistotakeplace.
Needtoputinstruttingfromonesheetpilewalltothenextusually
steelCHS.Wailersareattachedtotheinsideofasheetpilewallto
supportstrutting.
Cofferdamforcooksriverbuiltin3stagescouldntdoall3atoncein
ordertoallowflowofriverandaccessforfishingboatsetc.Candoit
inanyorder.Possiblesteps:
oStep1:Installcofferdam2andplaceroofslab(1)&diaphragm
walls(5)
oStep2:installcofferdams1and3,excavateeastboundtunnel
(3)andwestboundtunnel(4)throughfrom1to3andplace
roadpavementslab
PrincesHwy/NSR
crossingaccident(toe
failure)example
TeachingAssignment
Howtoapproach
designtosimplify
construction&reduce
constructiontime/cost.
7circularcofferdamsacrosscooksrivershapehasnatural
advantageforlateralwaterloadingreducingtheneedforstrutting.
Mainfailurewasnexttoriverattemptedtoengagebottomofsheet
pilesinrockwithsufficientstruttingtoresistlateralloadingofsoil.A
minimumdistancexbetweentheSPWtoeandthetunnelwasspecified
toensurethattheamountofrockinfrontofSPWwouldsatisfytoe
restraint.Toecollapsed,floodingexcavationwithwaterandmud.
Thisdemonstratestheneedforbeltandbraces,onesolutionwould
havebeentousearockanchortoholdbacktoeofSPW
Avoidanceoffrontfacereinforcement,
70degreewedgefailureline(supported/supportingzones)
Analysis:
Loadassessment
Structuralelementdesign(structshotcrete)
Anchordesign(anchortensilestrength,grout/rockinterfacecylinder)
Improvingnegativemomentcapacity
Effectivedepthconcretecontrol
Shotcretestrengthanddurabilityassumptions.
SOLUTIONS
1.Piledwall,sheetpiling,
Thewallwasalreadyexcavated,makingthisnotanoption.Ifithadnotbeen
excavatedalready,thecostofpilingandproximitytohousingwasprohibitive.
2.CFM(corefillmasonry)wall
Expensivesolution,thecontractorthatquotedthisfounditcosttoomuchand
scarpered.
3.Gabioncages
Thewallwastoohightofeasiblyusegabioncages.
4.Attachedmeshwithvegetation.
Notstrongenoughtowithstandthelateralloads:thisoptioncanonlybeused
forrelativelyshallowslopes.
5.Concrete(insituandprecast)
Tooexpensive.Allprecastelementswouldbedifferentsizes,whichisnot
idealforprecasting.
6.Anchoredsoldierpost
Thisiswhensteelsectionsareboltedintothefaceandinfillpanelsusedto
retain(oftenseenalongrailways).Thisoptionwastooexpensive.
6.Shotcrete
Thisoptionwastaken.Structural(withreinforcingbars)andnonstructural
(withmeshonly)shotcretewasused.Thenonstructuralshotcretewasused
forthebottomoftherockfacewhilestructuralshotcretewasusedtoretain
thesoftgroundatthetop.
Anchors
Ashearanchor(shortstubbyanchor)wasusedatthebottomofthestructural
shotcretetopreventtheshotcretefromslidingdownandthereforecreatinga
pinsupport(thereducedstiffnessofthenonstructuralshotcretebelow
stoppedbendingmomentstransferringasacontinuousslab).Anadditional
rockanchorwasinsertedjustbelowasewerpipeintothesupportingzoneof
therock(behindthefailureplane).Thesetwoanchorscreatedenoughlateral
supporttoresistthelateralloadfromthesoil.Theshearanchorwasanchored
backintothesupportingzonetopreventtheoverallrockwallfromsliding.
Reinforcement
Thecantileveractionoftheshotcreteisresistedbyverticalprimary
reinforcementlaidonthefaceofthewall.Thesimplysupportedactionis
resistedbythehorizontalprimaryreinforcement.Thiswouldbestbelaidon
thefrontfaceoftheshotcrete,butwouldbetiedtonothing.Instead,itislaid
againstthebackfaceandmomentredistributionusedtoturnthatsimply
supportedactionbackintoaverticalcantileveraction.
Week7/8
Stormwaterdrainage
Designstufftoaparticularstorm.Dontneedtobeconservativeasthe
consequencesarenotgreat.
SW=StormWater
OSD=Onsitedetention
SSR=SiteStorageRequirement
GeneralSWdesignprocess:
Adoptageneralstrategychannelorpipeflow
GetauthorityARIandIDF(Intensity,Frequency,Duration)table
Adoptapitandpipelayout
Determinedischargesateachsysteminlet(seeCPAAmanualpg.50design
discharge)
Determinepipesizesforeachreach(seeCPAAmanualpg.50draindesign)
includesenergyline(waterlevelinsystemfordesignstorm)confirmthat
energylineisbelowsurfaceatallinletsi.e.checkthatsystemhasfreeboard
atallinletsfordesignstorm
SelectpipeclasstosuitshorttermandlongtermloaduseCPAAtablesor
CPAApipeselectionprogramme
Selectpitsizestosuitpipes
SelectgratesizesandK&Ginletstosuittrafficloadandinletcapacity
DesignOSD.
Stormwaterpittobelocatedatapointofchangeofdirection(corner)
watertobecontainedinroadway
Pitandpipesystemtowithstandabigstorm.
StormDuration=Timefordropletofwatertopassfromoneendofthe
catchmenttotheother.
HydrologicalHydraulic
Construction/Structura
l
Methodtodesigndrainage:
Hydrologicalconsiderationsbasicallyweatherconditionse.g.flooding
Howmuchwaterpondsorinfiltratesafterastorm?Howmuchwateris
deliveredfromacatchmentintoasystem?
Hydraulicswhathappenstothewaterwhenitgetsintothesystem.
usesoftwaresuchasDRAINSor12Dtodesign
pipes/culverts/drains/pits/overlandflowpaths.Youcanthenrunthedesign
stormeg100ARI(averagerecurrenceinterval)andseehowthesystem
works.Adjustthesystemuntilitworks.
Structuraldesigninvolvesselectionofpipestosuitexternalloadingincluding
constructionvehicleandlongtermvehicleloadingforroads.
Constructionstageisthehighestriskbecausethemachinesareheavy..you
carryoutstructuraldesignforpit/pipesystemforthisstage.
Lastlyyoupresentthedesignusingplans,longsectionsandcrosssections.
TypicallyanARIcomesfromthecouncil=1%AEP(AnnualExceedance
Probability)
Sitegrading
Determineswhichareasofthesitearegoingtogointowhichcatchments.
Fallarrowsareusedtoshowwherewaterisgoinginapitsystem.
Asiteshouldbegradedsuchthatifallthepitsareoverflowing,waterwill
drainontoaroadorsomeotherpitnetworkratherthanintothebuilding.
