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See 2's! 2 ee See dass » = = CONDENSED AIR POWER DATA INGERSOLL-RAND. AIR COMPRESSORS Air Compressor Group Ingersoll-Rand Company Davidson, NC 28036 ww CONTENTS: An Introduction to Compressors Standards—Definitions—U Compressor Selection . Information Required for ‘The Air Power System Compressed Air Application Tables and Charts. ‘elngersoll-Rand Company 198%, 1983, 1988, 1997 Printed in U.S.A. Page i a =e a nS in a ape as na a o am Seeae Suman an An Introduction to Compressors Caption index Page Purposes of Compression .. 3 “Methods of Compression 4 Compressor Types ..... a Principles of Operation 16 The Reciprocating Compressor 6 The Sliding-Vane Compressor 8 The Liquid-Piston Compressor 10 The Two-Impelier Straight-Lobe Compressor n The Helical- or Spiral-Lobe Compressor B The Dynamic Compressor... 4 The Centritugal Type .. 6 The Axial-Flow Type 7 The 18 The Ejector 18 Purposes of Compression Compression of gas lias one basic goal - . to doliver gas at a pressure rane than that originally existing. “The oviginal pressure level may vary fram Wty’ low absolute pressures itvactions of a micron) to sevens traugand Pounds, “The pressure rise may vary from a few aunces to mary thousand pounds and the voluines handied from a few euble feet por any Ute to hundreds of thousands ‘Compression is undertaken foy a vaviety of purposes: ‘To twansmit powet, as in « compressed ait system for operating pneumatic tools; 2. To provide air for combustion; 3 To transport and distribute yas, as in natural gas pipelines and city yas distribution systems: To cixculate & pas through a provess or a system; ‘To produce conditions move conducive to chemical reaction; and, To produce and maintain yedueed pressue levels for many Purposes, accumplished hy vemaving from a system unwanted Gases either leaking ov flowing into the system ot initially Present. G) INGERSOLL-RAND Methods of Compression Four methods are used to compress gas. Two ate in the intermittent class, and two in the condinuats flow class. (‘These are deseriptive, not thermodynamic or duty classification terms.) ‘These methods ave to’ {Trap eomsecutive quantities of as in sume type of enclosure, Teduce the volume, thus inereasing the pressure, then push the compressed gas out of the enclosure; 2, Teap consecutive «quantities of gas in some type of enclosure, cany it without volume change to the discharge opening, com press the gas by backflow from the discharge system, then push the compressed gas out of the enclosure; 3. Comptess the gas by the mechanical action of rapidly rotating impellers or bladed rotors that impart velocity and pressure to the flowing gas (velocity is further converted into pressure in stationary diffusers or blades); and, 4, Entrain the gas in a high velocity jet of the same or another ‘gas (usually, but not necessarily, steam) and convert the high ‘Velocity of the mixture into pressure in a diffuser. Compressors using methods 1 and 2 are in the intermittent class and ave known as positivedisplacement compressors, Those using method 3 re known as dynamic compressors. Compressors using method 4 are Known as ejectors and normally operate with an intake below atmos: pherie pressure. Compressor Types ‘The principal types of compressors are shown in Fig. LA and are: detined below. Cam, diaphragm, and diffusion pumps or compressors are ot shown beeause of their specialized applications and relatively small ‘Positivedisplacement units are those In which successive volumes of gas are confined within a closed space and elevated to a higher pressure, Reciprocating compressors are positivedisplacement machines in which the compressing and displacing element is a piston having a reciprocating motion within a cylinder: Rotary positivedisplacement compressors are machines in which compression and displacement 1s effected by the positive action of rotating elements. ‘Sliding-vune compressors are rotary positivedisplacement ma: chines in which axial vanes slide radially in a rotor eccentrically mounted in a cylindrical easing. Gas trapped between vanes is com- pressed and displaced ‘Liguid-piston compressors are rotary positivedisplacement_ma nines in which water or other liquid is used as the piston to com press and displace the gas handled, ‘Twojmpetler straightlobe compressors ate rotary positivedis placement machines in which two straight mating lobed impellers frap gas and carry it from intake to discharge. There is no internal ‘compression. Helical: or spivallobo comprossors axe rotary positive-displacement machines in which two intermeshing rotors, each with a helical form, compress and displace the gas. 5 a anata oe = - m a =e Se ee 8 e@ Been anse a a = a AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSORS Dynamic compressors are rotary continuous-flow machines in which the rapidly rotating element accelerates the gas as it passes through the element, converting the velocity head into pressure, partially in the ro. tating element and partially in stationary diffusers or blades. Gontrifugal compressors are dynamic machines in which one or more rotating impellers, usually shrouded on the sides, accelerate the as. Main gas flow is radial Azial compressors are dynamic machines in which gas acceleration 4s obtained by the action of the bladed rotor shrouded on the blade ends. Main gas flow is axial, ' Mizxed-flow compressors are dynamic machines with an impeller form combining some characteristics of both the centrifugal and axial ‘types. COMPRESSORS PosiTive— oISPLAcEMENT cowrinue ecipRocaTING RoTany —ovwamic EvECTOR SLIDING=vane | staaicwr-vose | centairuca, | wixco! rLow LIQUID=PISTON HELICAL-LOBE —_AXIAL~ FLOW Fig. A. Chart of principal compressor types. Bjootors are devices that use a high velocity gas or steam jet to en. ‘train the inflowing gas, then convert the velocity of the mixture to pres: ssure in a diffuser, be (3 INGERSOLL-RAND Principles of Operation Every compressor is made up of one or more basic elements. A single clement, or a group of elements in parallel, comprises a single-stage compressor. ‘Many compression probleme involve conditions beyand the practical capability of a single compression stage. Too great a compression ratio (absolute discharge pressure divided by absolute intake pressure) may ‘cause excessive discharge temperature or other design problems. ‘Te therefore may become necessary to combine elements or groups of ‘elements in series to form a multistage unit, in whieh there will be two or more steps of compression, The gas is frequently cooled between stages {to reduce the temperature and volume entering the following stage. "Note that each stage is an individual basic ecmpressor within itself, It 4s sized to operate in series with one or more additional basic compres: ‘sors and even though they may all operate from one power source, each is stl a separate compressor. ‘The following simplified and introductory outlines show the principles of operation of each principal type of compressor. Certain types are dis- cussed further in later chapters. ‘The Reciprocating Compressor ‘The basic reciprocating compression element is a single eylinder com- pressing on only one side of the piston (singleacting). A unit compress- ing on both sides of the piston (double-acting) consssts of two basic single- acting elements operating in parallel in one casting, ‘The reciprocating compressor uses automatic spring loaded valves that open only when the proper differential pressure exists across the valve. Inlet valves open when the pressure in the cylinder is slightly below the take pressure. Discharge valves open when the pressure in the cylinder {s slightly above the discharge pressure. Fig. LB, diagram A, shows the basic element with the cylinder full of atmospheric air, On the theoretical p¥ diagram (Indicator card), point 2 is, the start of compression. Both valves ate closed. Diagram B shows the compression stroke, the piston having moved to the left, redueing the original volume of air with an accompanying rise in pressure. Valves remain closed. ‘The pV diagram shows compression from point 1 to point 2, and that the pressure inside the cylinder has reached that in the receiver. Diagram C shows the piston completing the delivery stroke. ‘The dis- charge valves opened just beyond polnt 2. Compressed air is flowing out through the discharge valves to the receiver. ‘After the piston reaches point 3, the discharge valves will close leav- ing the clearance space filled with air at discharge pressure. During the ‘expansion stroke, diagram D, both the inlet and discharge valves remain closed and air wapped in the clearance space increases in volume causing a reduction in pressure, This continues, as the pision moves to the right, ntil the cylinder pressure drops below the inlet pressure at point 4. The inlet valves now will open and air will flow into the cylinder until the end fof the reverse stroke at point 1. This is the intake or suction stroke, illustrated by diagram E. At point 1 on the p¥ diagram, the inlet valves will close and the eyele will repeat on the next revolution of the crank. anmea@eoseanea = m= a g z 1 a: ; Ge i. ‘ a: 5 He @ ' : ia 5 pees eases ; é a: Pac ; Ee “STROKE —————>} .. ee oe comes at Ko : i a? : , a 7 a c a ‘ a . jl o : é STR aciprocating compressor cycle. (3 INGERSOLL-RAND In a simple twostage reciprocating compressor, the cylinders are ‘proportioned according to the total compression ratio, the second stage being smaller because the gas, having already been paxtially compressed and cooled, occupies less volume than at the first stage inlet. Looking at he pV diagram (Fig. 1C), the conditions before starting compression are ‘points 1 and § for the first and second stages, respectively; after compres ion, points 2 and 6, and, after delivery, 3 and'7. Expansion ov air trapped Jin the clearance spaces as the pistons reverse brings points 4 and &, and ‘on the intake stroke the cylinders are again filled at points 1 and § and, ‘the eycle is set for repetition. ‘Multiple staging of any positive displacement compressor follows the above pattern, s00l} sol \ 8 °F) Reechnech | _{YOUME REDUCTION OVE TE B | lita | leoocine Between srxeeS! Tk VOLOWE Fig. 1-¢, Combined theoretical indicator co snort YOO pri porverdizplacement compres The Sliding-Vane Compressor ‘The rotary sliding.vane compressor has as Its basic element the cy- indrical casing with its heads and rotor assembly. When running at design pressure, the theoretical Indicator card is identical to the recipr>- ator. ‘There is one difference of importance, however. The reciprocating Unit has spring-loaded valves that open automatically on small pressure differentials between the outside and inside of the cylinder. ‘The discharge valve, therefore, opens as soon as point 2 (Fig. 1B) is reached and the in~ let as soon as point 4 is reached, even though there may be some variaticn im the discharge pressure from time to time. ‘The slidingvane machine, however, has no valves. ‘The times in the eycle when the inlet and discharge open are determined by the location of ports over which the vanes pass (Fig. 1-D).. The inlet porting is normally’ Wide and is designed to admit gas up to the point when the pocket be- 100 pac » 6k Cah ila 0 120 p= OLN TA Pe aa os 1 = = pean n om sa@e aan annuna aun t B AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSORS tween {Wo vanes is tHe largest. It is closed when the following vane of each porket passes the euge Of the inlet port ‘The pocket volume deercases ay the rotor turns and the gas is com pressed. Compression continues until the discharge part is uncovered by the leading vane of each pocket. This point must tx preset or builtin wien the Unit is manufactured. ‘Thus, the compressor «ways compresses the gas to dosign pressure, regavdless of the pressure in the receiver into which It is discharging. ROTOR WITH NON-METALLIC GAS IS GRAQUALLY coMPRESSED SLIDING "VANES. AS POCKETS GET SMALLER, DISCHARGE AS ROTOR TURNS, CAS IS TRAP- COMPRESSED GAS IS PUSHED OUT IN POCKETS FORMED BY VANES. THROUGH DISCHARGE PORT, Fig, 1-D. The steps in compres foro siding lary compressor. This results in a distortion of the pV diagram when the discharge pressure is higher or lower than design, To make this clear, Fig. 15 shows, in a slightly exaggerated form, the operation of the rotary unit respectively with discharge at design pressure (top), discharge above de- sign (center), and discharge below design (bottom).’ These apply to ony rotary unit with fixed ports, interna compression, and no valves Whereas the reciprocator will have a card similar to Fig. 1-B (top) segaidless of discharge pressire changes, the fixed port rotary will re. squire slightly more power at off-design pressures as represented by the ‘small triangle at the end of the compression line ¥ Gj INGERSOLL-RAND For high compression ratlos or greater economy, multiple staging also is necessary here. As with the reciprocating compressor, the second Stage is another basic compressor designed to operate in series with the fink stage with a higher intake pressure and having smaller capacity. ‘The combined indieator card for design pressure would be similar to Fis. 16. a PeSeuaneer t Ss Sesto Pee tune Cesc" onestone vou Bischace PRessune Beste PmeSSURE ‘eed) pertina. The Liquid-Piston Compressor ‘The rotary liquidpiston or liquid-ring compressor uses a rotor with multiple forward turned blades turning about a central cone containing Inlet and discharge ports, the blades driving a captive ring of liguid around the Inside of an elliptical casing. The baste element is the casing, heads, and rotor assembly (Fig. LF). "A certain amcunt of guid is trapped between adjacent blades and as the rotor turns, the liquid face moves in and out of this space due to the casing shape. ‘This creates, in effect, a liguid piston. Porting in the cen- tral cone is bulltir and fixed. ‘There are no valves. ‘Two eccentric sweeps usually are provided to form the elliptical casing. ‘These are opposed diametrically and thus balance out radial thrust loads, For every revolution, two compression cycles are completed in each rotor chamber “There is compression within the pockets or chambers between tne blades before the discharge port is uncovered and the theoretical indicator card witl be similar to Fig. 1 (top). Since the port location must be Gesigned and bull: for @ specific compression ratlo, it will tend to operate as in Fig. DE (eenter and bottom) when the actual discharge pressure Is above or below the design pressure. enpraenue a = ae a oo eaeaee no amo aae i - AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSORS The covling of Hiquid-ring compressors is divect vather than through the walls of a easing. The requited aclditional cooling liquid is fed into the casing where it comes into divect contact with the pas being com: pressed. ‘The excess liquid is dischatyged with the was, ‘The discharged mixture is passed through @ conventional baffle or centiifugal type separator to remove the free liquid. Because of the in- timate contact of gas and liquid, the final discharge temperature can be hheld close to the temperature of the inlet cooling water. However, the discharge gas is saturated at the discharge temperature of the compress ing Lquia, ‘The amount of liquid that may be passed through the compressor is not critical and can be varied to obtain the desired results. The unit can handle saturated vapors, entrained liquid and occasional foreign matter. The unit will not be damaged if a large quantity of liguid inadvertently, or by intent, enters its suction Lubrication is required only in the bearings which are generally located external to the casing. ‘The gas or air being compressed is therefore sil free. ‘The liquid itself acts as a lubricant, sealing medium and coolant for the stuffing boxes. ‘Two-staging is possible by putting two machines in series, 00¥ SoWeMaTIC seerion ay Inver Ako DISCSARGE SECTORS Key, ‘casrinon 800" 8 You comenesaaner Courtesy of Nash Buoineering Company ry compressor. Tho Two-Impeller Staight-Lobe Compressor A twoimpeller straightiobe posiivedieplacement compressor element consists of a casing containing duplcate symmettial soters oy lmpellen Usually having a figure eight cross section, Some have thive tober, "These Antesmesh, are Kept in phase by external timing gears, and rotate in oppo site directions. ‘The tern cyetoida often is used fortis type even theo ‘he ingellevs tas have other than eycleital for at (} INGERSOLL-RAND ‘There is no compression or reduetlon of gas volume during the turning of the rotors, The rotors merely move the gas from the inlet to the dis charge. Compression is by backflow into the casing from the discharge ine at the time the discharge port is uncovered. Displacement of the compressed gas into the cischarge system then takes place. There are no valves, "There is no contact between the impellers or between impellers and ‘casing. Sealing is by close clearances and lubrication is not required with. in the gas chamber. One impeller is driven directly while the other is Griven through phasing gears. Since both impellers do the same amount fof work, the gears handle 50 percent of the total power input. Fig 1-6. The operating cycle of two-impellr se ‘The operation can be visualized from the diagrams of Fig. 1G. Light shading shows gas at inlet pressure, Dark shading shows gas at dis change pressure Diagram A — The chamber of lobe A is full of gas at inlet pressure and further intake will soon stop, Lobe B is delivering gas at discharge pressure ae paa@a sen ae a mee I ana See e ee ueenonnmnun ta se we a ae a. AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSORS Diagram B —~ Lobe A has closed the intake but has not yet passed the edge of the discharge port. Lobe B is stil discharging. Diagram C -~ Lobe A has passed the discharge port permitting dis. charge gas to flow into the chamber, compressing the gas therein. The other side of Love A is starting the intake eycle. Lobe B is still discharg. ing: Diagram D — Lobe A is still discharging on one side and filling its other chamber with intake gas. Lobe B has completed intake for its sec. ‘ond chamber and is about to pass the discharge port Through this cycle, the rotors have turned through approximately 90 degrees. ‘The next 90 degrees completes a similar cycle, Lobe B inter changing with Lobe A. There are four deliveries per revolution. ‘The theoretical indicator card is a rectangle. ‘Some designs can handle a considerable amount of liquid carryover, with the intake gas, others should be protected, ‘These units generally are air cooled, ‘TWwo-staging is available in some cases using two properly sized machines arranged in series. a The Helical- or Spiral-Lobe Compressor ‘This machine is a two-otor positivedisplacement rotary unlt com pressing gas between the intermeshing helical lobes and the Totor charm, bers of the housing. ‘The basic element is the housing with ite enclosed rotor assemblies. ‘The lobes on the two rotors are not identical. ‘The male, or driven, rotor (main rotor) has a form that fits into the pocket of the female, or gate, rotor. About 85 to 90 percent of the power 1s used by the ‘main rotor the gate requiring only 10 to 15 percent of the total power at the most. dawg “7 I RADIAL SECTION LONGITUDINAL SECTION ‘There ate two types, one using timing gears to properly phase the two rotors at all times. This kind requires no lubrication and sealing Is by close clearances. ‘The second type Uses a flood of oll through the ma chine to lubricate and seal and to cool the compressed gas, In thie style, the timing gears may, at times, be omitted, ‘These units have internal compression. The builtin or design com: pression ratio is determined by the location of the opening edges of the Gischarge port and the wrap angle of the lobes. There are no valves, (3) INGERSOLL-RAND ‘The rotors may or may not have the same number of lobes. Usually the main rotor has fewer than the gate and therefore operates at 2 higher speed. Designs vary in the helix angle and in the contour of the lobes. ‘The operation of one design is shown in Fig, LH and 11. Fig. Hf shows two ross sections, illustrating in the radial section the inlet area at one end, ‘The longitudinal section shows the gas flow through the machine. In the Fig. 11, the’shaded portions show the gas being compressed step by step when considering a single gate pocket and the corresponding ‘main pocket during one complete revolution of the main rotor. 1. The gate rotor pocket is fully open and filled with inlet gas. ‘The main rotor pocket is open to inlet, but Is not yet filled its full length, 2. The gate pocket has been closed off and the main rotor pocket 4s filled, but still open to intet 3. The lobes have meshed, the mating pockets join and begin to shorten. 4. The spiral pockets become smaller. The gas is compressed fas it is moved axially toward the discharge end, Throughout this sequence trom 3 through 4 the discharge end cover has sealed the end of the pocket. 