4.242J / 11.

331J Advanced Seminar in City Form

Measuring City Form (Fall 2010)

Instructor: Andres Sevtsuk

Time and place: Fridays, 1-3 PM in 10-485
Units: 9-12 H-Level Grad.
Prerequisites: 4.241/11.330 or 11.001J / 4.250J or permission of instructor
Course Stellar site: https://stellar.mit.edu/S/course/4/fa10/4.242/index.html
Seminar description
The Advanced Seminar in City Form invites a group of 8-12 students every Friday to
research and discuss themes about the form of cities in an attempt to relate formal
theory and design knowledge. Previous seminars have focused on Memory and
Form, Forms of Interactivity, The Form of Urban Grids, and other topics. This
year the seminar will examine the topic of Measuring City Form.
Measurement of the urban built environment is of interest to multiple fields of study,
including architecture, urban design, planning, transportation research, geography,
and psychology among others. There is little consensus, however, on which
descriptive methods capture the most meaningful qualities of city form. Some
authors have described the study of city form as a blind mans investigation of an
elephant, different parts of which are studied by different blind professionals, with
no coherent understanding of the whole available across disciplines (Song, Knaap
et al. 2005). Even within the field of urban design views on whether and how to
describe city form diverge.
This seminar will investigate a number of qualitative and quantitative techniques
that have been developed to measure and assess the performance of city form as

a host to the activities of its users. A brief history of the geometric analysis of
settlement patterns is followed by a series of seminars on different urban form
measurement techniques. These techniques include graph theory-type measures,
morphological measures, aggregate measures, and qualitative measures of urban
form. Students are invited to investigate and discuss the advantages and
shortcomings of each type of measure, with three students presenting a reading
each week.
A number of hands-on assignments, case studies, and design tasks will challenge
seminar participants to test the application of different measures on real-world
urban settings. A successful completion of the course requires reading course
materials, an active presence and participation in seminar discussions,
presentation of reading materials, and the completion of all five assignments.
Participants can sign up for either 9 or 12 graduate (H) credits, depending on the
level of effort. Students signed up for 12 credits are asked to write a final paper on
a chosen topic addressing the course material at the end of the semester.
References:
Knaap, G.-J., Y. Song, et al. (2005). Seeing the Elephant: Multi-disciplinary
Measures of Urban Sprawl, National Center for Smart Growth Research and
Education.
Calendar
Week Month
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Date Weekday

Class

10
17
24
1
8
15
22
29
5
12
19
26
3
10

Introduction
Historic background
Graph measures A (metric)
Graph measures B (topological)
Aggregate measures (Presentation by Tunney Lee)
Morphological measures
Qualitative measures A: cognitive mapping
Qualitative measures B: observation
Synthesis, introduction of case study
Case-study analysis
Introduction of design exercise
Thanksgiving (no class)
Presentations of design exercises
Final Presentations

Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri
Fri

Week #1
Introduction
Class overview, requirements, and calendar.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #2
Historic background: The UK tradition, the US tradition.
Preparation
Read and prepare to discuss:
Llewellyn Davies, R. (1961) The education of an architect. Inaugural Lecture
1960. London, University College London, (pp. 1-14).
Martin, L. (1972) Grid as Generator. In Urban Space and Structures, Ed.
Martin L., March L., London, Cambridge University Press, (pp. 6-27).
Hillier, B. and J. Hanson (1984). The Social Logic of Space. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press. (Introduction, pp. 1-25)
Alexander, C. (1987). A New theory of urban design. New York, Oxford
University Press, (Introduction, Ch1, Ch2, pp. 1-30)
In class
Discussion of analytical roots of city form measurement.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #3
Graph Measures A (Metric)
Preparation
Complete Assignment # 1: Design under density constraints
Read and prepare to discuss:
Rodrigue, J.-P., C. Comtois, et al. (2006). The geography of transport
systems. Abingdon, Oxon, England ; New York, Routledge. (Read: Graph
Theory: Definition and Properties; Graph Theory: Measures and Indices)
1. http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch1en/meth1en/ch1m2en.html
2. http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch1en/meth1en/ch1m3en.html