Gradingisgenerallyat5%forparkingandatmax12%forlongrangedriving
Sitegrading(Callala
Bay
example/Parramattard
example)
NeedtoshapeorgradethecarparkareasothesurfacedrainsParramatta
roadsexistingstormwaterdrainagesystem.Withinthisgradingdesignyou
havetomakesurethepavedareameetstheedgeofthebuildingslabwith
approx100mmoffreeboard(externalpartofasitetobeasuitabledepth
belowthebuildingslabsowaterdoesntgointothebuilding.inthiscasewere
150mmbelow).
Therearestandardsformaxgradingsforcarparkseg5%lateralgrade(AS
2890)whichdictateshowtogradethesite.
Detentionisalsorequired.OSD(onsitestormwaterdetention)isdesignedin
accordancewithCouncilstandards.
SWdrainageshouldbedesignedsuchthatwithintheoutcomeofthedesign
storm,alltherainfallthatfallsontheroofandcarparkshouldbewithinthe
pitsandpipes(DRAINSensuresthis).Parramattaroadisthebackupdrain.
Trenchgrading
methods
SandBags(2perlengthofpipe),Cradles,BeddingContouring(rakedsand
bed)
C,A,Ipipetypes
Rationalmethodforestimatingpeakflowrate
Q(flowrate)=2.78*C*I*A
QisthemaximumflowrateinI/s.
Cisthecoefficientofrunoff.Thisisthefractionofrainfallthat
becomesrunoff.Itsvaluedependsonthecharacteristicsofthe
catchmente.g.pavedcityareas,forestsetc.Duringarainstormthe
actualrainfallcoefficientincreasesasthesoilbecomessaturated.
Aisthecatchmentareainhectares.
Iistherainfallintensityinmm/hrfortheselectedrecurrence
intervalwithdurationequaltothecatchmentstimeofconcentration
(tc)
Pipetypes
PipeTypesRRJ,FJ,FRC,PVC,Poly,CSP
RRJ=rubberringjoint/spigotsocketjoint.RubberRingJoint(RRJ)
pipesarerecommendedforstormwaterdrainagesystems,although
FlushJoint(FJ)pipescanalsobeuseddependentonrequirementsof
theclient/assetowner.RubberRingJointsprovideconcretepipes
withahighdegreeofflexibilitytoaccommodategroundsettlementor
alignmentadjustments.
FJ=flushjointpipeprovidesaninterlockingjointwhichallowsfor
asmalldegreeofflexibilityinthepipelinealignment.
FRC=fiberreinforcedconcretepipesthatareusedinstormwater
applications.Relativelylightweightpipesareadvantagesintermsof
easeoftransportationandinstallation.
PVC=plasticpipeoftenusedinsewageanddrainage
Poly=polyethylene(PE)pipes.Canbesuppliedinstraightlengths
orcoilsreducingtheneedforjointsandfittings.Usedinsewage,water
supply,drainageandirrigation.
CSP=CorrugatedSteelPipeoftenusedindrainagesystemsand
stormwaterdetentionandretentionsystems.Lightweightin
comparisontoconcrete.Sinusoidalcorrugationsareefficient.
Pipeclass:Class2(2tonnes/m^3),Class4(4tonnes/m^3).Class4
morecommon,butmoreexpensive.Shorttermloadingof[pipesduring
constructionisbiggestconcernthereforebetterpipeclasspays
dividendsduringconstructionloading.
Sewerpipes:GenerallyPVCorclayduetoresiliencetopollutants
Methodoflay
Layconcretepavementontopofgravel.Overexcavaterockandthenpour
sandorgravelontop,thenpourconcrete.Otherwiseconcreteiswasted.
Overexcavatingtherockisdonesothatitispossibletogradethesiteusing
sand/gravel.
Excavation,Bedding,LayPipe,Backfill,Compact
StormwaterDetention
Design
Councilsrequiredetentionsystemstocontroldischargefromnewlydeveloped
sites.
TheimageshowsaPit/Tankwithorifice.Dischargeiscontrolledbyheadand
rateofinflowintothesystem.Councilswillimposeamaximumallowable
dischargeandminimumstoragerequirement.Generallythe
postdevelopmentdischargerateisrequiredtobelessthanthe
predevelopmentrate.Designingasystemtooperateatmaximumhead
resultsininefficiencyforallcasesexceptwheremaxheadoccurs.
Highearlydischarge
Want to cause the post development discharge rate to not greater than
the predevelopment discharge rate for the same storm.
3 overflows required: one into main detention tank, one into the
downstream pit and surcharge through the top of the tank.
Must be from roof only, all other water runs into the HED
Overflows into the HED via a pipe or spillway
BASIX (building sustainability index) analysis gives rainwater catchment
requirements
Documentation
Laststageofdesign:aswellaslayout,itishelpfultogiveapitandpipetable
forschedulingpurposesinwhichpitsaredesignatedbyletternameandpipes
aredesignatedbythepitstheyspanbetween.Aschematicdiagramof
stormwaterflowisalsohelpful.
Pits
Necessarywhencatchmentwantstodischargeintopipesystemorapipe
directionchangeisrequired.Maximumdistancebetweenpitsdeterminedby
localcouncils.Generallyspecificationgovernsbycleaningrequirements
Backfill
Reinforcedconcretepipesonagranularbed(recycledconcrete)withpitsat
regularintervals.Draincoilswithpolyestersockskeepsiltout.Geofabric
playerplacedovergranularmaterialprovidingfreedrainingsupportof
concretepitsandpreventingpipeworkfloatingawayinastorm.Lateral
supportpreventspipesdeformationundersurfaceloading.
Rousehillcasestudy
(8mdeepRCSewer
Pipecracking
inadequateclass,
unsuitablebackfill)
Haunchsupport
Pipescrackedat12oclockand6oclockinternally,and3oclockand9
oclockexternally.Cheappipeclasschosenrequiringbetterqualitybackfill
materialaroundpipesidewallstopreventcracking.Roundedaggregateused
poorlygradedprovidingstablevolumebutnotstableshapethereforenogood
asbackfillmaterialsupportingpipesunderload(i.e.itwillmoveandcrackthe
pipewhenloaded)
Wellcompacted,larger,angularbackfillmaterialprovidinglateralandvertical
supporttothepipestructureandwillresistancedeformationsinthepipe.
Rubberring(RRJ)=
Spigotsocketjoint
Weberspreferenceinringjoints!
Flushjoint
FJ=cheaperthanaRRJ,butmustbeflat,settlementovertimeis
unpredictableandcandamagepipeswiththisconnection
EnergyLine
Mustbebelowthesurfacelevelatallinlets.Spikeinenergylinerecognised
byDRAINS,whereastheprevioussolutiontothisproblemwastoincrease
downstreampipediameter
Stormwater
Infrastructure
Ideallylaythepipefromthedownstreamendfirst,2accesspointsare
requiredforcleaningandforsafety
Subsoildrainintrench
Theseareperforatedpipesthatarelaidintrenchestprotecttheroadformationsby
drainingthemajorityofthewaterawayfromtheroadstructureaswellasintercepting
groundwaterwhichwouldotherwiseaffectthestructure.Wherepossible,itis
desirabletoplacethedrainsasnearaspracticabletotheedgeofthestructure(either
pavementoraroad)
CallalaBayExample
Seeabove
ParramattaRd
Example
Seeabove
DRAINSsoftware
SplitSystem:Halfdetentionandhalfretention,excellentenvironmental
solution
LeveltermsRL:RaisedLevel,FFL:FinishedFloorLevel,NSL:Natural
SurfaceLevel,IL:InvertLevel
Week9
SiteGrading
Determineswhichareasofthesitearegoingtogointowhich
catchments.