5. The discharge has been uncovered and compressed gas dis: charged. ‘While this is happening with one pocket, the other pockets are follow. ing the same cycle. ‘The pV diagram is similar to that of a reciprocating compressor if the actual compression ratio is the same as the design ratio. If the actual compression ratio varies, the unit will over. or under-compress (Fig. LE). ‘The effect on efficiency is small over a rather wide range of compression, ratios. “HeliceHlobe compressors will hanéle reasonable liquid carryover al- though the limits vary with design. ‘Two-steging Is possible by arranging machines (basic elements) in serles, Ootasionally the two stages are in the same casing connected by internal passages. The Dynamic Compressor Compression in any dynamle compressor depends on the transfer of energy from o rotating eet of blades to a gas. The rhtor accomplishes this energy transfer by chenging the momentum and pressure of the gas. ‘The momentum (related to kinetic energy) then is converted into useful pressure energy by slowing the gas down in a stationary diffuser or another set of blades. "The centrifugal designation is used when the gas flow Is radial and the energy transfer is predominently due to @ change in the centrifugal forces acting on the gas. "The axial designation is used when the gas flow is parallel to the com: pressor shaft. Energy transfer is caused by the action of a number of Fows of blades on a Totor, each row followed by a fixed row fastened to the casing. te = aoa oom em oe oe 1 t ee | os Se ne eaeaen eas a B AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSORS A mized:Jinw designation is used when the gas flow is between radial and axial. Although the compressors are constructed differently, the same basic acrodynamle design theory applins to all three. Dynamic compressors require no internal lubrication and can provide cilfree gas, provided the inlet gas itself is oll‘ree. Shaft bearngs are usually external to the casing, thus further limiting possibility of conten. nation. The Centrifugal Type ‘The centrifuge! compressor has an impeller with radial or beckward leaning vanes usually between two shrouds, ‘The gas is forced ‘hrough the impeller by the mechanical action of the rapidly rotating. impelicy vanes, there being 2 component around the shaft forming a vories and @ component through the Impeller. ‘The velocity generated is cowerted () INGERSOLL-RAND Teen vate ate ee ee annows SHOW DRESTON OF AR FLOW J caniifugel comprestor. ig. 1d, Typleal overhung impel sna Multistage centrifugal compressors utilize two or more impellers ar ranged for feries flow each with a radial diffuser and return channel Topecating impellers.” ‘The number of impellers per casing is dependent Sion many factors, but usually eight to ten is the limit. Fig, 1K is @ section of a typical uncooled multistage compressor. a) w a g um om a £ 4 4 ee ee ee ee ee | me = i Ex AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSORS Centrifugal compressors lend themselves to many arrangements, the principal ones being shown in Fig. 12. wucootes comPResson ‘COMPRESSOR with ‘wareR=cooces DiAPHRAcKS coupresson wiry EXTERNAL COOLER compnesson wir siodstono connecrions [TT | 4 Fie. Typleal cetitvgat compra The Axial Flos Type The exialtlow dynamic compressor is shown in Fig. 1M. It is es: sentially a large capacity high speed machine with characteristics euite Gifferent from the centrifugal. Each stage consists of two Fows of blades — one row rotating and the next row stationary. ‘The rotor blades impart Ww G@) INGERSOLL-RAND velocity and pressure to the gas as the rotor turns, the velocity being con weer yebasae in the stationacy blades Frequently about half the Becsoure tive is generated in the rotor blades and half in the stator. The Figure shows a multistage unit. Gas flow is predominantly in an axial Girection, there being no appreciable vortex action. ‘The Mixed Flow Type Intermediate between the above two designs Lies a third, the mixed ‘iow dynamic compressor, which combines design features of each with ‘Rtlatterstics also Tying between the two. This type is not applied as Sharuentiy as the others. Because of the long length required for each stage, tis type is generally not found in multistage designs. The Ejector ‘An ejector consists of a relatively high>pressure motive steam or gas nozzle discharging a highvelocity jet across a suction chamber Into 2 Yenturl staped diffuser, The gas, whose pressure is to be increased, is Gntrained by the jet in the suction chamber. ‘The mixture at this point thas high velocity and is at the pressure of the induced gas. Compression tes lve as lot energy is transtomed Ino pressure inside the aistuser. = ett ini ‘aa. | ee NA diagram of fone within svar [et eectar hang “bjectors are principally used to compress from pressures below atmos: phere {vacaum) to a discharge close to atmospheric. They may, however, involve compression from a ear atmospheric Intake to some higher level in which ease they are known as thermal compressors. See Chapter 10 ‘Aithough the operating principles are identical for both types, the veloc: {ties reached and characteristics developed may be quite different. ‘A oacwum ejector, using steam as motive fluid and inducing alr, is used in Fig, LN to show operating principles. Pressure and velocity Changes are indicated for various sections of the device. Temperature ‘Changes follow the pressure curve closely. Mach 1, where referred to in. 18 sea a ee ee ee | —-— mm om aun mam a a 5 a B a 8 a a a 8 u 8 5 AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSORS the notes, is the velocity of sound in the flowing medium. For this partie. ular example it approximates 1000 ft/sec. The following notes séver Fig. LN. ‘A. Subsonic steam velocity generated to Mach 1 in a converging rozzle as steam pressure drops, B. Stabilization with pressure constant, velocity constant at Mach 1. ©. Supersonic steam velocity raised in diverging nozzle as pres ‘sure drops. D, Since suction chamber is at the lowest pressure in the system the alr flows into the chamber and is entrained in the steams Jet . Supersonic mixture pressure is inereased In converging diffuser tunti velocity drops to Mach. 1 F Stabilization with pressure constant, velocity constant at Bach 1. G. Subsonic mixture pressure is increased in diverging diffuser a8 velocity drops, Fi. 10. Typlct eran Ejectors may be arranged in either parallel or series. When two or ‘more steam ejectors ate placed in series to form a multistage arrange ment, itis usual, if water temperature is sutfiientiy Tow, to interpose & condenser between successive elements to condense the steam used by the Prior jet plus any condensable vapor in the gas being compreseed. ‘Tie byiterlally reduces the steam required for the next stage since the weight ot mixture remaining to be handled is much less. Fig. 10 shows pial arrangements. Both haiometuic and suv‘ace intercondensers may be need, Efectors have no moving pasts, ‘They ean handle liquid carryoves qiithout physical datnage although they should not be exposed to a steady How of liquid 19 a 2 ® -#-t-8-8-8- ewe we wee seam mt ae a 5 5 B @ a a a e 5 g Standards—Definitions—Units caption Index Pag. Book Standards .......... a Dimensions Used... a ‘Standard Conditions a : 2 2 20 Fn 2 Volume (Wet or Dry. 2 Temperature 3 Power ..... 3 Book Standards ‘Thermodynamics is the science that deals with energy and its trans. formations and with certain relationships of substances, It does mot cor cer itself with what happens at the molecular level. ‘The fundamental dimensions used can be limited to mass, foree, length, time, and temper, ature Dimensions Used ‘Mass is a quantity of matter, The international baste unit of mass is a Kilogram of metal located at Sevres, France, Mase and Weight are not identical scientific terms. Weight is the force exerted on a given mast by the attraction of gravity and will, therefore, vary with its distance from the center of the earth. Although one should understand the difference, tls book, being concerned with practical engineering, will not different, ate. A negligible error will be introduced under certain coniitions, Fer example, at 14100So0t altitude and 39° Lat N, the welght (force of gravity) will be 17/100 of 1 pereent less than the international standard at sea level and 45* Lat N. ‘The standard pound force is defined as that force which will acceler ate one pound mass at the rate of 32.1799 ft/sec. ‘The latter figure is the international standard of acceleration due to gravity and is again vari. able with the distance from the earth's center, Engineering practice notes that the varlation is negligible on the earth and 322 ft/sec’ is used at all times. ‘The standards of length, time, and temperature are well-known, Standard Conditions ‘Standard conditions of pressure and temperature to which gas volumes are frequently referred will vary considerably between sections of the world and, to some degree, with the profession or industry involved Within this book, unless specifically noted otherwise, standard pressure ‘and temperature conditions (SPD) are 14.696 poid and 60°F. a FR} INGERSOLL-RAND Definitions ADIABATIC PROCESS (see Process). ABSOLUTE PRESSURE Is the arithmetic sum of gauge and stos hese pressures. Tt must be used in all ealculations involving the atic as laws. ASSOLUTE TEMPERATURE is the temperature of a body referred to the seine zero, at which point the volume of an ideal gas theoretically the aoetero. On the Fahrenheit scale this is minus 4967/7 on the eee ery in-minus 27216°C. Engineering Values of minus 460°F end minus 279°0 are used herein CAPTERCOCLING involves cooling of gas in a heat exchanger follow. sng tne completion of compression to (1) reduce the temperature and (2) to liquity condensable vapors. ME UTTTUDE is the elevation of a comprestar above sea level BAROMETRIC PRESSURE is the absolute atmospheric pressure oxi dng Ethte surface of the earth, I s the welght of a, unit colar of 0 ing at the Sint of measurement. It varies with altitude and, at any given oeation, with moisture content and weather. BASIC SLIP (see Slip) BRAKE HORSE POWER (see Horse Power) BREAKING PRESSURE is that pressure of either the motive {16 or of dre ejector gas discharge which causes an eector to become unsistis. of ine ele these are two aitferent breaking pressures — one of motive fluid and one of ejector discharge. ‘CAPACITY of any compressor Is the quantity of gas actually delivered whe mating between specified inlet and discharge pressures, Per sectchy te measured in Ib/hr, For ali other compressor types, lest fon volume messured at the conditions of pressure, termpe"sor% capac Seaton, and molature content existing at the compressor inet flange. CLEARANCE in a reciprocating compressor cylinder is that volume comand none end of the cylinder which fs not swept by the moversent cotta aon includes space between piston and head at the eng of of ithe pistarion stroke, space under the valves, ete, and is expressed 88 fe cortege of the piston displacement per stroke, Clearance ay, fe a pereenteke he two ends of a doubleacting cylinder, AN averse generally is used. COMPRESSIBILITY 1s that property of a gas of & gas mixture Wat ‘causa, Ito differ in volume from that of a perfect gas when each is ynser causes We te reseure and temperature conditions, Occasionally 1 Is called Goniation. Te rust be experimentally determined. "SOMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR (2) is the ratio of the actual voluge of the gas to the volume determined according to the perfeet Yau'Tuw Ar shown in the charts hereln it is & multiplier of perfect gas volume, SUPER COMPRESSIBILITY is a term used with various meanings, most frequently the same as compressibility, although this is not #8 mos! treiveirrant ASME Power Test Code uses it as a ratio of gat sreities rather than volumes, ‘Therefore it Is 1/2 in this case, Super on sen am mw aa neo Seu spe eunua t - ¥ STANDARDS—DEFINITIONS—UNITS compressibility should never be used unless its meaning is clarified completely. Compressibility 1s much to be preferred and is used herein. COMPRESSION EFFICIENCY is the ratio of the theoretical work requirement (using a stated process) to the actual work required to be Gone on the gas for compression and delivery. Expressed ag a percentage, compression efficiency accounts for leakage and fluid friction losees, and thermodynamic variations from the theoretical process, COMPRESSION RATIO is the ratfo of the absolute discharge to the absolute intake pressure, It usually applies to a single stage ot com. pression, but may be applied to a complete multistage compressor as wel CORROSIVE GAS is one that attacks normal materials of construc tion. Water vapor when mixed with most geses does not make them cor. rosive within the sense of the above definition. In