Porta, S., E. Strano, et al. (2009). "Street centrality and densities of retail and
services in Bologna,Italy." Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design
36: (pp.450 465).
Tabor, P. (1976). Analyzing Route Patterns. The Architecture of Form. L.
March. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press (pp. 352-378).
In Class
Discussion of metric graph theory measures.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #4
Graph Measures B (topological)
Preparation
Complete Assignment 2: Computing graph-theory indices.
Read and prepare to discuss:
Hillier, B. and J. Hanson (1984). The Social Logic of Space. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.(Ch3, The Analysis of Settlement Layouts, pp.
82-142)
Ratti, C. (2004). "Urban texture and space syntax: some inconsistencies."
Environment and Planning B 31.
Golledge, R. and T. Garling (2003). Cognitive Maps and Urban Travel.
Research paper No. 601. University of California Transportation Center.
Skim:
Sevtsuk, A. (2010). Path and Place: A Study of Urban Geometry and Retail
Activity in Cambridge and Somerville, MA. Department of Urban Studies and
Planning. Cambridge, MIT. PhD. (pp. 65-106)
In Class
Discussion of topological graph theory measures.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #5
Aggregate measures
Preparation
Read and prepare to discuss:
4

Knaap, G.-J., Y. Song, et al. (2005). Seeing the Elephant:Multi-disciplinary

Measures of Urban Sprawl, National Center for Smart Growth Research and
Education. (pp. 1-46)
Forsyth, A., M. Hearst, et al. (2008). "Design and Destinations: Factors
Influencing Walking and Total Physical Activity." Urban Studies 45(9): (pp.
1973-1996).
Campoli, J. and McLean, A. (2002) Visualizing Density. Lincoln Institute of
Land Policy working paper. WP02JC1b (Read pp. 1-13, inspect rest).
In Class
Discussion of aggregate measures of city form. Guest presentation by Prof.
Tunney Lee.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #6
Morphological measures
Preparation
Read and prepare to discuss:
Moudon, A. V. (1986). Built for change: neighborhood architecture in San
Francisco. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press. (chapter 1, 1-24)
Anderson, S., Ed. (1978). Studies toward an Ecological Model of the Urban
Environment. On Streets. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press (pp. 267-306)
Siskna, A. (1998). "City centre blocks and their evolution: A comparative
study of eight American and Australian CBDs." Journal of Urban Design Vol.
3(No. 3) (pp. 253-283).
In Class
Discussion of morphological measures.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #7
Qualitative measures A (cognitive mapping)
Preparation
Read and prepare to discuss:
Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city. Cambridge, MIT Press. (pp.140-172)
5

Golledge, R. R., N. Gale, et al. (1992). "Spatial knowledge acquisition by

children: Route learning and relational distances." Annals of the Association
of American Geographers Vol. 82(No. 2): 223-244.
Banerjee, T. and Southworth, M (Ed.) (1995), City Sense and City Design:
Writings and Projects of Kevin Lynch, Cambridge MA, MIT Press. (A Process
of Community Visual Survey, pp.263-286)
Skim:
Whittemore, A., Warner, S. B., (forthcoming). The Forms of a City: An
Illustrated History. (pp.1-8; pp. 56-75)
In Class
Discussion of cognitive mapping of city form.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #8
Qualitative measures B (observation)
Preparation
Read and prepare to discuss:
Whyte, W. H., (1980). The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces. (pp.10-39).
Gehl, J. (1987). Life between buildings : using public space. New York, Van
Nostrand Reinhold (pp. 129-196).
Jacobs, A. (1985). Chapter 3: Clues. Looking at Cities. Harvard University
Press. (pp. 30-83)
Skim:
Zeisel, J. (1984). Chapter 7: Observing Physical Traces. Inquiry by Design.
Cambridge University Press. (pp.89-110).
DOT (2010) Green Light for Midtown Evaluation Report, New York City.
(pp.1-45)
In Class
Discussion of urban observational techniques. Synthesis of all measures
reviewed.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #9
Synthesis
Preparation
Complete Assignment 3: Five-page discussion paper.
In Class
Introduction of the case study environment.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #10
Case study analysis
Preparation
Assignment 4: Case-study analysis. In groups, analyze the ten-minutewalking-range areas around three Cambridge Squares using measurement
to support your arguments. You can use any of the methods discussed in
the seminar.
In Class
Interim presentations of Assignment 4 analyses.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #11
Design exercise
Preparation
Finish Assignment 4: Case-study analysis.
Students registered for 12 credits are asked to prepare a topic of the final
paper.
In Class
Presentations of Assignment 4 analyses. Introduction of a design exercise.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #12
Thanksgiving, no class.
_______________________________________________________________________