Fallarrowsareusedtoshowwherewaterisgoinginapitsystem.
Asiteshouldbegradedsuchthatifallthepitsareoverflowing,water
willdrainontoaroadorsomeotherpitnetworkratherthanintothe
building.
Gradeat5%forparking
Gradeat12%maxforlongrangedrivingpaths
Gradeatupto20%forshortdrives(e.g.driveways,parkingstructures)
HECRASapplication
andexample
Teachingassignment
drainageexample
HydraulicEngineeringCentresRiverAnalysisSystem:FloodAnalysisSoftware
Package.Goodmodellingsystemforopenchannelflow.Allowsyoutoperform
onedimensionalsteadyflow,unsteadyflow,sedimenttransport/mobilebed
computationsandwatertemperaturemodelling
Mustbeabletodrawgradingcontoursonasite.
Generalprinciplesofsitegrading:
1.
Runoffmustflow(gravitate)toacollectionpointorareliefpoint.
2.
Thesiteshouldhaveanoverlandflowpathforreliefwhenpitsand
pipesfail(mayneedaneasement)
3.
Earthworksvolumes.....myapproachhasbeentoachieveabalanced
designwithminimalcostsinvolvedintransportationofspoiltoorfromthesite
4.
PipegradientsIwouldnotliketoputmynametogradientsanyless
thanwehavenowtheyarealreadyatorbelowacceptedminimalgradients
forresidentialandcommercialpipeddrainagesystems
5.
Pipecoverattheupperendofpiperuns,structuralcovertopipesis
arguablylessthanminimumrequiredandthemanagementofthesiteduringthe
constructionphasewillinvolveavoidingconstructiontrafficovershallowpipes
untilsuchtimeaspavementisconstructedandcured.
6.
AS2890(offstreetparking)complianceintermsoflateraland
longitudinalsurfacegradientsSeeextractsfromAS2890relatingtodriveway
gradients,parkingbaylongitudinalfall,parkingbaycrossfall
7.
Maximumpondinglevelsetbycouncil....Perhaps200mmin
importantcarparkareauptoperhaps500mmislessimportantareas
8.
Theunderlyinggeneralneedtoincorporateanengineereddrainage
systemintothedevelopment.
Week10
pavements
Pavingmachineusedtopaveconcrete,hasastripwidthofabout3m.
Layeredstructurewithlayersincreasinginloadbearingcapacitycloserto
surface.Surfacestressesofwheelloadsdistributedoverabroadareasuch
thatloadbearingcapacityofmaterialisntexceeded.
Keyproperties:Interparticlefriction,interlock,resistancetochangein
propertiesinmoistenvironment
PavementdesignisanaccumulationofESAsoverdesignlife
flexiblepavement
Typesofflexiblepavement:
Asphalticconcrete:naturallyporoussurface,avoidsaquaplaning.
(opengrade20mmstone).Economical,trafficloadingearly,notgood
forshortradiusturns,highmaintenancerequirements,driverfriendly
(lownoise,goodcolour).Baseandsubbaselayersarecompacted,with
thesurfacelaidwithpavingmachineandcompactionusingsmooth
drumsteelroller.Trafficloadingcanbeearlyafterlaying.Composed
ofcoarseaggregate,fineaggregate,bitumen.Thesematerialsare
mixedanddeliveredtositeat180degrees.
Bituminousseal(chipseal):mostprolificpavementtileinAustralia.
Stonechipspressed/rolledandsprayedwithbitumen.Cheapestoption,
poorinhotweather,highmaintenanceanddriverfriendly.Most
commoninAustralia(rareinSydneythough).Baseandsubbase
compacted,bituminousprimerandtackcoatsprayedfromtruck
mountedkettle,stoneshippingsspreadthenrolledusingrubbertyred
roller,slowtrafficokayafterlayingandloosematerialmustbe
broomedoffafterseveraldaysofcuring.
Segmentedpaver/concretepaverblocks:subgradepreparationis
important,mortarbedandmeshreinforcementisagoodoption.(sand
isnotagoodoptiondespitethemanufacturersspecifications,useat
leastamortarbed).Lateralconfinementisneededasthepaverblock
haveatendencytorock.Lockuptopreventrotation,achievedby
tessellatingthepavers.Perforatedorlatticepaversareoftenusedin
carparkareas.Lowmaintenancecosts,failureisnotobvious.
Appropriatefortrafficspeedsupto70km/hr,nojointingissues,easy
maintenance,traffickedimmediatelyafterlaying.
Recomendationsforpreparationofsubgrade:
rigidpavement
TypesofRigidPavement:
Reinforcedconcretewithjoint(bestoption):highcost,trafficked
aftercuringperiod,goodresistancetoshortradiusturns,low
maintenancecost,lessdriverfriendly,affectedbyhightemperatures.
Subbaseandbasecompacted,concretelaidusingpavingmachine(or
conventionalpour),difficulttocureproperly.Jointingitexpensiveand
animportantconsideration
Reinforcedwithoutjoints:Averyporouslayerisneededbelowthe
concreteandexpectedtolastatleast30years
Unreinforced
TypicalCRCPsection
Transverseandlongitudinalcontractionjointscanbeused.Thisallowsfor
shrinkagetooccuratthelocationsofyourchoice.
Reasonforjointsinrigidpavements:makesmovementhappenwhereyouwant
it,meansoftransferringshearfromonesitetotheother.(Aggregateinterlock:
measureofsheartransfer)
Sawcutsusedtoinduceshrinkagecracks(about5hoursfollowingconcrete
pour).Sealantbeadusedatthecuttopreventmoistureinfiltrationtosubgrade
support.Gapisrequiredtobenarrowenoughfortrafficshearloadtobe
transferredfromslabtoslabbyparticleinterlock
Sealantsarealsousedtopreventdirtfillingupthethermalexpansiongaps,and
willtakethesheartransverseacrossthecrack
Curingagentusedtoholdmoistureinconcrete,thetoppingisgroovedtoallow
forfrictionfortraffic,whichinturnpreventsaquaplaning
Joints
Jointsdesignedinawaytopreventmoisture.(Jointssealed)
Thesedividepavementintosuitablelengthsforconstructionpurposes.Also
allowsfordifferentialmovementbetweenabuttingstructuressuchasbridges
andintersections.Purposetocontrolcrackingduetorestrainedcontraction,
warping,loadingandtemperature.
Spacingbetweenunreinforcedjointsis5mspacing,reinforcedjoints1015m
(12misidealasreinforcingmeshcomesin6sqmsheets)
Loadtransferacrossjointsisdonebyaggregateinterlock,amechanical
device(suchasadowel),skewedjoints,randomizedjoints,keyslabsand
thickenededges
Doweljoints:Galvanizedsteelbarpaintedwithbondbreakertoavoidbonding
toconcreteensuringdowelfreetomove.Improvessheartransferandwill
alwayscreateagreaterjointwidthtoallowforthermalexpansion
Isolationjoint:providesnosheartransfer,thereforemustseekbeamaction
fromthickenededgeeithersideofjoint
ContractionJoint:dealswithtransverseloading
ConstructionJoint:placedduringconstructionduetounexpectedhaltinwork
ortemporarydelayetc.