other gases, CO. for example, it makes them corrosive, Note:—The words “corrosive” and "noncorrosive” are of the rela: tive type. They do not define with exactness and there are Gifferences of degree In the application of these terms, Specifications must make clear what is meant by these terms if they are used CRITICAL TEMPERATURE is the highest temperature at which « gas can be liquefied. CRITICAL PRESSURE is the saturation pressure at the critical ter perature. It is the highest vapor pressure that the liquid can exert. Note:—Critieal conditions must be experimentally determined for each pure gas. When calculated for a mixture, they ate called pseudo (pretended) critical conditions. DEADEND PRESSURE is the suction pressure attained by an ejector or positivedisplacement vacuum pump at zero capacity with the suction absolutely blanked off, DEGREES KELVIN (+K) — an absolute temperature scale, See “Units of Measurement,” page 216. DEGREE RANKINE (-R) -- an absolure temperature scale. See “Units of Measurement,” page 26, DEGREE OF SATURATION (See Saturat on) DENSITY Is the weight of a given volume of gas, usually expressed in Ib/ cu ft at SPT conditions, DESIGN (BUILTIN) COMPRFSSION RATIO In a rotary coinpres sor refers to the compression ratio that has been attained when the fixed Gischange port is uncovered. A helicallobe cempressor (and most other rotary units) can have an operating ratio somewhat higher of lower than the design ratio, with little change in efficiency. DEW POINT of a gas is the temperature at which the vapor in a space (at a given pressure) will start to condense (form dew). Dew point of a gas mixture is the temperature at which the highest boiling point constituent will start to condense. DISCHARGE PRESSURE is the total gas pressure (static plus vel- city) at the discharge flange of the comprosser, Velocity pressute usu ally is considered only with dynamic cuipressors 23 (3) INGERSOLL-RAND Note: Prossure may be expressed as gauge or absolute presswes Pale plus altnosphesie pressure equals psiA. Note that Pag docs nol define a pressure unless the barometric pres Sue (atmospheric) is also stated DISCHARGE TEMPERATURE is the temperature existing at the dis: charge flangeot the compressor. "Note: In a imultisteye compressor, the various stages will have bitfeving discharge pressures and temperatures. DISPLACEMENT applies only to positivedisplacement compressors ie isthe ret volume swept by the moving parts in a unit of time, usually ‘one minute. DRY BULB TEMPERATURE Is the ambient gas temperature DRY Gas Is any gas or yas mixture that contains no water vapor and/or in which all of the consituents are substantially above their re seelGie saturated. vapor pressures at the existing temperature, (See Wet Gas), ‘Note. Te commercial compressor work, a gas may be consideved Try teven though it contains water vapor) If Its dew point Wtow at the inlet condition (say minus 0° to minus ovF). DRY UNIT Is one in wich there 1s no Lguid injection and/or tivuld civeutation fer evaporative cooling or sealing. (See Evaporative cocting) ENERGY of substance is its capacity, either latent or apparent, to ‘oxert a force through a distance, that is, to do work: EXTERNAL ENERGY is that energy represented by the product fof pressive and volume. It may be regarded as the energy & sub Stance possesses by vistue of the space it occuples. TNTSRNAL ENERGY is that energy which a substance possesses became of the motion and configuration of its atoms, molesules, and subatome particles. KINETIC ENERGY is the energy a substance possesses by vistue of He notion or velocity. It enters into dynamic and efector cor Srersor eateulations, Dut seldom into positive displacement problems. POTENTIAL ENERGY is the energy a substance possesses be: cause of its elevation above the earth (or above some other chosen datum plane) ENTHALPY (Heat Content) Is the sum of the intemal and exte:nal enevgles. ENTRAINMENT RATIOS are uted with ejectors to convert weight of gas andjor water vapor handled t9 ot from equivalent alr. ‘They are based on extensive tests TENTROZY is a measure of the unavallabillty of energy in a substance EQUIVALENT AIR is an elector term—the caleulated Toyhr of ‘alr at TOY a 4.656 psiA and containing normal atmospheric moisture that BE Zouwatons to, but not necessarily equal to, the weight rate of the gas Handle ‘by the ejector at suction conditions. Entrainment ratios are in- voived. HQUIVALENY GAS is a mixture that is considered to hi ave similar GEE atl SSF Ton Ha a 8 mm ot a moo a oe a msm as meeeenueenmwanhaun a ‘STANDARDS—DEFINITIONS—UNITS properties lo @ pure gas, although these properties must be calculated from the properties of the components. EXTERNAL ENERGY (See Energy) EVAPORATIVE COOLING takes place wien a liquid (usually water) 's Infected into the gas stream before or duving compression. Ae tor pression takes place, the gas temperature rises and some or all of the liquid '$ evaporated, the latent heat of liquid vaporization being temoved rom te gas, lowering its temperature. FIKED COMPRESSION RATIO is the design (bulltin) compression ratio fer a rotary unit having this feature. GAS HORSEPOWER (See Horsepower). GAUGE PRESSURE Is pressure as determined by most instruments and gauges. Barometric pressure must be allowed for to obtain the ince fr absolute pressure. GRAVITY (See Specitic Gravity). HEAT is energy transferred because of a temperature difference, ‘Theve Is no transfer of mass HEAT CAPACITY (See Specific Heat). HORSEPOWER is a unit of work equal to 23,000 footpounds per sninute THEORETICAL HORSEPOWER is the work theoretically xe Gulsed to compress and deliver a given gas quantity in accordance with a specitied process. INDICATED HORSEPOWER fs that obtained by indicator card analysis of compression or expansion in a cylinder of a reciprocating compressor. Tes the same as gas horsepower, GAS HORSEPOWER Is the actusl work required to compress and delivar a given gas quantity, including all thermodynamic, leakage, ‘and “luld ériction losses. Tt does not include mechanical losses BRAKE HORSEPOWER is the total power input required includ ‘ng gus horsepower plus all frletion losses. FEAK HORSEPOWER is the maximum power required by a given compressor when operating at a (1) constant discharge preseure with variable intake pressure or (2) constant intake pressure with variebie discharge pressure HUMIDITY, In normal usage, has to do with moisture (water vapor) Inthe atmosphere, There are two engineering terms involved. RELATIVE HUMIDITY te the ratio of the actual partial vapor pressure in an alrvapor mixture to the saturated vapor pressure, at ‘he existing dry-bulb mixture temperature, usvally expressed in per, cent SPECIFIC HUMIDITY Is the ratio of weight of water vapor in an airvazor mixture to the weight of dry air, It is usually expressed az ound: cf vapor per pound of dry air. AN IDEAL GAS follows the perfect gas laws without deviation, Prac- Uleally, there is ne such thing, but it Is the basis from which calculations are made and corveetions applied INDICATED HORSEPOWER (See Horsepower), G) INGERSOLL-RAND INERT GAS, to a chemist, is one that does not enter Into known chen ical combination, elther with iteelt or another element, There are four mown gases of thls type: helium; neon; argon; and krypton. To the Sgineen however, the term usually means a gas that does not supply any of the needs of combustion. INLET PRESSURE is the total pressure (statle plus velocity) at the inlet flange of the compressor. Velocity pressure Is usually considered nly with dynamic compressors. (See note under Discharge Pressure), INLET TEMPERATURE is the temperature at the Inlet flange of the compressor. ‘Note:_In a multistage compressor, the various stages may have littering inlet temperatures INTERCOOLING involves the cooling of gas between stages of com. pression (1) to reduce the temperature, (2) to reduce to volume to be com. Pressel in the succeeding stage, (3) to lquely condensable vapors, and (4) to save power. INTERNAL ENERGY (See Energy) ISENTROPIC PROCESS (See Process) ISOTHERMAL PROCESS (See Process). KINETIC ENERGY (See Energy). MACH NUMBER. is the ratio of the actual gas velocity at « given point to the velocity of sound in the same gas at the conditlons-existing Et this point. ‘These are known as local conditions. MAXIMUM DISCHARGE PRESSURE, as applied to ejectors, is the maximum absolute static recovery pressure against which the ejector will operate with stability. MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY is the ratio, expressed in percent, of the indicated Horsepower to the actual shaft horsepower (or Steam Indicated Horsepower in an integral steam driven unit) ‘A MOLE is a weight of gas in pounds numerically equal to the mole. cular “weight of the gas of to the pseudo molecular weight of @ gas mixture. MOLAR HEAT CAPACITY or molar specific heat, is the heat in Btu's required to raise the temperature of one mole of gas °F NONCONDENSABLES are those constituents in the suction gas that cannot be condensed to a liquid with the cooling medium available, NONCORROSIVE GAS is one that does not attack normal materials of constructions, See note under "Corrosive Gas.” NORMAL AIR is the term used for average atmospheric alr at sea level Ina temperate zone where it contains some moisture, It is defined tthe ASME Fest Code For Displacement Compressors as being at 14.696 peiA, GBF, 26% RH and weighing QOTS Ibjcu ft, The k value is 1.395 PARTIAL PRESSURE of a constituent in a mixture Is the absolute pressure exerted by that portion of the mixture. PEAK HORSEPOWER (See Horsepower) PERFECT INTERCOOLING is obtained when the gas is cooled to tirst stage inlet temperature following each stage of compression. PERFECT GAS (See Ideal Gas) Tidak «sug nPeg ee = 6007s tea = 12008 annem mraenma ee ame nana =o = Su ena nne ee wo Se Sm mw STANDARDS—DEFINITIONS—UNITS PISTON DISPLACEMENT of a reciprocating compressor cylinder is the net volume displaced by the piston at rated machine speed, generally expressed in cfm. For single.acting cylinders it is the displacement of the compressing end only. For doubleacting cylinders it is the total of both ens, For multistage compressors, the displacement of the first stage only js commonly stated as that of the entire machine. POLYTROPIC PROCESS (See Process) POLYTROPIC HEAD is an expression used for cynamle compressors to denote the foot-pounds of work required per pound o: gas, POTENTIAL ENERGY (See Energy). POWER (See Horsepower) PRECOOLER is a heat exchanger located immediately preceding an ‘lector to condense and remove a portion of the vapor in the mixture and ‘thus reduce the total Ibjhr to be handled. PRESSURE is force per unit area. (See Absolute, Breaking (eJectors), Critical, Dead End (ejectors), Discharge, Gauge, Inlet, Maximum Dis. charge (ejectors), Pseudo Critical, Recovery (ejectors), Reduced, Satu. rated Vapor, Saturation, Suction (ejectors), Vapor). ‘A PROCESS occurs whenever the system undergoes either a change in state or an energy transter at a steady state (See State). A REVERSIBLE PROCESS Is an {deal process that may be stop ped and made to retrace its steps and restore to the system or sur. roundings all work and heat previously removed. It is frictionless. AN IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS is one in which a portion of the original system energy is dissipated and cannot be reluined to the system through its own operation. The system and/or surroundings cannot be returned to thelr original state. ADIABATIC PROCESS Is one during which there is no heat added to or removed from the system, ISENTROPIC PROCESS is one wherein the entropy remains constant. ISOTHERMAL PROCESS {s one in whlch there is no chenge in temperature POLYTROPIC PROCESS is one In which chaiiges in gas character Istics dusing compression are considered. PSEUDO CRITICAL PRESSURE (See Critieal Pressure) PSEUDO CRITICAL TEMPERATURE (See Critical Temperature) PSYCHROMETRY has to do with the properties of alr-water vapor mixtures in the atmosphere, PUMPING s the reversal of flow within a dynamie compressor that takes place when the capacity being handled is reduced to a point where insufficient pressure is being generated to maintain flow, RATIO OF SPECIFIC HEATS Is the ratio of the specific heat at con- stant pressure to the specitic heat constant volume. {t may vary con. siderably with pressure and temperature RECOVERY PRESSURE is that prestute of either motive fluid or dis charge at which an ejector returns to stable operation following a period of unstable operation due to having previously reached the breaking pres- on () INGERSOLL-RAND sure, There ave two recovery pressures, one for motive fluid and one for the discharge pressure. REDUCED PRESSURE is the ratlo of the actual absolute gas pressure to the absolute critical pressure. REDUCED TEMPERATURE is the ratio in absolute units of the actual gas temperature to the eritial temperature RELATIVE HUMIDITY (See Humidity). SATURATION occurs when the vapor is at the dew point or saturation temperature corresponding to ils partial pressure. A gas is never satu rated with a vapor. The space occupied jointly by the gas and vapcr may be saturated, however. DEGREE OF SATURATION Is the ratio of weight of vapor exist ing inva given space to the weight that would be present if the space were saturated at the space temperature. SATURATED AIR-VAPOR MIXTURE is one in which te space occupied by the mixture is saturated with water vapor at the mixture tem perature. SATURATED VAPOR PRESSURE Is the pressure existing at « given temperature in a closed vessel containing a liquid and the vapor trom that liquid after equilibrium conditions have been reached, Tt is dependent only on temperature and must be determined experimentally, SATURATION PRESSURE is another term for Saturated Vapor Pressure. SATURATION TEMPERATURE is the temperature corresponéing to 1 given saturated vapor pressure for a given vapor ‘SLIP is the internal leakage within a rotary compressor. Tt repre- sents gas at least partially compressed but not delivered, It Is experi mentally determined and expressed in CFM to be deducted from the dis placement to obtain capacity. SLIP RPM is the speed required of a rotary compressor to main. tain a given discharge pressure, supplying leakage only (zero actual output), It is an experience factor. SPECIFIC GRAVITY is the ratio of the density of a given gas to the ensity of dry air, both measured at the same specified conditions of ter. perature and pressure, usually 14.696 psiA and 60°F. It should also take Into account any compressibility deviation from a perfect gas. SPECIFIC HEAT (Heat Capacity) Is the rate of change in Enthalpy with temperature. It Is commonly measured at constant pressure oF at Constant volume. ‘The values are different and are known as c, and o, respectively. SPECIFIC HUMIDITY (See Humidity). SPECIFIC VOLUME is the volume of 2 given weight of gas, usually expressed as cu ft/lb at SPT conditions. STANDARD PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE (SPT) in thls book s 14696 psiA and 60°F unless specifically stated otherwise. a aos pat om me mom _ apwss B a a 5 a a a 8 g a a a B a ‘STANDARDS—DEFINITIONS—UNITS STATE of a system (or part thereof! Is its condition at an instant of Lime as described or measured By Its properties SUCTION PRESSURE is the absolute static pressure prevailing at the suction of the efector SUPER COMPRESSIBILITY (See Compressibility) SUPERHEATED AIR-VAPOR MIXTURE is one in which the space occupied by the mixture is above the saturation temperature at the mise luve temperature. SURGE (See Pumping). TEMPERATURE is the property of a substance that gauges the poten: tial or driving force for the flow of hest. (See also Inlet, Discharee Critial, Reduced, and Absolute Temperature, Degrees Kelvin, Desrece Rankine), ‘THEORETICAL HORSEPOWER (See Horsepower). A THERMAL COMPRESSOR is an ejector sed to comprees waste or cextiaust steam or any other gas through a moderate range af compression above atmospheric pressure, VAPOR PRESSURE is the pressure exerted by a vapor confined with: in a given space. ‘The vapor may be the sole occupant of the space, ov ray be associated with other gases, VOLUMES (See Specific Volume). VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY {s the ratio in percent of the actual de. livered capacity (measured at inlet temperature, pressure and gas com. position) to the piston displacement WET BULB TEMPERATURE {s used in psychrometry and is the tem perature recorded by a thermometer whose bulb has been covered with & wetted wick and whirled on a sling psychrometer. Taken with the dry. bulb, it permits determination of the relative humidity of the atmosphere WET GAS Is any gas or gas mixture in which one or more of the constituents is at its saturated vapor pressure. The constituent at satu ration pressure may or may not be water vapor. A WET HELICAL-LOBE UNIT is one which (1) handles a small con. stant flow of liquid with the gas; (2) utilizes evaporative (injection) cooling; or (G) circulates a liquid for sealing and/or cooling. The last may or may not be evaporative cooling, WORK is energy in transition and is defined in units of Force times Distance. Work cannot be done unless there is movement. ‘The Units of Measurement The wer of compression egulpmant Is Inerested primey In the quonty of ges hone ied between the iol ond final presure ond temereture tandions ond fn the poor reavited. “He may specty the conditions to be matin vorees term end uns, the a ‘ianer mast hnew positively whot the buyer expects the comprerier le de and whet roeiic — Mature raining im ecoratd oi of ed Toethermally to he presures shown fer vapor welght entering the system per 1000 cu {) Sy seading left on Fig. 27 from the juncture of the final pressure ai Peal temperature, obtain the maximum weight of vapor which this samy Sooo ca ft can hold efter compression and cooling to saturation. If thy 2000 fase than the former, the aiference will be condensed. If tf fatter is higher, there will be no condensation. It is clearly evident tha the lower the temperature and the greater the pressure of compressed al the greater will be the amount of vapor condensed. Problems Caused by Water in Compressed Alt 7 ‘Few plant operators need to be told of the problems caused by watd| | in compressed sir. ‘They are most apparent to those who operate prey Fhe ols, roe drills, automatic pneumatic powered machinery, pair | tain the initial wat 5s = eae np negeneneewpneoazaa geen 2 ‘THE AIR POWER SYSTEM ed other sprays, sandblasting equipment, and pneumatic controls, How: BE almoet all upplieations, paticdarly of 10opsG power, could benefit ffom the elisination of weter carry-over. The principal problems minht fecummeried as 3. Wathing away of required tublcaton; 2. Increase in wear and maintenance; 5, Slagyish and inconsistent operation of automatic valves and eylinders: 4. Malfunetioning and high maintenance of control inst-uments; 5. Spollage of product by spotting in paint ané other types of spraying: 6, Rurting of parts that have been sandblasted 1. Freezing in exposed lines during cold weather: and, 8. Forther condensation and possible freezing of moisture in the exhaust of thore more efficent tools which expand the ai cor Sterably. in connection withthe last item, in some rok drills there fs «70° drop in temperature from inlet to exhaust, Most portable pneumatic tcols have egnelderabiy lower temperature drop, but the above problem semetimes casts. ‘The increas use of control systems and automatic machinery has made theo probleme more serious and he sparred activity toward thelr reduction ‘hos boon pointed out earlior thatthe amoune of moetare entering the cunpreoeor io widely vanable, depending upon ambient tamperature and rel- ‘tive humidity: The probleme are usualy the worat when Both tempersture {SU humidity are high and euch data ahobld be used when evaluating any ‘nediee, Pipeline freesing probleme are, ofcourse, prevelent only in the win | termontha. | USA tact to remember is that water vapor as vapor does no herm in a | poeumalle system. Tris only when the vepor condenses and remains in Ihe aystem as liguld that probleme exist. ‘The goal, therefore, Is t0 con dense and remove sufficient vapor to eliminate the formation of liquid in the compressed air syste. "Two major approsches toward a solution are presented here, each wal proven, Comments on addtionsl equipment for rather spec cases are appended U1 The Basic System 1M Jvostage mts il aays ice an intecoler betneen stages. 24 on argoatl un for 10d te Saat tevin thea beeen sagt Oo ee eae a ual oy cet ood pectin Pret ua nade ee sm Steed sree eed on larger units wil usally cel st deny Ss ee ectsrae elie Ut roder preoete,Draaagt | facilities must always be provided and used. Automatic traps are the best | a fl s a xl 10°F dp = 990 tr 00 12 pd = #801 862 KC Gj INGERSOLL-RAND ‘Tae air compressor plant shoulkl awayy include-a water-cooled after cooler folgwed by a veetucr. "here ave few exceptions to this rule, ah | | ‘Que to local conditions or a special use of the air ‘Attercoclers alone, vr aftercoolers following intercooters, will under | { normal summer conditions condense at 100 psiG up to 10 pereent or moe of the vapor entering the system. ‘This Is a substantial portion, some often being collected in the reeelver. ‘Therefore, both cooler and receiver must | [ be Kept drained. Inevitably, more water will condense in the distribution lines If the air cools further, ‘This must also be temoved if the problems outlined above are to be reduced. ‘To remove this water I 41. Take all feeders off the top of mains and branches; I 2, Slope mains and branches toward a dead end; 3. Drain all low points and dead ends through a water leg using automatic twaps to insure drainage; and, 4, Incorporate strainers and lubricators in the piping to all tools Fig. 27D ilustrates the system, ‘Temperature of compressed air leaving an aftercooler and receiver wilt largely depend upon the temperature and quantity of the water used In the cooter. Unfortunately, when atmospheric temperature and humidity | fare highest and condensation In the cooler Is most needed, the water ter perature is usually also high. Results are not always all that could be esized. ‘This system was used by most industries prior to the 1960's. If applied ‘and operated with understanding and care, will give reasonable results} However, since the air-vapor mixture leaving the receiver is at, or very near the saturation point, and since the mixture usually cools further in thy system, condensation in