*

Lecture notes

ME 36 ELECTRICAL DRIVES AND CONTROLS

3 0 0 100

OBJECTIVE
To understand the basic concepts of different types of electrical machines and their
performance.
To study the different methods of starting D.C motors and induction motors.
To study the conventional and solid-state drives.
1. INTRODUCTION

Basic Elements Types of Electric Drives factors influencing the choice of electrical drives
cooling
curves Loading conditions and classes of duty Selection of power rating for drive
heating and
motorsto
with
regard
thermal overloading and Load variation factors
2. DRIVE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Mechanical characteristics Speed-Torque characteristics of various types of load and drive

Braking
motors of Electrical motors DC motors: Shunt, series and compound - single phase and
three phase
induction
motors.
3. STARTING METHODS

Types of D.C Motor starters Typical control circuits for shunt and series motors Three phase
squirrel
cage and slip ring induction motors.
4. CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF D.C. DRIVES 10
Speed control of DC series and shunt motors Armature and field control, Ward-Leonard control
Using
rectifiers and DC choppers applications.
systemcontrolled
5. CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF A.C. DRIVES 10
Speed control of three phase induction motor Voltage control, voltage / frequency control,
recovery
scheme Using inverters and AC voltage regulators applications.
slip power
TOTAL : 45
TEXT BOOKS
1. VEDAM SUBRAHMANIAM, Electric Drives (concepts and applications), Tata McGrawHill, 2001
2. NAGRATH.I.J. & KOTHARI.D.P, Electrical Machines, Tata McGraw-Hill, 1998
REFERENCES
1. PILLAI.S.K A first course on Electric drives, Wiley Eastern Limited, 1998
2. M.D.SINGH, K.B.KHANCHANDANI, Power Electronics, Tata McGraw-Hill, 1998
H.Partab, Art and Science and Utilisation of electrical energy, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, 1994

Lecture notes

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL DRIVES
Drives are employed for systems that require motion control e.g.
robots, pumps, machine tools, etc. Prime movers are required in drive
sources: di esel engines, petrol engines, hydraulic motors, electric motors etc.
transportation
fans,and energy that is used to provide the
movement orsystem,
motion
systems to provide the
various
motion that
can
Drives
use come
electric from
motors as the prime movers are known as electrical
There are severa l advantages of electrical drives:
drives a. Flexi ble control characteristic This is particularly true when power
converters are employed where the dynamic and steady state characteristics
electronic
can be controlled by controlling the applied voltage or current.
of the motor
b. Available in wide range of speed, torque and power
c. High efficiency, lower noi se, low maintenance requirements and cleaner
d. Electric energy is easy to be transported.
operation
A typical conventional electric drive system for variable speed
application
employing
machine system
is shownmultiin Figure 1. The system is obviously bul ky,
expensive,
inflexible
and
require regular
maintenance.
In the past, induction and synchronous
machines
wereapplica
used for
constant speed
tions this was mainly because of the unavailabili ty
of
variable frequency
supply.

W ith the advancement of power electronics, microprocessors and

digital
typical
electric electronics,
drive systems
nowadays are becoming more compact, efficient,
cheaper
and in
versatile
The voltage and current applied to the motor can
this is shown
Figure 2.
be
at will
by changed
employing
power electronic converters. AC motor is no longer
only AC source is available, however, it can also be used when the power
limited to application
where
source
or
vice available
versa
is DC

Lecture notes

Electric drives is multi-disciplinary field. Various research areas can be subdividedasfrom

electric
drives
shown
in Figure 3.