Week #13
Design exercise
Preparation
Assignment 4: Design Challenge (From Description to Prescription).
In groups, design an urban grid that responds to the given brief.
In Class
Interim presentations of Assignment 4 design exercises.
________________________________________________________________________

Week #14
Final presentations
Preparation
Complete Assignment
Prescription).

4:

Design

Challenge

(From

Description

to

In Class
Final presentations of Assignment4 grid-design projects to external
reviewers.
________________________________________________________________________
Final papers due for students registered for 12 credits on Friday, December 17th,
5PM.

Assignment 1: Design under density constraints

Due in class, Fri Sept. 24th

Givens:

building floor area: 12x32 = 384

street area: (17x10)+(6x4)=194
site area: 26x19=494 (NB dont change site proportions)
Rhino model on stellar

Tasks:
1. Develop three different grid typologies by rearranging density and streets, where building
floor area and street area are kept constant as given above. Do not change site proportions.
2. Articulate in a paragraph the advantages and disadvantages of each of the three typologies
you develop. Address in one or two sentences:
ease of circulation
character of streets
open space
building types
capacity for growth & change

You may want to consult The grid as generator (Martin) and The social logic of space
(introduction by Hillier) from todays readings for reference. Produce 1 8.5x11in page per scheme,
illustrating the proposed grid typology with an axonometric image or a shaded plan view.

Assignment 2: Computing graph theory indices

Due in class Friday Oct. 1, 2010.

1. Calculate the following indices for each of the three given networks:

Gamma Index
Redundancy Index
Detour Index
Describe in two sentences for each index 1) what the index measures, and 2) give an
example of what real-world application in describing the built environment the index might
have.

2. Calculate the following indices for each node in the given three graphs:

Closeness
Betweenness
Straightness
Describe in two sentences for each index 1) what the index measures, and 2) give an
example of what real-world application in describing the built environment the index might
have.

The answers should be no more than a page.

10

Assignment 3: Discussion Paper

Due in class Friday Nov. 5, 2010.
Multiple methodologies of measuring city form have been presented and discussed throughout the
seminar. These include metric and topological network measures; aggregate density measures;
morphological measures; cognitive measures; and observational measures. Using the seminar
readings, class presentations, and class discussions as your basis, please address ONE category
of measures from the following list (1-5) in writing. For the one category of measures you choose,
please address the following questions:

What elements of city form are represented and how?

What kinds of phenomena are being measure in those representations and how?
And what are the analyses useful for and who could benefit from their application?
What is missing from the analyses, and what are the hazards in the interpretation of their
output?