lines must be expected and its elimination pro vided for. The Dried Air System ‘This system involves processing the compressed air beyond the after cooler and recelver to further reduce moisture content. This require Special equipment, a higher first cost and a higher operating cost. These costs must be balanced against the gains obtained. ‘They may show up a Jess weer and maintenance of tools and alroperated devices, greater re] Mabllty of devices and controls, and grester production through fewer out ‘ages for repairs. In many cases reduction or elimination of product spoit age or a better product quallty may result. Many automobile plants an} Gtying air with the high priority objective of improving car finish by better paint spraying ‘The epee of crying desived will vary with the pneumatic equipmen} and application involved, ‘The aim Is to eliminate further condensatioy fn the line and tool, Prevailing atmospheric conditions also have a snfluence In many 100psIG installations, a dew point at line pressure of {1 50°F to 35°F is felt to be adeyuate Occasional equipment may find lowe Gew points of value even down to minus S0"F, In such cases this may obtained, at higher cost, of course. t epi = Wap M3681. INC a Ses ne naa munnrnannean 2e a 2 Ba ‘THE AIR POWER SYSTEM ‘Terminology involves drier outlet dew point at the line pressure. This Js the saturation temperature of the remaining moisture. Tf the compressed sir temperature is never reduced below this dew point at any point beyond the drying equipment, there will be no further condensation. ‘Another value sometimes involved when the air pressure is reduced before it is used is the dew point at that lower pressure condition, ‘A major example is the use of 100psiG (or higher) air reduced to 25 psi. for use in pneumatic Instruments and controls. This dew point will be Tower because the volume involved increases as the pressure is lowered. ‘The dew point at atmospheric pressure is often used as a reference point for measurement of drying effect. This is of little interest when handling compressed alr. «8 russumtaine £ SSS SOS 2 t : ee 5 at. Dew poi Fig. 217-L enables one to determine dew point at the reduced pressure casily. The left scale shows the dew point at the elevated pressure; in the iMlustrated ease the air-vapor mixture has been cooled to 95°F. Drop from the intersection of this value and the elevated pressure line to the reduced pres- tre line and then back to the left and read the dew point at the reduced pressure. (In the example, 6°F). If the dew point at atmospheric pressure is of Interest, drop straight down rather than turning left and read directly (in the ‘minus 7'F). Some instrument makers like to have the air supply 2 to minus 10°F dew point at stmogpherio pressure. Other data are ‘used by some in the industry who arrive at lower valles for the final reeule in the above example. a (3) INGERSOLL-RAND Fig. 27M shows graphically the amount of moisture remaining in the ‘vapor form when the alt-vapor mixture is conditioned to a certain dew ‘Pome Nove particularty that this curve is based on a volume of 1000 cu ft BF alrwapor mixture ct ite total pressure. For example, 1000 cu ft at 100 OsiG ale at 50°F oF 1200 cu ft of 15 psiG air at 50°F will hold the same eat the cew point. Xowever, 1000 eu ft at 100 psiG and 50°F reduces TOES psiG will become 3860 cu ft at 50°F, so is capable of holding 3.86 times es much vapor and the dew point will not be reached until the mix ture temperature Is lowered materially. 2 } General Drying Methods ‘There are three general methods of drying alr — chemical drying adsorbing, and refrigerating, In all cases, aftercooling and adequate con Gensate removal must be done ahead of this equipment. ‘The initial ané ‘Operating costs and the results obtained vary considerably. “Those methods are primarily for water vapor removal. | Removal of] lubricating olf 1s secondary, although all systems wil! reduce ita carry over Tr must be understoed that complete elimination of lubricating oil, partic ary in the vapor form, is very difficult and that, when absolutely oll‘ret HEY fequited, some form of nonlubrieated compressor is the best guar anteed method. a ae zoe oaeoeensenmenenw eran a naw Typical Compressed Air Applications ‘The applications of compressed alr are so diverse that any attempt to completely cataiog them is impossible. Usage in many cases is dependent only upon the ingenuity of the user in solving hls particular problem. The list following, arranged largely by industry, covers many of the more {general applications. Some vacuum applications have been included but Chapter 20 should be referred to for more complete coverage, It is hoped that some item may be found useful by the reader in his own area of in ‘terest. Les tat SLT nace ranean ene) ae EAA en. it ta BENE hacer a geryaces — RESEDBARE ce vpood Malate: Track Maintenance lating cleaning solutions ging ise Ming engi, ad.cars leaning parte wife deff frie tea snow for sising Gena itt uae Fender serlgnebaine Aigrot Desloprest Prltng ee \Gpereting. wind tunnels BADD valves ng ‘Tetlng components Operating faces 1 ana noite Qherating iruek'rods Tervice to : ieee Pea, ‘Riveter aera aE ealeplane Matutacture) gperating Sass Beetle isteaies Sperating rocker taay yh, 20 olfo Serge snaps” °" FeSIatere stnablasting fi ae aereeee = Ferner te fant Maintenance: ‘Bisae Batneenatee 6 (J INGERSOLL-RAND Clay end Por Padus lion Cones SSPE Eas ang ener atins esr anh i ae Bete ow fen Concrate Contvetion il a ‘R&B corning) rating, pocumatic tole Seebchng cement ‘e is Raines ‘ caees econ out ae sn 8 ee REP en a ee! Rd Breeton | nent Menta ge SEILER rm ts pment Bier amen eae Can peer ee lectric Power Pl ‘ ze Blowing viet for cleaning aiter erection Se tagae neo. pentr ae es Se easter col Balter EE breakers eae emia Me ay EEFBASGE venue AEuPLATAAEC ESR Se te are rete Enomaling Plante “Sentestng SHEE aes Seabed ate : Sine i abot Funan long fering ct tease earn by Péething and : ISAC SSE corms & SE ramaritin : arts iota ae He atraght rotary dri BRU basi arvere aw oe®ue nena ene nnn a a u a 8 feed Indies (General Applications) Glows Plots ‘AENUSiyeeny 188 fet menting tanks Sealy sain tin ea Sane ies Sone = i sedis ‘ind pesticides Bee Be AE aa ore Eee EE error BIRR hfstatenanse hares eee GED SEP seanenng sear ‘latches, brake, and clamps SAME ch tae, retin a ee es Se Eps Feritre Fectaries “ee Woocworning Plante er Transmssion and Dist ALP das musing plan ae Ale Moa A augers) Kote Saife Phoumate contro) Shae Fpl conection Grin ond Fi a ararideeartw SESE ST vor See ad hang pene fee care EAB AR ane | oe RE Ban et eee salon Met Working Piants Bisa Waintenance Speak Pedttes RRGing Hap by ict Highways ond Steet Se ecco ue Fates coven ofa prema St arm ANEles epee hs an nat HEN GES an iyperosirie oxygenation Hy ea SEE EOE ne ae AEE SIRE aage omens Indesit - Mi Peptseetlse Siteeat cot Ene a vaniiding Se foes Gpersting Sallny peesoe 65 G) INGERSOLL-RAND SES Re anaing dove Seale Guckee ee etree, SRE pups Se wlso Plant Maintenance Leundey ond Cleaning Plants ‘leaning curs ‘Bparatlae'thict oa clothing presses Saylacesniag nad metho Set ond nd cg ‘ae doe EG ae te ener SEE et coe Co of re formation elite ergata Stunt anoucring ships a tig rat SBN ar one Satin ig machines and presses ‘Festing castings 66 a os EEN earn) eee = ox ij eerinuen BRR aMie ue SES Fook des ae Ene cre ‘Operating root-boltings wrenches ‘Monument end Cat Stone lens GRSEINE Reus eateme 01 Retin eae ening oes Goer feats eeu GT ek we meme ae ee ee eas a Bane we aeaoeeeepne aenuen ‘TYPICAL COMPRESSED AIR APPLICATIONS ae ome Soe hindlin eo ment at sea es eae Sen also nt aintenance or ria re ae au ee =, Exe natkthenss at ec fen oa See algo Plant Maintenar ating eu HRCA IS anusotc eee. — RE earn Boa Bante Fen Melntenence Sei ate ai it cqutking hammers ‘gungulastin Sevie "rat ‘or vepaicing SSMS time Pantie Processing eat rua a Gist a free fe ‘extrusion iio guns or vas BRM gees, Seaveyit aang ee oe a ate gene Sep artes ae healing harness Bot G) INGERSOLL-RAND Auber Fores Tenneson caning molds ad machinery ‘Aetating,gvite satin? Sth SERIF AA fine ce mm SAUER yay vacuum ana fakag ae tee " Se Maiog Bee rang sccumustr Tier bine ttn mts ot BED atte i ning EE ioe SE Mau Sept ne ttt ane Trck Malneanee Teac Ping eee ttn shpyert ESE, eerie Zio sewage Spr Be ‘eeaaes ee eration ‘also Plant Maintenance so Plant Malntenance si Wet ontng barrelled “AlsJon farang welt ow Seaeaed SA APRESS equine on SAB ot rake ety aie gag as BEES moron a fee Boe Ese BES WEaterne srtemtenne Sales 3 othe pasueatle oois ting ‘rivet forges en Bs nt sr ‘Sugar Refineries Ee 2 Pe ane Jae Sulphur Mining “Rio Roteweteraottion mining The Agitation of Liquids in Tonks Use of compressed alr for the agitation of liquids and slurries in tanks hag advantages in many applications. Agitation of mill and slurries are examples. One of the principal advantages is the simplicity of the instal Jation in the tank containing the liquid, Unfortunately, there is no exact knowledge as to how much ait is re quired to develop a desired degree of agitation. Experimental work on the part of the customer is required because of differences in the gravity and consistency of materials being agitated, the degree of agitation required) the tank depth, ard the area to be covered. ‘Two general methods may be used. ‘The first is to install a very low lift inductor either in the center or at one end of the tank. This lifts the Jiguid and any contained solids from the bottom to the top and Keeps ther 68 2 a = aus BPE os Peewee ae we naa e8 aee ® ve Tables and Charts Compressibllity Chart for Alt. Temperature-Entropy Chart for Air ........ Steol Pipe Data; Cast-tron Forged St Weight of Water in Air. Weight of Dry Al aerate Conversion Charts (English and Metric Compressibility and Temperature-Entropy Charts for Air Compressbility—Page 70 Temperature—Entropy-—Page 71 ibility is shown as a multiplying factor to be applied to perfect: specific condition in order to obtain actual volume, ‘Temperature-entropy diagrams are included to permit determination of the gas temperature at the completion of adiabatic (isentropic) compression for any compression stage. Note that ture and pressure and movi by using perfect gas laws, ‘This discharge temperature is nee ‘entering the chart at « specific inlet horizontally to the discharge pressure, is discharge temperature. This frequently variea from values obtained ded to determine compressibility from the other chart at discharge conditions, a factor which enters into many cor. pressor calculations, 63 (3 INGERSOLL-RAND Hz wo1ovs Asmieiss3udnoo 70 Ban Bn ae enue ease ae 2 seam w TABLES AND CHARTS ‘ewenarunt *e ‘prrnoryerurie 1 2 Gj INGERSOLL-RAND BRReR SELECTED FROM ANSI B-36.10—1975 ‘STANDARD SEAMLESS CARBON STEEL PIPE FOR INDUSTRIAL GAS AND AIR oe ee | ving spars cacy “es { TABLES AND CHARTS St6\—oL'9-a ISNV WOus GaLO713S N_GNY S¥D TWIASNGNI UO Said T3HIS NOSUVD SSAIAVES ONOUIS wana ————__ ra v9 = _ un 3 a = Seu npeaee# eenwneenuaaeemeaeaes G) INGERSOLL-RAND EL 7 Ta wr Me . °F o : or ee we weet ot 2.059 = 051 = S6r8 # eT = yg x oN 5 Ll coat a. a. je | = ay az ee 5 # Fa ae ae z i > a oer oO a oor we ost 2 a a ’ 4 : é . i . i (S061 —Z9v-8 ISN) os sseI9—sH0g puF sia ‘seBUELY UOIPASED Jo soyoU) UI suOtsUOIG same nue ee an kk eRe ee ee eee 8 GJINGERSOLL-RAND ‘Types of Forged Steel Flanges Dimensions in above drawings refer to columns in tables on pages 78 to 84, f Face is raised 1/16 inch on 150 and 300 Ib. flanges and ¥%4" on 400 to] © 2500 Ib. flanges. ie ee | =e eee eeneageneene en os FORGED STEEL FLANGE PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE RATINGS ‘ASA STANDARD B16.5 TABLES AND CHARTS oli pipe ond welding fining, fusciion cd 8165 ioe reminded tht The, Maxnam allowable nen shock forged flange’ pressure ratings do not vary fro industry 1g GASKETS shal eaform te Parogroph 24 of B14. (6) RANGES ‘ed within the suradon of fhe tempetue limos ose by te indy, 0 single set of vatinge howng been abled by the maces ean Pressues shown herein ave those prescribed by ANSI PRESSURES may be interpolated for intmdits temperate. (8 TEMPERATURES use n determining te Flings ere the tamperaures onthe inside of the ny specie ade wil, of coune, be subec to "cade en the partculor rata! inves Gite Sea Gate, (Shee ‘aly ond Sereda he tos ingaStin Settee ‘sith Gge! or ne PRIWARY SERVICE FRESE RATING (| to | iiyoosranc sia Test meseune ie i iso] 0 | w]e] v0 aed ce es SESE Se ee ee wg] #8) te] Fee] | BASE eS 3 | 3) | ae | ae |e] #288 2/8 as | 35 | i250 125 | Aare 32) elie | Be |e 33] 12/1] 8] 2B mas (650 Mae! ASTI Sexton 1, ‘Ge ae Mausun, Non Shak Seve rere Bul OIG) gs) elegy | ae] as $2) HB) g | mae lag #2) fe )g | us|) ae 35/08/88 188] Be 8S wy ae) ge) ee) | we aae ae @ | ig) ) ee) er else | ig) 8) 88) a5) Be) ee SiS) 28) $8) 28a ear eee BY iS) ge] $8, e/g Be [iB] ) Ps) ‘Ne Hye con he ee wits ar he wads howe lange ade wes dal form les] Sequiyei eurenens poe beans ASTM AASaed no he see Heese Ercears to] “C= 0iseny pt aes = Are Courtey of Grane Co. 7 aeemne ees (3) INGERSOLL-RAND “abet eas SON SUNINESSNSL/SUNES SS ‘sid oes (euop u suojURU mes SpMpUR Op) FeND UUme 8 SNOTSNMOO We a | ae se FO TOT os SBONVH THUS G9¥04 81 OSL VS 8 eB TABLES AND CHARTS a JUS 1 wowoseiuey ssNOUVoIAIORES “Lobe oe "-Sowlivy) 3UnLVEEAMSLUIISSauS ‘Loft 906 (smUop U suoRUOW Moxs pimp ele Smt Mo Os ERS TEER] ESTE Te Ea[ Ee ee] "S| Lae galt | PHS : se | gel are [z se | HE 2: * : re |e eel ee z 1/8 ‘ Se mee BS ePeRaKR RH eee eee f 79 G3 INGERSOLL-RAND ee sax [ex |, SHONVH T3315 30U04 81 OOF Sv 80 t= ser rte pe oxy voy ff Soad es SONNY auUVEaarELaunssaus ‘S918 pes Ish a pu SoLy uowEHDeC WLsy cr OHNO eae) SNOLIVEERO SES {Br obed os so6Uey Oe tm amu Os Vane s feet }ete Frit fir sae x TABLES AND CHARTS £ I i | o |e 288 85 os Le ee | re] & 81 1 Gj INGERSOLL-RAND 2.6 ee oe oe eS ‘uzabet oes -sonuive SuMivussanal/SLeSaid ai 9600 avs se8vN 00ST am RINE Oe ic NN _ as eon (eioepy suosiauip make pape else} UES SNONGNA 4) DO! BPN OU OF BUCO, We a r ye Me 1 ul nl mae |ees deroysing he pergizeds oq teow ~[ea| sax | Fe 1 SJONVId THIS GIOUOI G1 006 vSV 82 TABLES AND CHARTS {S218 paves isny ol pu Soy vost saare-suieca Se eae jean Eevioo ais ai Sea WB ape eenunuee se eeasaana (3) INGERSOLL-RAND o “eed 25s :SONUYY SERLYERNEL SUES “so1gnmpumc ny of soi-y uoneaoeds sy ow} sobUels “SNOLVOLORAS ‘ax ota es (eu 4 sunevewp mays spepus eae) SPU WMO 8 GNOISNANG 28; Pose. SPN OU OP BEONILAD, a | a B [a | ts a PL da |e ‘ oe = ae *Y 2 = e |aele i a [% |" : = Bye we : x we | RE | St | od a teers im ae % z fe le fo Te % i we wt Ke a - “ Yat nt us % * *L a aS % 01 ee 1 i rid rH 10 "2010 ‘ona [erento | fa SHONVH TERS G3OUOd 1 00ST VSV at 7] Be enw Be 1 eB a a TABLUS AND CHARTS Pressure Losses in Ale Piping Importent Notes to Tables on the Following Pages ‘All pressure drops are approximate, ‘The date given isbased on the fow of airin clean straight standard weight pipe, Flow is turbulent and non-pulsating. An absolute roughness of 0,006:6 {thas boen used, ‘The tables are calculated for 100 foot lengths of pipe. ‘Tabulated pressure losses per 100 ft cover the approximate range from 0.1 psi to 10 percent of initial pressure (psia). Values are carried one decimal point beyond probable accuracy requirements to bring out differences ‘To estimate losses for flows or pressures not tabulated, modify the nearest tabulated flow as follows. 4.0 vaties inversely as absolute pressure. ‘AP varies directly as the flow squared (approximately), Industrial piping systems often include so many fittings, such tees, and elbows, that pressure lo logs in the straight pipe. The table on page these losses by relating them to lent pressure loge, Ths ‘The equivalent lengths of all fittings is to be added to the length of the ‘tralght pipe itself and the pressure loss figured from the total. This must ret ‘exceed 10 percent of the line pressure in psiA for use of these data, Pressure losses properly estimated using these data should be conserva- tive and allow for some future fouling. Be Sure to Read Notes on Page 85 LENGTH OF STRAIGHT PIPE IN FEET HAVING THE SAME PRESSURE LOSS AS THE TABULATED FITTING a GJ INGERSOLLRAND 5 ia a a a a a u a 7 a eas ay a bas § a é i t { t t { = OOMOU AI = 99 = Ute may = Fd «eco HP «pgp TABLES AND CHARTS 88 ©Beq uo So10N peoy 0} ains og AHSIVELS 4O 1934 001 HOVa Yos SaNNOd NI ss01 aunssaud SBeeeee eee eeeoavuseeweoeevsaeaan PRESSURE LOSS IN POUNDS FOR EACH 100 FEET OF STRAIGHT PIPE Be Sure to Read Notes on Page 85 G) INGERSOLL-RAND ee ee ee ee TABLES AND CHARTS SO MEX = 909 OO aN GH = EEO He = yg =| x 2 jt =| ise wh® = = S| enthes Siz 35! j BaM z £8 oBed uo soion peow 01 o1ng ag Bata AMOWaLS 40 1934001 HOVE WOH SENTIOU MI SSO1 aunssaud BESS eS BSB BP ERB ST OB HBB BBB Bea Gj INGERSOLL-RAND B BREE G08 S88) fe G8) 888 98 OBed uo S910N Pedy OF o1ns a8 did AHDIVELS 4O 1334 001 HOVa HOs SGNNOM NI SsO1 TUNSSzud Seem Ne = LY U te te arn ECO «ee o anngines TABLES AND CHARTS $8 962d uo Soion peoy 0} aing a9 TBA MMonals 40 taal oot toova Nos SuNnOe MH S01 aunseaas eee ae S2eese ue epeepeeenspeepnue een ee Be Sure to Read Notes on Page 85 PRESSURE LOSS IN POUNDS FOR EACH 100 FEET OF STRAIGHT PIPE () INGERSOLL-RAND ine Preore— SIG e agR sane 898 32 bE ae 8 a eT —-. Be N= 98-9 ote AG = GED nd I = ZR = pe | i | ” “ anos al OT g g é 8 | 2 z ‘4 . a rateos 5 a 58 Be wo SeI0N peDH Or aing oa ta sHoIWais 40 a8 001 HOVE Hos SONMOd NY SSO1 punssaue ar 8 : 7 eee a T -_ mm Sees e2 BRP enmwaneeueeaeeee Gj) INGERSOLL-RAND e882 8888 SEER S982 a bE $9 968g uo So}on peoy 0} auns og AHOIVELS 4 1344 OO HOVE Hos SGNNOd NI SSOT FUNssIud od ae Be Sure to Read Notes on Page 85 Suenp mp uemanaen an an PRESSURE LOSS IN POUNDS FOR EACH 100 FEET OF STRAIGHT PIPE aEea nau TABLES AND CHARTS 2 BE HE i i i i G3 INGERSOLL-RAND DISCHARGE OF AIR THROUGH AN ORIFICE {In cubie feet of fee alr por miniite at standard atmospherle pressure of 24:7 Ib per sq. in, absolute and 70°F. v5 Tat wa 1308 ise id 17a 2001 ies iis 4630 as sss 53 Lo hai 1 brew of ein ta I 5 Upsveam temperalurein "abe Yolues utd in ccledating above table ware: © = 1D, = gouge prenure + 147 iba/sa. Tym S30 oon Weights (W) were converted to volumes wing deny Facer of 007474 tan/ex fh Thine | o corre or ry 0 142 ou erin aah premure ond TOE Formule conse! be ued where py lus hon twa tine the dower pretre TABLES AND CHARTS WEIGHT OF WATER IN A CUBIC FOOT OF AIR AT VARIOUS a TEMPERATURES AND PERCENTAGES OF SATURATION 1 | = | Based on atmospheric pressure of 14.7 Ibs. abs. (101.33 kPa abs) a o | al | una i j a | j a | j . i i a i j 5 ! i a i : a 1| i ‘| i; : a wore tym = 17080 ‘ a re a : a a 8 o GJINGERSOLL-RAND WEIGHT OF DRY AIR AT VARIOUS PRESSURES AND TEMPERATURES AT SEA LEVEL =o a seep eepunnwnnwpaemanes eae t Bs ‘TABLES AND CHARTS CONVERSION FACTORS pe cee nese a Msi wi alan by poner ctor below toh Te Te) |] = |e Le le Fra 1 [een [oor | — | 0 | es | oes | Kise @] 1 [eam [poorer eso | Fine sls Tf [ee [areas Ite a | Freenaner | 0.9m | o.com | ore |_— |_| 1] eo | — Fever [sa [san [am [|e [or |__| eer Ftieeser | ——] aan [ieee | ae | — | — [tee ft Claws = 001 miner) oe ‘May ae ae by eope ator bow [ee [ee | — fp — Lee — Tatoo a Te ale a isa | ee | Thee = p= pea pat ee Matsa enn by roze for bow wag See eee ee i ee fone [| — [er | — [oom | — fp — Feteor [pant | bom | ana | econ [mae | ai _| eam Kays | omase_| oP Tf fares | reas [eo | tee [rex neer | igen | a5a1 | 1368] Noman] 1 waa | aw Finer |. | ass | —— [oon | acne [1 | oan | ono (us. saien| mat [one |— | ansae| — [are | | eer ‘sais! | ama | oss | — | aswr | — | ase | an [ot 99 GJINGERSOLLRAND , CONVERSION FACTORS a cc ad - | a ws | me ' a0 |e ee [ome] I ——[ae_| [rao | ea [ea | — Lapeer Tega [aa tay Tanieee [T= Pa a [ ef ee] it 1 il | if Une Oey Sl ni i ore ee tees lt Meum | Weck |W | ven | ome] | Tee fae ty Tolan = ae ca [Teendint ——| ese [ra] i Tpevecen [aca —] “ea | 7 Tne [cessor uly ntl elon by rope tr blow at reegecs mage | arg eggueed | 0 aden | thy event a Teco 1) | ees | o.nrea | a7 | een | 237 Tosa Tom | 1 | nome | — | vasa | caren] 0 oe wophee_ | Wee | Flee | ors | Tams | 760 | aa | samo So CF Taiteescegeer | oom [amas | ran) — 11] 9.0 | 0 our ct 1 I . Tech area CC XY eww [ees Pee Pam feos [arm pare] t |] npaeaw es as pe ameaeguan 7] amme ] TABLES AND CHARTS CONVERSION FACTORS Mtly uns nok cot by proper factor below vaoteneroy [Tee [ew | eat | sue | war | row Teapend 7 | eeoraas [ome 1se6 | —— | — a waa] 3 | ae] ssf — | Tea ‘ose [ oom [1] aves | —— | [eae orares, | oatomeee | oso [7 | — TKiowatraw | Besso00] aaa | sono | rao [1 | 1380 Thosepowerhow | 1980000} ass | emneo0 | aeeesoo [over [1 ait ets i et carn by rope ator Deon H SS oat re Tea 7 32390 oat Tesora 688 7 178 | Tent 2s oo 7 ae iy is eon by sop aor blow ime tener) TST wan |b [Bui] Bi [fn nonin cee mech Temsone TT |e] eat [aes | sso [33.000 18.2 [ae [Tse = a Cd EE [ritowae Tao | ae | [es one [Tare | ease | a0 [30 Teeowaen | — | — Lo | 1] [er [re | eaos [oon Tocnicke [eae [TE [Ons | F] Hes Palit T cio in We clue ete aw barefeet G) INGERSOLL-RAND ‘TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CHART Colsius—Fahrenheit NOTE: os chu ol ante beet pnt in ae ai ‘rqmes Cust cogren Fevenbox bu sear willbe Toone be cola ont 102 a2 a Seen epee Se we ena e me @ ‘TABLES AND CHARTS TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CHART Colsius—Fahrenheit OTE: Th caviar elunn of arr in tele rao ha ampere in cern, et Colo rtatige ou eve spew tte conn eis sateen en ‘ieee Cis o dagen Forno swe i be oon tween he ah Bs 7 36.4 7 M4 a 37 * 150 2 a2 ” ise @ 0.0 va we 14 a wie 48 5 167, a tase 83 Me 2 a usa “non we ‘ 2 ie ao Centnnd on xt 103 = (3 INGERSOLL-RAND me TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CHART ee Celsius—Fahrenheit ' Nore: The centr column of numer in ollace ret ta he tamper i depres einer Clive oy) may alo be used for converting Cleaso” Favrartit grees int he other sales | ye mal Verier 5 , coe ee ne cormacane ren Sorta |B one on one : ent o2 036 crs) oy oa os ° il on oe on Degree Kein, = °C + 273.2 oe os 0°90 2 1 on oe 108 Degrees Fob FE + 4O)—40. fh on oF xe : 7 oe oe ae abc ts oo os Va gots L Degrees Reine, *B = °F 4397 104 TABLES AND CHARTS General Conversion Factors \icates preterred St system units To convert fom Te Multiply by acres square feat (te) 48560 ‘ 008.9 0.408 69 23.560, ‘fasest Seubie meters (") 288 ‘ars (ban) Tors 25 Centimeters of mercury emg) at 32°F (oc) 180 fect of wator(tH0) at 68°F (20°) $5.95 Inches of mercury at 32°F (0°) pase Kilagramsforce per square centimeter (item) 10sa2 llograms-force per square meter (itn 10332 101395 ounde-foree por square Inch latin} (ps) 74.696 fons-orce (shor) er square foot (oni) 7.0881 tere (tor) (= mimlg at °C) 760 dares US, gallons US) a5. Tiguic) Seubie meters (m2) o.it824 barrels i) gallons of of (US) a Seubie meters (ri) O58 99 bee atmospheres (aim) (standard) 0.988 92 feet of water (tH,0 at 60°F (20°C) 3852 Inches of mercury (inHg) at O° 2383 kilograms-orce per square centimeter (atm) 10197 kilograms-torce per square mater (kgtin®) 10/197 “rilopascals(kP2) 100 pounde-force per square inch (Ibn (psi) 14.508 {or (tor) (= mtg at OC}, 750.08 Torsepower Bris thermal unite par hour (Stu) (ene ote) 33479 srilowates (kW) 88035 pounds of water evaporated per hour at ‘IPF (100%) 345 British thermal calories (cal) 2520 ‘nits (Btu) (see foot-pounds (tb) 7re2 rote) horsepower Rours(hp-h) 0.000 393, 4 05s 0.060 283 0282 kllogremforce-meters(kg!