3mainfamiliesof
highwaysurface
Fulldepthasphalt,deepstrengthasphalt,concreteallhaveunboundbase
layers,followedbyaboundfinalsurface
thicknessdesign
Involvestheuseofgraphsasshownbelow,forflexiblepavementsandrigid
pavements.
FlexiblePavements
Simplechartismoretodowithrelationshipbetweencovertoagivenlayer,
ratherthanthicknessoflayer.
Knowthestrengthofthesubgrade(CBRCaliforniaBearingRatio)fora
giventrafficload(DesignTrafficESAs)relatedtonumberofaxlerepetitions.
ESA=equivalentstandardaxle.Approximately910tonnes.
Toputitinperspective,approx.5000ToyotaYaris=1ESA(or9tonne)
EXAMPLE:
10000ESA/dayandadesignlifeof10yrs=10x365
Designtraffic=ESAxDesignLife=10000x10x365ESA
RigidPavement
StartwithAxleLoadloadintonnes(t)
Singlewheelaxle
Dualwheelaxle
Dualdualwheelaxle
StatisticsonthemixofvehiclesonpavementsareconvertedtoanetESA
count.Thischartusesthenumberofaxlerepetitionsperday.
Alwaysbeconservativeusethestatutoryloadlimits,30&aboveaxle
repetitionsandconservativedesignsoakedsubgradeCBRtogetthe
pavementthickness.Itisverycostlytofixpavements
EXAMPLE:foraloadlimitof8.5tdualwheelaxle,at30&aboveaxle
repetitions,
aconservativethicknesswouldbegivenbyaCBR=2%=190mm
anonconservativewouldbeCBR=10%&above=175mm.
Reasonsforvariable
performance
Inadequatethickness,jointingissues,embankmentstability,inadequate
specification,failuretoachievespecifiedquality,other
DGB
Denselygradedbase
DGS
Denselygradedsubbase
bituminousseal
Asaboveunderflexiblepavements
asphalticconcrete
AC20=Asphalticconcrete,20mmmaximumstonesize,minimumof35mm
thickness
collaroypavement
Thiswasapreparationforarigidpavement.Inresidential,concretepours
needtobedonebyhand.
25Mpaconcretetobechutedfromabackofatruck.Waterisaddedtothis
process,suchthattheresultantconcretehasastrengthoflessthan25MPa.
Unexplainedpavementfailuresawcutjointtogetherwithcut(every2/3)
meshwirestoprovidealineofweaknessinmesh,butinsteadthecrack
happenedafootawayfromthejoint.WhatWeberthinksitwas:thatthe
concretewaspumpedinsteadofchutedasitwasoriginallyplanned.Todowith
concretestrength.
rundlemall
Highpressurewaterspraywasusedtocleanpaving.Thiscausederosionof
thesandsubbaseandwashedoutjointingsand.
Week11
pavementteaching
assignment
Posttensioned
concrete
pavementsdesignwithinsitumodificationofsubgradeasacostsaving,
environmentallyappropriatemeasure.RefertoWeberssolutionsforcalcs.
thepracticalconstructionaspectsofposttensionedwork,approximate
Span/depthratiosforRCandPTwork.(Harbordprojectwasusedas
example)PTDrawingingeneralindicatingductdrape,precamberbeinga
probleminthedesign/constructionprocess
Week12
environmental
engineering
Whatisenvironmentalengineering?
Theintegrationofscienceandengineeringprinciplestoimprovethe
naturalenvironment(air,waterandlandresources).
Civilengineertypicallyconsidersair,waterandsoil
Environmentalplannerassessesaproposalforcompliancewith
environmentallaws,putstogetherEIS,runscommunitymeetings,
considerseverythingastheenvironmentincl.flora,fauna,noise,
trafficetc.
Governmentsenvironmentaldepartments,land&environmentcouncil
Investmentbanksbasisforbusiness,carbontaxtobecomean
emissionstradingscheme.
Whatisanenvironmentalproject?
Generallywaterengineering
Canbetunnelventilation(airquality)
EnvironmentalplanningactNSWassessesimpactofaplannedprojectand
consequentlyapproves/rejectsit
DECCWDepartmentofEnvironmentConservationClimateChangeand
Water
EISEnvironmentalImpactStatement(includingflora,fauna,noisebothlong
termandconstruction,visual,traffic,community,constructionmethod,heritage,
etc
SEEStatementofenvironmentaleffects
REFReportonenvironmentalfactors
Thesearetherequireddocumentsforenvironmentalplanningact
ProjectNo1,4,8,9,11
Project1:
Generalenvironmentalplanning.EnvironmentalplanningactNSW
assessesimpactofaplannedprojectandconsequently
approves/rejectsit.EA.EIS.SEE&REF
DECCWDepartmentofEnvironment,Conservation,Climate
ChangeandWater
EA=Environmentalassessment
EIS=Environmentalimpactstatement
SEE=StatementofenvironmentalEffects
REF=Reportonenvironmentalfactors
Project4:Stormwaterdetentionfacility
Stormwaterdetentionhasanenvironmentalbasispreventsdischarge
ofwaterfromanimpervioussiteathighvelocity,thereforepreventing
environmentaldamage.Dischargeshouldbenoworsethantheunbuilt
site.
Project8:ErosionsedimentcontrolmeasuresRosevilleDevelopment
Ownerappliedforresidentialsubdivisioninto11councils,projectwent
tolandandenvironmentcouncilwasapproved
Waterqualityfacilities:GPT,littoralzone(below)
Useofsiltfences
Conflictbetweenremovinggroundcoverforfiresafetyandadding
groundcovertopreventerosion.
Upto50treeshadtoberemovedtobuildthewaterqualityfacilitya
facilitythatprobablywasntrequiredanywayisthisactually
environmentallysustainable?
Environmentallyappropriateopendrain:geotechnicalfabricwithrough
rocksplacedoverthetopandplantedwithvegetationinthedrain.
Constructionstageprotectionoftreestimbertiedaroundtrunk
Cribwallusedtoretaininternalroadembankment:invitedmoisture&
growthoftreerootsmuchmorethananRCretainingwall.
Standardsubdivisionalroadconstructionhassignificantimpacton
trees.
Project9:Hornsbydevelopment
Project11:SouthCreekNutrientOffsetScheme
Sandfilter,constructedwetland,UVlampwaterdisinfectant
SydneyWaterCorporationpayspenaltiestoDECforlicencetopollute
DECfundsdesignofschemedtoreducepollution
Typesofengineeringinvolved:watercatchment/collection/storage,
reusepumpingandreticulation,nutrientextraction,pathogenremoval
Resistchemicalmethodsandpromotenaturalmethods
Nutrientreduction
schemes
Whenfencingisusedtoprotecttheriparianzone.Thispreventsissueswith
theriverbankandalgalgrowth.Bypreventinganimalsfrombeinginthe
riparianzoneunwantednutrientsarenotintroducedintotheriver.