1. Graph-theory measures of city form

Base your answers upon the following:
Tabor, P. (1976). Analyzing Route Patterns. The Architecture of Form. L. March. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press (pp. 352-378).
Hillier, B. and J. Hanson (1984). The Social Logic of Space. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press. (Introduction, pp. 1-25)
Porta, S., E. Strano, et al. (2009). "Street centrality and densities of retail and services in
Bologna,Italy." Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 36: (pp.450 465).
Ratti, C. (2004). "Urban texture and space syntax: some inconsistencies." Environment and
Planning B 31.
Sevtsuk, A. (2010). Path and Place: A Study of Urban Geometry and Retail Activity in
Cambridge and Somerville, MA. Department of Urban Studies and Planning. Cambridge,
MIT. PhD. (pp. 65-106)
2. Aggregate measures of city form
Base your answers upon the following:
Knaap, G.-J., Y. Song, et al. (2005). Seeing the Elephant:Multi-disciplinary Measures of
Urban Sprawl, National Center for Smart Growth Research and Education. (pp. 1-46)
Forsyth, A., M. Hearst, et al. (2008). "Design and Destinations: Factors Influencing Walking
and Total Physical Activity." Urban Studies 45(9): (pp. 1973-1996).
Campoli, J. and McLean, A. (2002) Visualizing Density. Lincoln Institute of Land Policy
working paper. WP02JC1b (Read pp. 1-13, inspect rest).
3. Morphological measures of city form
Base your answers upon the following:
Moudon, A. V. (1986). Built for change: neighborhood architecture in San Francisco.
Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press. (chapter 1, 1-24)
Anderson, S., Ed. (1978). Studies toward an Ecological Model of the Urban Environment.
On Streets. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press (pp. 267-306)

11

Siskna, A. (1998). "City centre blocks and their evolution: A comparative study of eight
American and Australian CBDs." Journal of Urban Design Vol. 3(No. 3) (pp. 253-283).
4. Cognitive measures of city form
Base your answers upon the following:
Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city. Cambridge, MIT Press. (pp.140-172)
Golledge, R. and T. Garling (2003). Cognitive Maps and Urban Travel. Research paper No.
601. University of California Transportation Center.
Golledge, R. R., N. Gale, et al. (1992). "Spatial knowledge acquisition by children: Route
learning and relational distances." Annals of the Association of American Geographers Vol.
82(No. 2): 223-244.
Banerjee, T. and Southworth, M (Ed.) (1995), City Sense and City Design: Writings and
Projects of Kevin Lynch, Cambridge MA, MIT Press. (A Process of Community Visual
Survey, pp.263-286)
5. Observational measures of city form
Base your answers upon the following:
Whyte, W. H., (1980). The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces. (pp.10-39).
Zeisel, J. (1984). Chapter 7: Observing Physical Traces. Inquiry by Design. Cambridge
University Press. (pp.89-110).
Jacobs, A. (1985). Chapter 3: Clues. Looking at Cities. Harvard University Press. (pp. 30-83)
Gehl, J. (1987). Life between buildings : using public space. New York, Van Nostrand
Reinhold (pp. 129-196).
DOT (2010) Green Light for Midtown Evaluation Report, New York City. (pp.1-45)
Specifications
5-7pages, double spaced, font-size 12, 1-inch margins.
Please write your answer in essay form, including an introduction, argumentation, conclusion and
references. In answering the question, be sure to discuss the relevant articles, but do not try to
include every paper that we covered or you have otherwise read on the topic. Rather, try to focus on
a few key issues that interest you most. You may also use outside references that were not covered
in class. Keep your arguments simple and clear, relating the theory to relevant examples where
possible. Identify the differences between competing or complementary measures, and clearly state
your own position on the questions they discuss. Your essay will be evaluated based on both the
clarity of your arguments as well as the effectiveness of your writing. All the articles, as well as class
presentations addressing them, are available on the class Stellar site.

12

Assignment 4: Case Study Analysis (Three Cambridge Squares)

Due in class Friday November 12th, 2010.

Having investigated a series of approaches to measuring city form, the next part of the seminar will
explore real-world applications of different measures. Assignment 4 Case Study Analysis asks
you to form three groups based on the types of measures used:
A: Network measures (Closeness, Betweenness etc.):
B: Aggregate measures (building/inhabitation/business density measures, FAR statistics etc.)
C: Qualitative measures (morphological plan analysis; cognitive mapping; observation etc.)
Each group is asked to develop a comparative analysis of three prominent square of Cambridge
Harvard Square; Central Square; and Kendall Square using the corresponding measures of city
form. Group A, looking at network measures, should compare the three square in terms of the
geometry and topology of their street networks and spatial access. Group B should describe the
land-use and urban form characteristics of the areas using aggregate summary statistics, such as
density measures and FAR calculations. Group C should develop a more qualitative morphological
and/or observational analysis of the areas using detailed plan analysis, physical observation or
cognitive mapping. Members of group C might want to select a smaller sub-area of each of the
sites.
We shall cover some of the software and data sources available for all three sites in the workshop
this afternoon in 9-251, 3-5PM.
Each group should summarize their analysis and findings in a PowerPoint slides, presenting it to the
seminar next Friday.
Electronic data describing the three case-study areas is provided in
http://web.mit.edu/asevtsuk/Public/MeasuringCityForm_Assigment4