-m) 1078 105 (@ INGERSOLL-RAND General Conversion Factors (Continued) “india red S1 system units To conver trom To ‘Muti by cubic yards (V@) __cuble centimeters (em) 764 650 ‘cube feet (2) a {bie nenes (9, 48.656 ouble meters (mr?) 764 55 166.17 20197 78.85 ‘agrees angular grade (gon) tan Fadians (rac) O17 489 ogr00s por fagians per second (rads) 0.017 453, “second Fevolutions per minute (rin) o.t68 87 {engutae) Fevalutions per second (7s) 0.002 7778 Gogroes Tlomperature) __(s9e temperature—page 117) Grams—wvor grains (gr) 27.344 Sorams: vine ounces (22) o.0s2 5 apne nawions (N) ‘0.00007 “Joules (9), 0.000000 foot @ eters (-) js288 Toot) centimeters (em) 30.480 Inches (in) 12 ‘meters (rm) 0.304 20 yards 03) 03033, oct of wator atmosphere (standard) (et) 002845 (tO) at °F bars oa) 0.029 84 Inches of mercury at °C (inHg) Oat Milograms-torce per square centimeter kate 0.030 42 silopascals (kPa) 2384 pounde-force per square inch (Ibtfin®) ‘3 0.4328 pounds-force per square foot (ott!) 6282 inet per minute centimeters per second (ers) 0.5080 ‘tiny ‘slometers por hour (kmh) 0.018 29 ‘meters per minute (mimi) 01304 60, moters per second (mis) 0.005 08 miles per hour (mph). 0.01736 teat per second cantimeters per second (enis) 30480 (tus) 4.087 1829 03304 80 miles per hour (mph) Oeate eeeanreRnnnaa eaunu a eee aes a TABLES AND CHARTS I Conversion Factors (Continued) indicates preferred SI system units To convert fram To Multiply by ieet per secona ‘second squared (emis) 90.480 ‘squared (Us) ‘meters per Second squared (m/s) 0308 80 Toot-pounds-torce British thermal units (Bt) eee note) 0.001 285 iat) calories, 0325 8 hnorsepower hours (hp-h) (9.309 g00 505 0 ‘Joutes () $3588 Kllocafories (kcal 01300 3238 Kelogram-‘orce meters (kof) 138 25 Ielowatt hours (xW:n) 01300 O00 s76 6 Toot candie “lumen per square meter (lux) T0768 ‘gallons (US) Gal) guble contimetora (em) Sabie meters (we) cubic neha (7) ubie test) euble yards (ye Sims “hala Evers hatid Gallons—Imperal (imp gal) Sites (), pounds of water at 60°F ‘gallons (Imparish _cuble centimeters (em*) cubic meters (rm) cuble feet (8), ‘uble yercs (yo) Gallons (US) par -cuble meters per second (mii) °0.c00 088 080 minute (U.S. teuble meters per minute (m/min) 0.c03 785 & pm). ‘cube meters per hour (mn) ozzrt cubic second (ts) 0.c02 228 fubie feet per nour (eh) Bear “iters per Second (Us) 0.063 08 rains (@F) “grams (@) 0.0888 cunces-—avoie (02) 0.002 2887 ‘ing per gallon grams per cubic meter (gin) 17118 (US) (70S. Tkilograms per cuble meter (kg/m) aorrtie al) parte per milion by weightin water (ppm) 17.118 aunds per milion gallons 1429 Grains per galon grams per cube meer gm) 1425 “impen Selograms per oubie meter (koi) 0.014 25 ei 1425 109 (3 INGERSOLL-RAND General Conversion Factors (Continued) ‘indicates prefered St aystom unite To cone fom Te [Moti by aan orans on sa Sonees oi (on deine Sounders (0) O.a02 2046 Srameiee t) _“vewion 2008 8966 aems.erca per “ewions par mater (Wn) wer erinete _ounceorce per nce (tin {303600 igen rans pe cobie—“klograms par cubie maw Glan) oom pours per cose neh (ie 35 13 Sounds per cobs fos (a eer “rams pariter grains por US. gallon gr a) Bar ‘ou Bare per milion (pom by mess weight in waige +000 pounds per eve fot st) 068 242 7 Bounds per 000 US galons ase haces (ha) acre Bae Fauare fet) ioras9 Rime meters (nt 18000, iorsepower ha) Brtah terra uniter inate (ee roa) ‘cuiniy Be fostpounds fo Stoo ‘eotpounds fore 0 figctores aor minute icin ‘9 wats ovss7 oa sors8 eat ner Forsepowsroler ils thermal unis par hor (oe ‘eum sse7e siowate (a 32085 Bounds of water evapocted per hour meet aus hhorsepowa’ hours Brilsh thermal units (Bio) (ph) feotpounds-torce (bt) rlawattnoure (V-h) inches (in) centimeters (em) 2580 meters (m) 0.328 40 “ilimeters (mm) 2.40 110 lh Sens enw ens nw anaes wneenoennmenee a Gener ‘TABLES AND CHARTS “Indicates preferred 8! system unite Conversion Factors (Continued) —__ aay To conver from inches of mercury (ini) ator inches of water (inkio) at 6 joules ‘a in) “kllograms (ka) lograms‘orce sot) logramstoree per meter fegtim) 8 Centimeter Gegilem klograms-force er square milimster teatime To Maltpy by ‘atmospheres (standard) (atm) 0089 «2 bars tbat) 8.033 864 fet of water (8.0) at 63" 138 Inches of water (nt,0) at °F 1382 kelograms‘orce per square centimeter (rater) 9.994 582 klogreia-torce per square mater (xgtim') Sis 33 “idlopascats (xPa). 3.386 ¢ imilimoters of mercury (mmig) 2540 Pounds-force per square foot{ibttt) 70.78 Pounds-force per square inch (bin) (psi) 431 2 ‘atmoge 0.008 458 bars (bar) 0.002 467, Inches of mercury (in 7s 2 kilograms-force per square centimetar (eaters) o.002 595, villopascals (kPa) 02487 ounees-orce per square inch (oxtine) OST 0 Pounds-foree per square foot (ott) Stag ounds-tores per square inc (Iain ol) 0.088 08 Brith thermal units (see note) 0.000 s48 4 {tlories (cl) (tnermocharsical) 02390 foot-pounds-torce (1b) 0.737 5 watenoure (W-n) 2.000 277 78 (seo tomperatire—page 177) pounds (1b) 2.2046 fons (ton) short 0.001 to20 “newtons (N) ea0e6 Pounds-force (bt) 2.2066 “newions per meter (Nim) 9.8066 ounds-force per foot bt) ogre stmogpheres(etandarg) (atm) 0.967 8 bars (bar 0.380 66 {ost of water (tH,0) at 6e°F 8287 Inches of mereury (nig) at °C 28.96, “kilopascals (kPa) 3.066 oundsforce per square foot oti) 208, Pounds-force per square neh (ibn (psi) 14.223 {ilograms-force per square meter (giim) 1 000 000 “*megapascals (MPa) 3.8066 ———— eee m1 G3 INGERSOLL-RAND General Conversion Factors (Continued) rod St system units To convert trom To Multiply by “lometers (km) 32808 a2 87 Ielometers per canilmeters per second (emis) 2778 Tour (ema) Teeter second (ts) ostrs feet per minuto (Min) 3808 International knots (kn) 0.539 96 imetere per minute (mvmin) ‘eser meters per secona (mis) 0277 78 miles per hour (mph) O21 & ilometers ps per second squared (emis!) 27.778 Tour par Secona md squared (Us ost. Ges) ‘econd squared (rst) 0.27778 islometers per miles per minute (mmin) are second (kms) elopascals kPa) dynes per aquare centimeter (dylem™) 10000, fot of water (0) at 68"F 03351 Inches of mercury (Hg) at 32°F 0.2958 Inches of water (nH¥O) at 68°F 402 bllogrems-faree por square centimeter egilom) oo10 197 pagcals (Pa) (or newtons per square meter (Nim 1 000 dune force per equare inch (btin!) (ps)_0 1450 ‘aloponds “nowton (N) ‘3807 wlogramatorce (at 4 oundstoree (I) 22046 Fosse 1002 205, ips (7000 bt) -nawton (N) 4488 Klogramforce (kat) asae poundstoree (ib), 1000. Poundal a2374 ‘iopone e536 ‘eps per equare _“wllopascal 30088 Teh 3 kllograms-force per square centim (item) 70307 bers (bar) 65.04 pounds per square Inch (psi 1.600 elowatts (iW) Brilieh thermal units per minute (Btu/min, 56.92 footpounde-foree per minute (t-Ibtimia) 44 254 Toot pounds-foree per second (ibs) 797.6 horsepower (hp) $341 0 Rigeatorie per minute (kealimin) 1438 ug ae ee ee |) = oo om om i om m eee ews Bmomeweuanman ma wm TABLES AND CHARTS General Conversion Factors (Continued) indicates preferred SI system unite To conver from To Multiply by ‘lowatt hours British thermal unis (tu) (eee note) 9479. ewe Toot pounds ores (Tot) 2.655 000 horsepower hours (hp-n) 1341 0 “Toutes (J) ‘3800 000 Klocalores (koa!) 80 kelogram force meters (kgt-m) 367 100 ints (inter “meters par second (mis) Osree ational miles per nour (mph) 13516 iters ‘cubic centimeters (em?) + 000 ube Fost () 0.035 315 ubie Inches (int Bi.028 bie meters () 8.001 ubie yard (ye) 0.003 a08 gallons US. (US. gat) 254 18 Gallons Imperial (emp gal) 0.2200 {uble fect per socona (8) 0.000 588 5 “liters per second (Us) org 67 gallons (US) per second (US. gals) 0.008 408 Gallons (US) per minute (US. galmin) O24 18 Gallons (imperial) per min imp gallmin) 0,009 686 “ters por second cuble metere por second (mile) ‘0.00% (a) {cubic meters per minute (m/min) 0.06 cubic meters per hour (min), 3.800 Titers per minute (Uimin) 60 gallons (U'S}) per minute (US. galmin) 18.85. Gallons (impanal) per minute {imp gal) 13.20, Smegapascals __Nlograme-‘orce per square millimeter (ire) (eatin) 101 97 kilograms-force per square centimeter eaten 10.197 *hllopaseale (KP) 1600" “pascal (Pa) +1000 000 Pounds-torce persquare inch (otin}) (ps) 1450, meters (m) feat 32808 inches (ny Beare yards (ya) 11085 8 “meters por centimeters per second (emi) 18667 minute (win) feet per minute (timin) 32808 fest per second (3). 0.056 68 0.060 0 0.087 26 us (J INGERSOLL-RAND General Conversion Factors (Continued) “Indicates preterted SI system units To conver rom To Multiply by Smeters per feet per minute (Wm) 1868 ‘econd (mis) feet per second (Ws) 3201 Klomater er nou enim) 3.600 meters per minute (amin) S.0600 miles per hour (mph) 2257 miles per minute (rin) 37 28 Tmicremeters “rotors (mp (0.000 003 Worry ‘nicrons) ‘ills (008 “milimeter (mm) 0254 inetes) miles feet) 3280 ‘lometers (rm) ‘6093 ‘meters (7) 16083 yards Oo) 1780 iiles per hour centimeters per second (emis) 4470 mph) {eet per minute (tUmin) a feat per second (tvs) 4.4867 International knts (ke) 0.865 0 “ellometers per haut (ah) 418033 “meters per minute (mimin) 2682 ‘illigrame perliter pars par milion (ppm) 10 (mot) Srilimetere (mm) inches (in) 0.088 370 were of bars (ban) ‘0.00% 9932 ‘mercury ao" feet of water at 65°F 2.004 680 (mma) Ine 9.038 37 inch ) 01536 16 kilograms 0.00% 3595 "pascal (P i332 pounds oars 3368 iui angular adine a) 0.000 280 8 newiona (N) dynes (ayn) 00000) ‘llograms-force (kat) 101 97 poundals 72330 Pounds-torce (lo) ozze ua on eB a. - a =m Bea seu ewpnagaenaenu eee =a 8 ‘TABLES AND CHARTS General Conversion Factors (Continued) “Indicates preferred St system units To conver (rom Ta ouneesavor (on) drams-evair (a) garsigy eras (0) ~Sograma (kg) pouneavor fb) {one to feng ones) metic ton ‘unces—US. fluid cuble inches (na) Sites (0) ‘cunces‘force per gramstorce per equare centimeter ‘suare inch (aitor, (extn “pascal (Pa) ounds-Torce per square inch oti (psi) bars per milion grains par US. gallon a 60% (grU.S. gal) by rass (ppm) grains per Imperial gallon at G2*F (arvimp gal grams per cuble moter (gim®) at 15°C pounds pot milion U.S gallons at 60°F Cr ao J me a fllograms-orce per square meter (kg/m") ‘hlopaccals (kPa). ‘newions per square meter (Nim) ppounds-foree per square inch (thin) (psi) poise entpaises (CP) ‘paedal second (Pas) /oundorc-seconas per square fot n (ib sift?) a pounds per fact second (t's) poundas “newions(N) (Joules per mater) Pounds tores (bt) kllograme-oree (xa!) newtons oundsavoir (Ib) drame-avolr (3H) grains (9h Sram (a)

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