COM PONENTS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES

electrical
mode,
Thethe
Motors
main
toflow
mechanical
obtain
components
of power
- therefore
ofisfr
areversed.
modern
om can
electrical
electrical
Depending
be regarded
sources.
drupon
iveasare
energy
thethe
They
type
motors,
ofconvert
control
converters.
power
power
a)
energy
converters
unit
Motors
processor,
and
Infrom
braking
electrical source. These are briefly discussed bel ow

Lecture notes

used, it is also possible for the power to be fed back to the sources rather
than
dissipated
as
heat
There are several types of motors used in electric drives
choice
type used cost, environmental factors and also the
depends
on of
applications,
type of sources
available..
Broadly, they can be classified as either DC or AC
motors they
can be
classified
as either
DC or AC motors:
DC motors (wound or permanent magnet)
AC motors
Induction motors squirrel cage, wound rotor
Synchronous motor s wound field, permanent magnet
Brushless DC motor requir e power electronic converters
Stepper motors requir e power electronic conver ters
Synchronous reluctance motors or switched reluctance motor
requireconverters
power
electronic
b) Power processor or power modulator
Since the electrical sour ces are normally uncontrollable, it is therefore
be able necessar
to controlythe
to flow of power to the motor this i s achieved
using
power
processor
or
power
modulator.
W ith controllable sources, the motor can be
reversed,
brake
or can
be operated
with
variable speed. Conventional methods used, for
example, variable
impedance
or relays, to shape the voltage or current that is supplied to
the
motor however
these are inflexible and inefficient. Modern electric
methods
drives electronic
normally converters
used
power
to shape the desired voltage or current
In
other towords,
the characteristic of the motors can be changed
supplied
the motor.
at will. Power
electronic
conver ters have several advantages over classical
methods of such
power
conversion,
as
1)More efficient since ideally no losses occur in power electronic
2)Flexi
bles voltage and curr ent can be shaped by simply controlling
converter
switching
functions
of
the
power converter.
3) Compact smaller, compact and higher ratings solidstate power
electronic
devicesbeing devel oped the pr ices are getting cheaper
are
continuously
Converters are used to convert and possibly regulate (i.e. using
control)
the available sources to sui t the load i.e. motors. These
closed-loop
convertersbecause
are
efficient
the switches operate in either cut-off or saturation
modes
Several conversion are possi ble

Lecture notes

b)Control Unit
The complexity of the control unit depends on the desired drive perfor

analog
digital
immune
- which
toisnoise,
noisy,
configurable.
inflexible.
However
The
analog
is circuit
obviously
of
it
can
motors
beused.
as
complex
A controller
as
can
the
becombinations
as simple
as bandwidth
few
of op-amps
several
and/or
ASICsa
mance
and
the
type
few digital
and
processors
The
ideally
bandwidth.
smaller
analog
types
digital
controller
than
hasofICs,
(DSPs).
infinite
the
signal
or
main
s depends
controllers
on sampling
can be frequency

Lecture notes

DSP/microprocessor flexible, lower bandwidth compar ed to

above. operation
DSPs perform
faster
than mi croprocessors (multiplication in
DSP/microp.,
single cycle).complex
W ithestimations and observer s can be easily
implemented.
d) Source
Electr ical sources or power supplies provide the energy to the
electrical
motors.operation,
For
high
efficiency
the power obtained from the electrical
regul
atedneed
usingtopower
sources
be electronic converters Power sources can be of
AC or and
D C normally
in
nature
ar e uncontrollable, i.e. their magnitudes or
frequencies
arethe
fixed
or
depend on
sources of energy such as solar or wind. AC
source can be
three-phase
oreither
single-phase; 3-phase sources are normally for high
power applications
Ther e can be several factor s that affect the selection of different
configuration
of electr
drive
system such
as ical
a) Torque and speed profile - determine the ratings of converters and the
quadrant of
operation
required.
b) Capital and running cost Drive systems will vary in terms of start-up
rcost
unning
and cost, e.g. maintenance
c) c) Space and weight restrictions
d) Environment and location