Fencing/nutrientcatchercanalsobeusedtopreventwastefrommarket
gardensenteringtheriversystem.
Offsets
carbonoffsetisaformoftradingthatfundsprojectsthatreducegreenhouse
emissions.Carbonoffsetsarevoluntary.Peopleandbusinessesbuythemto
reducetheircarbonfootprintorbuilduptheirgreenimage.Carbonoffsetscan
counteractspecificactivitieslikeairtravelanddriving.
Licensetopollute
licensesgiventocompaniesallowingthemtoemitacertainamountofcarbon
emissions,etc..
SiteRemediation
returningasitetoitsprepollutantcondition
RattleRack
Designedtostopmuckleavingaconstructionsiteonwheelsofavehicle
Penaltiesforexceeding
licensedlevelsof
pollution
Finesmayapplyforexceedingthelimitsputinplacebythegovernment.
environmentalaudits
evaluationsintendedtoidentifyenvironmentalcomplianceandmanagement
systems.Correctiveactionsrequiredwillbebroughttoonesattention.
GreenStarBuildinggraduallybeingreplacedbyNABERSrating(National
AustralianBuiltEnvironmentRatingSystem)
waterqualityfacility
watertreatmentarea,importanttomakesurethatthewaterqualityis
maintained.
GPT
GrossPollutantTrap(steelracktrapscollectmaterialdowntoadrinkcan
size)
littoralzone
Thelittoralzoneisthepartofasea,lakeorriverthatisclosetotheshore.In
coastalenvironmentsthelittoralzoneextendsfromthehighwatermark,
whichisrarelyinundated,toshorelineareasthatarepermanentlysubmerged.
macrophyteplants
(reeds,baumea)
Amacrophyteisanaquaticplantthatgrowsinornearwater.
Adeclineinamacrophytepopulationmayindicatewaterqualityproblems.
Suchproblemsmaybetheresultofexcessiveturbidity,herbicides,or
salinization.Conversely,overlyhighnutrientlevelsmaycreatean
overabundanceofmacrophytes.
Sedimentpond
Atemporarypondbuiltonaconstructionsitetocaptureerodedordisturbed
soilthatiswashedoffduringrainstorms.Protectsthewaterqualityofa
nearbystream,river,lake,orbay.
detentionpond
Excavatedareainstalledon,oradjacentto,tributariesofrivers,streams,lakes
orbayswhichprotectagainstflooding.Adetentionpondcanalsoprevent
downstreamerosionbystoringwaterforalimitedperiodofatime.
InceptionPond
Usedtocontrolnutrientrunoffintowatersystems
nutrientuptake
Nutrientuptakedependslargelyonwaterflowfromthesubstratetotheroots
andthenuptotheshoots.Rootsdonotintentionallygrowtowardsanutrient
source.Fornutrientuptaketooccur,theindividualnutrientionmustbein
positionadjacenttotheroot.Positioningofthenutrientioncanoccurby:
RootInterception
Therootcan"bumpinto"theionasitgrowsthroughthesoil.
MassFlow
Thesolublefractionofnutrientspresentinsoilsolution(water)andnotheldon
thesoilfractionsflowtotherootaswateristakenup.
Diffusion
Nutrientssuchasphosphorusandpotassiummovetotherootbydiffusion.The
nutrientuptakecreatesagradientforthenutrienttodiffusethroughthesoil
solutionfromazoneofhighconcentrationtothedepletedsolutionadjacentto
theroot.
constructionphase
measures
Protectionoftrees
ensuretherearestormwaterdrainagechannels.
longtermmeasures
civilengineering
designssensitiveto
localenvironment
Timberengineering
alternativeroadcrosssection
cribwall
Timberisaveryeconomicalandenvironmentallysustainablematerial
inlowriseconstruction
Termiteattack,shapestabilityandstructuraldefects(knots)arethe
keyissueswithtimber.Structuraldefectsmaketimberdifficultto
classify.
Highjoist:multilaminatedfingerjoint.Madeoftimberthatwould
otherwisegotowaste.200,250or300mmdepth.50to90mmflange
width.
AS1720describesequationsfortimberstrength.
EWP(Engineered
woodproducts)
LVL
HighJoist
Hyspan
k1factorisimportant&uniquetotimberaccountsforcreep
behaviour(roughly0.95forashorttermloadand0.65foralongterm
load)creepisnotonlyadeflectionissuebutalsoastrengthreduction
issue.
IncludesLVL,Hyspan,HyJoist(timberIbeam)andGluLam(early
versionofhyspan)
Engineeredtimbergenerallynegatesshapestabilityandandstructural
defectsofrawtimber.
Usuallymadefromplantationtimber.
Genericnameforlaminatedveneerlumber
Plymanufacturedbeams
Excellentproduct,usingmaterialthatmayhaveotherwisebeenwaste.
Itismultilaminatedandfingerjointed
Highrigidityratiosandcapacityratios
Isection
MultilaminatedtimberbeamproducedbyCarterHoltHarvey(CHH)
Designbendingstress16MPa
Characteristicstrengthoftimberusedtomanufacturehyspan48MPa
Thedifferencebetweenthesestressesisexplainedbythe
characteristicstressisseverelyreducedbykfactorsandphifactors.
Thisisveryconservativeappropriateforavariablematerial.
Rectangularcrosssection
Knowhowtousesinglepagehyspantable:
Moment>designbendingstress=16MPa>I>beamsize
StrengthGroup
Approachestotimber
design
Thereareabroadcollectionofparametersthatrelatetotimber,wewilllimit
thisto:
FxStressGrade(x=workingfibrestress)e.g.F7has7Mpatensile
strength
SDSeasonedstrengthgroup
SUnseasonedstrengthGroup
MGPxMachinegradedpine(x=ModulusofElasticityparallelto
grain)AcommonpinetimberwouldbeMGP10.Agoodqualitypine
timberwouldbeMGP20.
AFirstPrinciples
Basedonf=M/Z(Notetheinfluenceofk1(durationofload)apart
from11otherfactors
CanuseAS17203.2tofinddesignmomentcapacityforabeam
B.SpanTables
ParticularlyCarterHoltHarvey(CHH)
C.DesignIT
SoftwareforHyspan,HyjoistandotherNONEngineeredSoftwood
andHardwood
Cancomparehyspanandhybeamtonaturaltimber
RLWtributaryarea
Willgiveyoualistofoptionswithrigidityratios(>1meansrigidity
exceedsrequiredrigidity)andcapacityratios(>1meansthatdesign
factorofsafetyexceedsminimumrequireddesignfactorofsafety).
GenerallyaimforRR=1.5,andusuallycorrespondingCRwillbefine.
Castlecragproject
UsesHyJoist,verycosteffective,heavilyreliantonglue,very
importanttokeepthisproductoutoftheweatherasEWPwill
generallystarttodelaminateiftoomuchwaterisabsorbedshould
providetarpaulinprotectionduringconstruction.