13

Assignment 5: Design Challenge (From Description to Prescription)

Due in class Friday December 3th, 2010.
Throughout this seminar we have studied city form using various measuring techniques.
Measurement has also helped you uncover and articulate some of the structuring principles of your
case-study sites: Kendall Square, Harvard Square and Central Square in Cambridge. In the last
assignment we shall attempt to take a daring step beyond the description of urban conditions and
investigate how the techniques you have explored in an analytical setting can also become useful
tools for prescription.

Task
City X in a developing country is facing rapid urbanization. The city would like to commission you to
help them structure the foreseeable growth of an area around the intersection of two important
roads on the edge of its metropolitan area (see provided site plan). The officials of city X are highly
interested in achieving a primarily pedestrian community, though vehicular access is also required.
In order to achieve this goal, the city has imposed a growth limit of a 10minute walking radius
(600m) from the central intersection of the two existing roads to the edge of development - no
construction is allowed beyond that limit.
The area is empty of any construction at this point, but the city anticipates the following changes: in
2010 the area will be inhabited by 5,000 squatters who will settle themselves on the site; in 2020 the
population of the area is expected to rise to 20,000; and in 2030 to 30,000, all while maintaining the
rigid 10-minute growth radius from the center. At the same time the average income, car ownership,
and the maximum height of buildings (as limited by construction technology) is expected to increase
accordingly (see given assumptions).
You are asked to design propose a grid that can accommodate the projected growth indicators of
the area. You should therefore not only illustrate the initial structure of the proposed grid in 2010, but
also speculate on how this grid will grow during two decades (2020 and 2030) in correspondence to
the four given indicators: population , income , car ownership, and maximum nr. of floors. (Please
think of the word GRID in a loose sense of its meaning. It may, but does not need to be orthogonal
or regular.)
Your client is asking that your plan particularly achieve the following two qualities:
A. Generate spatial diversity that can desirably support social and economic diversity
B. Articulate the relationship between local and global accessibility. Global accessibility to
neighboring districts and metropolitan amenities is to be achieved primarily via the two
existing roads on the site.
C. Apply the successful urban form / land use lessons learned from your analysis of the three
Cambridge squares (Kendall, Central, Harvard).
D. Demonstrate how your plan achieves your ideas using measurement as evidence.

14

Givens

600m

Orientation: Please assume that the base plan provided is aligned with geographic axes with North
in the top Climate: the site is in a country that has a dry and warm climate.

Presentation material
You are asked to only present three plan drawings (in 1:1000 metric scale - the layout is already
prepared for you on the adjacent tab), each reflecting the state of your plan at ten year intervals,
starting in 2010. Please focus most of your efforts on detailing the initial grid layout of 2010, which
ought to contain the capacity to guide and accommodate the foreseen changes in the latter two
stages. No sections, perspectives or other drawings are required, simply three plans.
On each plan, you should clearly articulate the following elements:
- streets
- blocks
- parcels
- volumetric shadows indicating parcel development heights (see example on the left)
- dimensions of each of these elements
- measurements as evidence to your intended structuring principles of the grid
You can additionally, but do not have to, also indicate landscaping elements, such as tree-cover, on
you plans. Do NOT represent any specific buildings on your plans, rather just indicate development
heights using planimetric 45-degree shadows on the parcels.
Note: The base drawing for your plan is available on the seminar Stellar site, under Week #11.

15