3. Selecting a Drive
Often drive selection is straight for war d, as a motor is already
installed
and the speed
range
r equirement
is not excessive. However, when a dr ive system is
selected from
first consideration may avoid problems in installation
principles,
careful
may
also save significant
cost.
and operation,
and
3.1 Overall Considerations.
Check the Curr ent rating of the inverter and the motor. Power
rating
guide is only a rough
Check that you have selected the correct operating voltage.
230V three phase input
MICROMASTERs
will operate with single or three phase inputs;
MIDIMASTERs
operate
with threewill
phase only. Single phase input units can be more cost
effective
some
cases,
butinnote
that 230V units will be damaged if operated at 400V.
Check the speed range you r equire. Operation above normal
supply is
frequency
50 orpossible at reduced power. Operation at low
60Hz)
usually (only
fr
equency
and
high
torque
can
cause
motor
to overheat
due
to lack
oflimit
cooling

Check
Do
you
overload
need
tothe
stop
performance.
IfThe
so, consider
inverter
will
using
a braking
currentrthese
to
current
very
quickly
- aquickly?
standard,
fixed
speed
motor
will
tolerate

Synchronous
require
de-rating,
by 2frequency.
-This
3 times.
is because the power
factor,
150
overloads.
esistor
MIDIMASTERs)
orand
(braking
200hence
% motors
of
unit
the
to
full
on
current,
absorb
the
can
energy.
be verytypically
high at low

Lecture notes

Do you need to operate with cables longer than 50m, or screened or

armoured
longer
thancables
25m? I f so, it may be necessary to de-rate, or fit a choke to
cable
capacitance.
compensate
for the
3.2 Motor limitat ions
For more information concerning calculation of Power
requirements,
Torque,
and
Moment
of Inertia,
see later.
The motor speed is determined mainly by the applied frequency. The
motoras
slows
downincreases
a
little
the load
and the slip increases. If the load is too
exceed
maximum
great thethe
motor
will torque and stall or pull out . Most motors and
inverters
will operate
at 150% load
Thermal considerations
The losses in the machines contribute to the temperatur e increase in the
The varmachine.
ious parts of the machine use different type of insulation
materialstemperature
which havelimits. Particularly important is the
different
insulation
used give
for the
windings which
rise to the different classes of machines.
Allowable
losses
are power
higher for materials which can withstand higher
temperature
translates to which
higher costs. Three main cause of power losses are:
Conductor losses :
Exist in the windings, cables, brushes, slip rings, commutator, and etc.
Core losses:
Mainly due to eddy current and hysteresis losses
Friction and w indage losses:
Mainly due to ball bearings, brushes, ventilation losses
The constructions of the machines are ver y complex; normally built
materials
(heterogeneous)
with complex geometrical shapes. To
from various
types of
exactly
predict
flow and
hencethe
theheat
temperatur e distribution is extremely difficult.
Based on thethat the temperature limits of all parts does not exceed the
assumptions
temperature
under certainlimits
operating conditions, the motors can therefore
adequately modeled
homogeneous
bodies. as
Obviously, this assumpti on cannot determine the
thermal
specific conditi
internalons for the motors.

Lecture notes

Let us assume that a homogeneous body shown in Figure 12 represents

a motor
thermal
capacity
which
has C. The input power, which is the losses
incurred in the
motor,
is the output power, which is the power
represented
by p1
whereas
released as isheat
by
convection,
represented
by p2 . The output power due to radiation is
assumed of
negligible
because
the low operating temperature and back radiation.
Under a steady
statepower equals the output power; this is when
condition,
the input
the steady state
temperature
is reached. The equation describing the power balance is
given by
The heat dissipated by convection is given by
where is the coefficient of heat transfer
If we let equation ( 12) can be wr itten as

where is the ther mal time constant. With and a step change in the
power
p1 from
0 to phheat
at t=0,
the solution
for the
is temperature of
Duringinput
cooling,
i.e. when
is removed
at t=0,
At steady
the
body decays
ambient
state,
temperature.
\ to