Builderstendtogetstudwallsdesignedbystudmanufacturersstuds
werespacedtoofarapartandbuckled.
Usesacombinationoftimberandsteelmostlyarchitectural.
TimberfitsinbetweenupperandlowerflangesofsteelIbeams
illustrationsofhowtodothisindesignIT
MightchooseaPFCratherthanUBsoyoucangetacleanface.
SHSpostsusedwheretherearesubstantialloads.
CRANEENGINEERING
KeyIssuesforto
addressatthe
beginningofaproject
Whyhaveacraneonabuildingsite?
Speedofloading&unloadingconstructionmaterials
Reductionofworkplaceliftinginjuries
Wheredoyoulocateacrane?
SiteLocation(Denseurbanarea,orruralspace?)
ConstructionZone
Trafficplanning
Hoarding
Liftingplatforms
Whatistheheaviestlift?
Whohiresthecrane
Whatwasbudgetedforinthetenderandwhatsizeofcranedoesthis
moneybuy?
Whereisthecranelocated
Entryandexitofcrane
Lengthofjibrequired
Whatspaceisavailableinthebuildingforacranepenetration?
Buildingtieneeded?
towercranefoundations
Doesthecraneneedtogoontopofabuilding?Needtodetermineif
thebuildinghasenoughcapacity.(Existingliveloadofbuilding,
structuraldrawingsandanymodificationstothestructure)
Doesthecraneneedtobeclimbedduringconstruction?
cranescanbelocatedinliftshafts,mayneedtolockinpositionasthe
cranemovesandcouldhittheliftshaftwalls.Havetobecarefulwhen
usingthecollars(lockinginplace)asthecranecanbuckle.Mayneed
toaddadditionalsupport.
TypesofCranes
Hammerheadcrane
Luffingjibcrane
mobilecranes
Dieselorelectric
Fixedtobuildingor
Free
buildingtiesmayneedtobeused.Iftherearetighttolerancesofmovementsin
theshaftofthecrane,thenitwillhavetobetiedtothebuilding.Ifthecrane
extendstoohigh,thenthecraneshouldbetiedintocontinueloading,however
thisrequiresalotofthoughtintoloadingpaths.
Slewing
Jibmovesbackandforth(i.e.rotatesin360degrees).Generallycannot
freestandahammerheadcranetallenoughinthecity.
Luffing
Jibmovesupanddown,usefulforhighbuildingsorinrestrictedspaceswhere
thereisntmuchroomtomovearound.
Whyaremorecranes
notremotelyoperated
Largercranesneedoperatorstoseewhatishappeningonsite.Itiseasierto
seewhatisgoingoniftheoperatorisinplace.Forsmallerjobsremote
operationisok.If2cranesareincloseproximity,atleastonecraneneedsa
cabin.
BaseDesign(Inservice
/OutofService)
TypesofFoundationsforCranes:
concretepadinground:morecommon,verycheap,canbedesigned
foranysoilconditions
ballastedbase
Rockanchors:usedifyouhavegoodgroundconditionsandthereisnot
muchroomforconcretepad.2to3timesmoreexpensivethan
concretebasesolution.
Tablesofloadingrequirements,loadfactorsandloadcombinationrequirements
analyzed.(AS1418)
Cranemanufacturersprovidetechinformationincludingcranereactions.Need
tocheckloadcombinationsused,windloads,backwardstabilityandload
factorsused.(useEuroCodeorFEM)
CranePhases:
ErectionPhase:installation
InService:wheninuse.Longjiblengthcancauseissuesforinservice
phase,largeoverturningmoment.
OutofService:whentheoperatorstopsforthedayandgoeshome.
Thewindeffectisimportanttotakeintoconsideration.Forhigher
towercranes,thebasemomentoutofserviceismuchgreaterthanthe
momentinservice,basedontheassumptionthecranecanonlyoperate
uptocertainwindspeedsandwhenwindspeedsexceedthisvaluethe
cranemustbecomeoutofservice.
Whenusingacraneontopofabuildingitisverydifficulttodetermineifthe
buildingisstrongenough.
QuaintLoadUnits
Beawareofdifferentunitsinthemanufacturer'stechinformation.
Decanewton(DaN)=10NiscommonlyusedinEurope.
Mast
Attachedtothebaseandgivesthecraneitsheight.mainsupportingtowerof
thecrane,madeofsteeltrusssectionswhichareconnectedtogetherduring
installation.
ClimbingTower
Sectionliftedbythecraneandattachedtogantrybeam.Hydraulicjacksraise
thecranetocreatespaceforanewsectionwhichistheninserted.This
processisrepeatedwhenheightisrequired.
SlewRing
Partofthecranethatletsthebaseofthecranestaystillandthetopmove.
Selferectingtowercraneshavetheslewringatthebottom.
Jib
thepartofthecranethatholdstheload.(workingarm)
CounterJib/CraneSelf
Climb
Usedwhenacraneselfclimbs.Itbalancesthecrane.
Forselfclimbtooccurazeromomentisrequiredattheslewring.
Cantbedoneinwindyconditions.
AccidentInvestigations
boltsoftenfailinthefirstfewthreadsinthenut,theyflyoffwithlittletono
warning.
Needtobecarefulwhenarrangingliftingsetup.
Needtoensuregoodcommunicationbetweencraneoperators.
LegalIssues
Howtoselfclimba
crane
Youcanerectacraneoversomeoneelsesproperty.
YoucannotliftaloadacrosssomeoneelsespropertyasthereisOH&Sand
legalissues.
Keyconcept:Needtointroducezeromomentbyholdingacranesectionatthe
correctradius.Asthereisnotmuchholdingthetopofthecranetothebottom
thiscanbedangerous.
Hydraulicramspushthetopofthecraneup,andanewcranesectionheldina
gantryisslidinbeneaththetop.Hydraulicramsarethencontractedand
climbingcancontinue.
MARINEENGINEERING
Influenceofmarine
environmentoncivil
engdesignand
construction
Concrete(ingeneral)
Corrosiveenvironment,largeloads,unforgiving,catastrophic
consequences.
Needtodesignforsomecorrosiongenerallyassumethatthe
protectivecoatingwillnotlastthelifeofthestructure.
Generallylimitedto4materials:metal,concrete,timber&plastic.
Concretespallingleadstocorrosionofsteel.
Needtodesignforsplashzone,submergedzoneandburiedzone
eachzonehasdifferentproperties.
GeneralRules
Avoidthickconcretesections,useaminimum50MPa,DONT
prestress,useasmallnumberoflargediameterbars
MarineStructuresCode:AS4997specifiesCoatingsandSacrificial
Systemsformarineenvironments
Underwaterconcrete
placement
Hasadesignlifeof50years,howeversometimesitwillonlylastfor10
years.Oldermarinestructurestendtolastlongerthanmodernones
duetouseofhighearlystrengthconcrete,howeverthisformhashigh
levelsofshrinkageandcrackingallowingcorrosionofreo.
Concreteisaspongeandabsorbsmoisture&chlorideions.
Moderncementsaregenerallydevelopedforhighriseapplications.
Needatleast50MPaconcreteinamarineapplication.
Cancoatconcretewithsilanetopreventchlorideioningress.
Avoidprestressedconcreteasitcanfailwithoutwarning.
Requiresintricatecompactionandspecialiseddetailing
Extrastrengtheningwhencorrosionoccursisdonewithcarbonfibres
strips
Underwaterconcreteplacementisachievedusingatremiepipe.Pipeplaced
tothebottomofthepourandconcretepumpedthrough,asconcreteisdenser
thanwaterthewaterisdisplaced.Concreteisoverpumpedtoremovethe
affectedconcreteatthewater/concretejunction.
Underwaterreinforced
concrete(reo
protection)
Keytogoodreinforcedconcretedesignisgoodqualityconcrete(50+
MPa)andplentyofcoverandreinforcement(75mmcover),wantto
preventcracking
Prestressedconcreteisavoidedinthemarineenvironmentasitcan
failwithoutwarning
Stainlesssteelreinforcementgoodstrategy,butveryexpensive
Fiberglassreinforcement(VRod)anextrudedcompositematerial,
lightweight,nosteeleliminatingcorrosion,howeverlargecost
Structuralsteel
protection(coatings,
DensowrapProtectionprovidingflexibilityandcorrosionresistance
HDPESleevesusedtoprotectsteeltubepiles
painttypesetc)
Preferredpiletypes
Poreblockingadmixtures,Zincanodes,StainlessSteelReo
Trilaminatepolyethylene
Epoxypaintedpile
Paint
Stainlesssteel&aluminum(reduceneedforaprotectivecoating)
SteelPile
Asconcretepilesarepronetocrackingwhichleadstocorrosionofthe
reinforcement.Steelpilesaretrilaminateencased,witha20yearlife,
abrasionandcorrosionresistant.
Highmomentcapacity
Durable
Mightrequireadrivingshoetopreventbuckling
Piledepthisdependantondepthofwater,strengthofrockbelow,
hammersizeavailableandpilesize
Whenusingtimberpilesaborerresistanttimbersuchasturpentineis
preferred.
Piledrivingoverwater
(stabilisingthe
platform)
Methodofpiledriving
1. Pitchpile(movethepiletoverticalposition)
2. Vibratepiledownwithahydraulichammer
3. Drivepiletosetwithahydraulichammer
Platformisusuallystabilisedwithawaterballastsystemwherewateris
pumpedbetweentankstokeepthebargelevelandstable.Ajackupbargecan
alsobeusedtoisolatetheplatformfromtidalinfluences,howeverthismethod
requires12daystomovelocations.
Piledrivinginsoftrock
Pilesocketinginhard
rock(canisterdrill)
Dependantonthetypeofrock
KurilpaBridgeexample:
Foundationsrequiredbetweenoperatingfreewayandbikeway
Falseworksystemusedtosupportpilingrig
Requiredpilingwithacanisterdrillduetoveryhighstrengthrock
Methodofpilingwithacanisterdrill:
1. Pilescrewedasmalldistanceintorock
2. Cannisterdrillinsertedthroughhollowcentreofpile
3. Holeisdrilledtorequireddepthandspoilisremoved
4. Tremiepipeinsertedintohole,andpileisfilledwithconcrete.
5. Overflowconcreteatthetopofthepiletoensurethatallcompromised
concreteisremoved.
TensionPiles
Tensioncapacityisbasedonshaftadhesionbetweenthereinforced
concrete&sidewallsofshaft
Classicmooringdolphinwillhaverakedpilesasitissubjecttoboth
inwardandoutwardloadsandthepilesaresubjectedtotensionand
compression.Lotsofimpactabsorptiontechniquesareputinplace
Cannisterdrillingoftenusedtogetthenecessaryembedment/shaft
adhesion.
Whysocketinrock?
MilsonsPointExample
Socketinginrockprovidesadditionallateralcapacity(stopstoefailureofthe
pilethroughtherock)andadditionaltensilecapacitythroughshaftadhesion.
Theprocessinvolvesdrillingaholeinrockandinsertingpileintorock.
Nolandaccess,busywaterway,highwake
Solution:offsitefabrication,completeworkduringthenightorearly
morning
Pilesdrivenintosandstone
Vrodemployedintoppingslabsinlaterwharvesextrudedcomposite
materialwithnosteelcomponentsothatitcannotcorrode.
HDPEsleevesonsteeltubes
Hydraulicplatformnotapontoon
Verticalsupportpiles,bracedbyatriangulatedprefabricatedtruss
BrisbaneSewage
TreatmentPlant
Drycofferdam
Sheetsinstalledwithvibrator,pumpwaterout,excavatesoftsediments,
drivepiles,castconcrete,removesheetpilewalls.
YarraSewerCrossing
Wetcofferdamconstruction(waterisnotpumpedout)wallretains
softmudsotheriverbedcouldbeexcavatedwithoutsoftsediments
immediatelycollapsingintotheexcavation.
IronCoveBridge
GladstoneMaterials
OffloadingFacility
Pilesdrivenintosandstone
Eachpilecapissittingon1012steeltubes,wheresomeofthepiles
wererakedtoprovidehorizontalsupport
Precasttheentireconcretecell,withweldedplatestoattachpilesto
thecell.Verystricttolerancesallowedforandveryhighstrength
concreteused.Onceliftedon,thegapsweresealedupbydiversand
groutpumps
ROROrollonrolloff
LOLOloadonloadoff
PASpotentialacidsulfatesoils,needtobetreatedwithlime
Startedwithdredgingtoallowshipstogetintothefacility(suction
dredge&excavatordredge)
ExcavatedPASsoilsandreplacedwithrocklocatedonbargesin
bundabergthatweretowed180kmtomeetdeadlines
CombiwallusedwithM85tiesontoanchorwall
SPWdrivenfromwaterratherthanlandunusualbutthisallowed
machinerytobeoutofthewaysothatotherworkcouldgoon
Fendersweldeddirectlyontokingpiles,weldingmadedifficultdueto
tidalrange.
ROROdolphinsallsteel,nopaintprotection,6mmcorrosion
allowance,prefabricated.
PrestressedandPostTensionedConcrete
Post tensioned
concrete
General principles:
Key idea is to introduce internal forces to counteract loading. The beam/slab has
tensioned strands positioned in the beam/slab section so as to induce a negative
(hogging) moment. This counteracts the design load, resulting in a small positive
moment with lower compressive stress than would be the case in convectional
reinforced concrete thus resulting in a thinner required depth of slab.
Uses
Highrisebuildings,multistoreycarparks,transportinfrastructure,staycable
bridge,balancedcantileverbridges,incrementallylaunchedbridges,bridgewidening,
LNG/LPGtanks,strengtheningofpipesandreservoirs
During launching the launching nose provides support at the next pier
Tendons are stressed twice, once during launching and once at the final
location.