Lecture notes

If the thermal time constant is large, a temporary overload is therefore

possible
without
exceeding
the temperature limits. Three typical modes of operation are:
- Continuous duty
- Short time intermittent duty
- Periodic inter mittent duty\
Ratings of converters and motors
In or der to accelerate to a given reference value, the motor torque has
be larger
than thetoload
torque. According to (1), the difference between T1
and Tefast
determines
how
the angular acceleration is. For example, the speed and
torque responses
a
closed-loop
speedfor
control
DC drive with two different torque limit
setting
Nminand
15 7. The higher the torque during the speed
Nm)
is (10
shown
Figure
the
speed the
getsfaster
to its isreference
transient,

Lecture notes

In most cases, the torque during this transient conditi on can be up to 3

timesofthethe motor and for servo motor, it can be as high
rated torque
as 8rated
to 10value.
timesThis momentary high torque is possible due to the
the
large
capacity
of
thethermal
motor with
suitable insulators used for the winding. The
the
motor which
current,
must be able to sustain this condition. However
converter,
conducts
since the of
thermal
capacity
the converter is small, the current cannot be higher than
its rated value. the current rating of the converter is normally set to
Consequently,
equal the maximum
allowable
motor current and this can be as high as the 3 times the
The
allowable torque dur ing transient of a drive system
motormaximum
rated current.
is determined
by of the converter used whereas the continuous torque
the
current rating
limit
depends
current
rating on
of the
the motor. The operating area of a 4-quadr ant motor
drive is 8.
shown
Figure
The in
converter is normally protected from the overcurrent condition
by the within the converter system, which
limiter mechanism
means thatonsustained
overloads
the motor has to be protected by an additional
mechani
Above the base speed, the toque is limited by
thermal sm.
protection
the
maximum
allowable
power, which depends on whether the transient or
continuous
torque
is
considered.
The limit
speed limit basically depends on the mechanical
limitation
motor . of the

Lecture notes

Fig. Limits for torque, speed and power for drive system

Steady-state stability
The motor will operate at the steady-state speed (point where T1 = Te)
provided
the equilibrium. The stable equilibr ium speed is
speed
is ofthat
stable
investigated torqueusing speed characteristics of the load and motor. A
steady-state
disturbance
any will result in a speed to depart from the
part of the in
dr ive
However,
if the
steady-state speed is of stable equilibrium, the speed
steady state
speed.
will return
to the
stable
equilibrium
speed. On the other hand, if the speed i s
not of the stable
equilibrium,
the disturbance will results in the speed to drift away
from the
equilibrium
speed.
It can
be shown that the condition for stable equilibrium is:

Lecture notes

UNIT-II
DRIVE MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Torque speed characteristics of a shunt motor:
A constant applied voltage V is assumed across the ar mature. As
thevaries
armature
current Ia,
the armature drop varies proportionally and one can
plotinduced
the variation
the
emf E.ofThe mmf of the field is assumed to be constant.
The flux inside
the slightly falls due to the effect of saturation and
machine
however
due to armature
reaction.
The var iation of these parameters is shown in Fig. Knowing the value
of
and flux one
canEdetermine
the value of the speed. Also knowing the armature
currentofand
flux, the
value
thethe
torque
is found out. This procedure is repeated for
different
of cur
therents and the values are plotted as in Fig. (a).
assumed values
armature
From these
graphs,speed
a
graph
indicating
as a function of torque or the torque-speed
character
istics
is
plotted
Fig.
(b)(i).
As seen from the figure the fall in the flux due to load increases the
speed
the
factdue
thattothe induced emf depends on the product of speed and flux.
Thus
the speed
of more or less constant with load. With highly
the machine
remains
saturated machines