Partial prestress
Installation sequence
including early
stressing (when) and
Prestressed
Steeltensionedbeforecastingconcrete,individualwires,concretebondswithwire
providinganchoragedevelopment,tensionedcablescutwhenconcretereaches
appropriatestrengthplacingacompressionforceintheelement,usedmainlyinprecast
memberconstruction
PostTensioned
Tensionedaftersettingofconcrete,tendonsinbundles,ductspressuregroutedto
protectagainstcorrosionandbondwiththeconcrete,hydraulicjacksareusedtostress
thetendons
Advantages
Generalruleistoinduceinternalforcestobalanceouttheexternalloadingforces
Improvedserviceloadbehaviour,efficientuseofhighstrengthmaterial,reducedoverall
structuralcost,improvedrecoveryfromoverloadduetocrackcontrol,largerspans
(moreslender),fatigueresistance,improvedstrengthinshearandtorsion,reducedfloor
tofloorheight,deflectioncontrol,earlyformworkstripping,reducedmaterialshandling,
economyincolumnandfootingdesign
Disadvantages
LotsofQualityAssurancerequired,withadditionaloperationforgrouting.Very
expensive,abouthalfthecostofPTislabour(muchmoreintensivethanreinforcement),
howeverthiswillbebalancedoutbytheadvantagesofPTandthedecreasein
reinforcementcosts
Costs
PT:$1000/tonneof12.7mmstrands
Reinforcement:$1800$2000/tonne
MorePTisrequired,butyouaregettingabout3.5timesthestrengthwithPT
BreakevenpointforPTvsRCisabouta7mspan
Economyfactors:Posttensioning,reinforcement,concrete,formwork(mostexpensive
part),speedofconstruction,foundationcosts,faadecosts
Economicaldesignfactors:Partialprestressing,selectionofcolumngrid,formwork
layout,constructionjointdesign,simplicityindetailing,anchoragereinforcement,L/D
ratios,Loadbalancing,terminatetendonswhereverpossible,finiteelementanalysis
Strands
Consistsof67wireswrappedaroundeachother
Usually12.7or15.2diameter
Tendons
Canbesinglestrandormultistrand(upto55strands)
Live(jackingend)
hardware
Stressingblockablockwithholesthroughitthroughwhichthestrandspass.
Thewedgeslockintothisblock
Wedgessmalltubesthatgooverthestrand.Whenthestrandtriestopull
backintotheconcretethewedgesaredrivenintothestressingblockandhold
thestrandintension.
Anchorageguidethesolidpieceofsteelthatiscastintothesideofthe
memberandholdsthestressingblock
Recessformerapieceofplasticthatcreatesaholethattheanchoragesitsin.
Itispulledoutaftercastingandbeforetensioning.Mayalsobeusedtocreate
atopstressingpocketifthesideofthememberisnotaccessible.Therecessis
filledinafterwardsforcorrosionprotection.
Grouttube
Atubeconnectedtotheanchorageforpumpingofgrouttofillduct.
Antiburstreinforcement
Thecompressiveforcesplacedontheconcreteareconcentratedattheanchorageand
maytendtomaketheconcreteexpandoutlaterally(poissonsratio).Ahelicalantiburst
reinforcementiswrappedaroundtheanchoragetopreventthisfromhappening.
Bonded
Lubricatedstrandsinductgroutedaftertensioning(groutedinAustraliaandAsia
accordingtoStandards)
Advantagesofbonding:Higherflexuralcapacity,excellentcrackdistribution,good
corrosionresistance,flexibilityforlatercuttingofpenetrations(fixwithcarbonfibre),
easierdemolitionrequires an additional operation for grouting, more labour
intensive, overall material cost is generally less as you dont need as much normal
reinforcement.
Unbonded
DeadEnd/LiveEnd
Dead:nostressing,onionstobondeffectivelytotheconcreteandtransfertheloadinto
theconcrete
Live:stressingend,ifspanismorethan30myouwillmostlikelyhave2liveends
Generaldesignprocedure
1. Initialsizing:Architecttodictatethecolumnspacing
2. Chooseloadtobalance,usually70%to100%ofdeadload.Iftheliveloadisreally
large,wepatterntheloadingandbalanceoutabout25%ofliveload
3. Performcalculationtodeterminetheprestressingforce
4. Checktheultimatecapacityofthesection,wheretheloadingcodewillgiveyou
thesefactors
5. Checkservicestresses
a. Attransfer:whenwelockoffthestrands,i.e.afterthefirststress.
OnlySW,meaningtoomuchloadwillcracktheslab
b. Atfullserviceload:Nofactorsontheloads,justwhatthestructureis
experiencing.Thegenerallyarelimitstothesestresses
6. Checkshearstrength:eitherbeamshearorpunchingshear
7. Checkdeflections(performiterations)
8. Structuraldetailing:i.e.thinkaboutthePTin3D
Span/DepthRatio
FlatPlate(3kPa):L/D=45,withanendbayat39,simplespan34
FlatSlab(3kPa):L/D=52,withanendbayat46(i.e.1012%thinnerthanflatplate)
BandedSlab(3kPa):L/D=27,withanendbayat23,simplespan20
SlabbetweenbandsL/D=56(52),endbay44(42)(bracketsforbw<25%Ls)
TypesofPTslabs
FlatPlate:excellentforheadheightissues,verycommon,theinternalceiling
generallyfixeddirectlytoconcrete
FlatSlab:Differenttoflatplateasithasdroppanels,highernegativemoment
capacity,providesthesmallestfloortofloordepth.
BandedSlab:Verycommon,bandsprovideexcellentanchoragetofitPT,therefore
theconcreteonlyspansbetweenbeamtobeam,tendtojustpainttheceiling
Specialisedbandedhighriseslab:Spans1220m,dictatedbythearchitect,
requiresintermediateperpendicularbandstotraditionalbands
Flyingformwork
Formworkthatisbuiltinprefabricatedsectionsandliftedoutofthesideofthebuilding
andraisedtothenextlevelafterfinalstressing.
AxialCompression
Lessthan1.4MPatolesstobeabletocontrolcracking
1.4to2.4MPagenerallyacceptedrange
2.4to3.5MPaupperlimitcheckshortening
Above3.5MPaexcessiveshortening
SupportRigidity
Ifthesupportsarerigid,theprestressingforceismovedstraightintothecolumns,not
intothebeamresultinginmassivecracksaroundthecolumn.Thereforethecolumnare
designedtoofferlimitedrestrainttoallowtheslabtoshorteneffectively.
Ifnecessary,isolatetherestrainingelementse.g.theliftshaftwithacorbelorsplit
column
Stressing
Allstrandsarestressedto85%oftheirultimatetensilestress
Initialstressat7MPa(24hours)
Finalstressat22MPa(4to7daysusually)
MovementJoints
PrestressingContractor
GenerallyinSydneyandMelbourne,thePTcontractorwillbeadesignandconstruct.
ConsultingengineerstendnottodetailthePTandwillleaveittobedealtwithonsite,
soitsmoreeconomicalforaPTcompanytoC+Cthemselves.
WhendesigningPT,thecentrelines,highandlowpointsarefixed,withtheductdraped
betweenthese.
Demolition
BondedtendonssimilartoRC,maybedemolishedbyhammeringconcreteoff
slab.Caremustbetakenwithtransferbeamswhichmaydeflectupwardsiftoo
muchloadisremoved.
PTdrawings
Boldtendonsaretypical,othertendonsarelinkedtoparalleltendons.