Lecture notes

Lecture notes

the on- load speed may even slightly increase at over load
more
pronounced
if the machine
is designed to have its normal field
conditions.
This effect
gets
ampere
turns
less than
themuch
armature ampere turns. This type of external
characteristics
introduces
instability
during
operation Fig. (b)(ii) and hence must be avoided. This
may
be simply
achieved
by
providing a series stability winding which aids the shunt field mmf.
Load characteristics of a series motor
Following the procedure described earlier under shunt motor, the
torque speed
Characteristics
of a series motor can also be determined. The ar
happens
to be the
mature current
alsoexcitation current of the series field and hence
the flux variation
resembles
the magnetization curve of the machine. At large value
of the arthe
mature
currents
useful flux would be less than the no-load
magnetization
curve
the values of the load cur rents the torque
machine.
Similar
ly forfor
small
varies
as a square
of as the flux is proportional to armature current in
the
ar mature
currents
magnetic
procedure
applied
speed
line.
motor.
The
curve
Such
Fig.
voltage
speed
circuit
from
is
high
(a)
seen
under
V
becomes
shows
which
speeds
to light
bebe
the
are
amore
rectangular
plotted
load
unsafe,
var
torque-speed
and
conditions
iation
as
more
as shown
hyper
the
of saturated
E1,
centrifugal
char
is bola
many
influx,
acteristics
Fig.(b)
and
the
times
torque
forces
the
torque
The
more
final
ofand
initial
acting
becomes
the
portion
than
speed
on
the
this region. As the can
proportional
as
series
portion
ris
the
ated
near
flux
armature
speed
motor
ly
var
following
ofathis
iation
straight
of
to
and
for
torquethe
Iabecomes
the
a given
above
small.

Lecture notes

commutator can destroy them giving rise to a catastrophic break

down. Hence
motors
are notseries
r ecommended for use where ther e is a possibility of
zero.
In becoming
order to safeguard the motor and personnel, in the modern
the load
machines,
shunt
fieldais 'weak'
provided

Lecture notes

on ser ies motors to ensure a definite, though small, value of flux even
when the
current
is armature
nearly zero. This way the no- load speed is limited to a safe
maximum
t field should be connected so as to aid the series
is
needlessspeed.
to say,Ithis
field.
Load characteristics of a compound motor
Two situations arise in the case of compound motors. The mmf of the
shunt
field
and series
field
may oppose each other or they may aid each other. The
is
called
differ ential compounding and is rarely used. They lead to
first
configuration
unstable
operation
the
machine
unlessof
the armature mmf is small and there is no magnetic
saturation.
mode
mayThis
sometimes result due to the motoring operation of a
level-compounded
generator, say by the failure of the pr ime mover. Also, differential
compounding
may
result
in large negative
mmf under overload/starting condition and the
in
the
reverse
dircompounding
ection.
motors
intended
for compounded
constant
speed
machine
mayisstart
Cumulatively
High
characteristics
that
is
made
thedegree
field
high.
of
compounded
This
but
strengthened
with
feature
a In
safe
motors
on
makes
load.
will
no-load
are
a Thus
make
cumulatively
verspeed.
ythe
the
widely
torque
The
machine
used
major
per for
ampere
approach
benefit
industr
of of
the
ial
a
operation
the is
level
compounding
very
low
drives.
series
the
ar
machine
mature
compounding
machine
well
current
suited
like
is of
for as not to cause any pr oblem.

Lecture notes

intermittent peak loads. Due to the large speed variation between light
load and peak
conditions,
a yload
wheel can be used with such motor s with advantage.
provided
shunt and ser ies motors for the provision of an
Due to theunder
reasons
additionalit series/shunt
winding,
can be seen that all moder n machines are compound
machines.them
Theisdifference
between
only in the level of compounding.

Braking the d.c. Motors

When a motor is switched off it `coasts' to rest under the action
forces. of frictional
Braking is employed when rapid stopping is required. In many cases
braking mechanical
is adopted. The electr ic braking may be done for various
reasons
such
as those
mentioned
below:
1. To augment the brake power of the mechanical brakes.
2. To save the life of the mechanical brakes.
3. To regenerate the electrical power and improve the energy eff iciency.
4. In the case of emergencies to step the machine instantly.
5. To improve the throughput in many production processes by
reducing the stopping
time.
In many cases electric braking makes more brake power available to
braking
process the
where
mechanical brakes are applied. This reduces the
wear and tear
of the
mechanical
brakes
and reduces the frequency of the replacement
of these parts.
By
recovering
the mechanical
energy stored in the rotating parts and
supply
lines
pumping
it the
intooverall
the energy efficiency is improved. This is called
regeneration.
Where
the
safety of the
personnel or the equipment is at stake the machine
may instantly.
be r equired to
stop
Extremely large brake power is needed under those conditions. Electric
braking
can help
in these situations also. In processes where frequent
involved
the stopping
process time
starting and
is requirement can be reduced if braking
time is reduced.
reduction
of the The
1. Dynamic
2. Regenerative
3. Reverse voltage braking or plugging
These are now explained br iefly with reference to shunt, series and
compound motors.
Dynamic braking
dynamic
position
ar
An
mature
emf In
is1braking
during
dynamic
induced
to 2. The
motoring
resistance
due
braking
supply
to the
mode
to
the
RDB.
presence
the
motor
and
field
I n due
and
isshould
ofdisconnected
the
to
Fig.
the
field
not
49inertia,
this
be
andremoved.
is
from
the
the
done
rotation.
armature
thebyDue
supply
This
to and
Shunt
machine
changing
the
continues
voltage
rotation
connected
drives
the
toof
rotate.
switch
athe to from
a

Lecture notes

current through the braking r esistance. The direction of this current is

opposite
to owing
the onebefore change in the connection. Therefore, torque
which
was
reversed.
acts like a brake. The torque speed
developedThe
also machine
gets
character
isticsof separate
by under dynamic braking mode is as shown
excited
shunt
the machine
in Fig. (b) value
for a of RDB. The positive tor que corresponds to the
particular
motoring
Fig. of a shunt excited motor and the
shows
theoperation.
dynamic braking
corresponding
curve.
Here thetorque-speed
machine behaves as a self- excited generator. Below a
self-excitation
collapses and the braking action becomes Zero. Process
cer tain speed the
time improves the
throughput.
Basically the electric braking involved is fairly simple. The electric
made tomotor
workcan
as bea generator by suitable terminal conditions and
absor b mechanical
energy.
This conver ted mechanical power is dissipated/used on the electr
suitably.ical network
Braking can be broadly classified into:

Lecture notes

Figure : Dynamic Braking of a shunt motor

Lecture notes

Figure : Dynamic braking of shunt excited shunt machine

Series machine
In the case of a series machine the excitation current becomes zero as
soon
as the
ar mature
is disconnected
from the mains and hence the induced
emf also
vanishes.
In braking the series f ield must be isolated and
order
to achieve
dynamic
voltage
high
connected
to current
a low source to provide the field. Rather, the motor is
made to worexcited
k like amachine. When several machines are available
separately
at any spot,
as in dynamic braking is feasible. Series connection
railway
locomotives,
of all with
the series
fields
parallel connection of all the armatures connected across
a singleresistor
dynamic
braking
is used in that case.

Compound generators
and theA
separately
Inbraking
cumulatively
the
excited
case
torque
shunt
of compound
connected
generated
field and the
machine,
motor
comes
armature
becomes
down.
the connected
situation
I t differentially
is therefore
across
is like the
in a shunt
braking
are
necessary
series
used.
field
machine.
compounded
resistance
toif reverse
largeAbraking
generator
the torques are desired.

Lecture notes

Regenerative braking
In regenerative braking as the name suggests the energy recovered
theis fed back into the d.c. power source. Thus this type of
rotatingfrom
masses
the
energy
efficiency
braking
impr
oves of the machine. The ar mature current can be
made to reverse
a
constant
voltage for
operation
by increase in speed/excitation only.
Increase
does
not
result in
in speed
br aking
and the increase in excitation is feasible only
over a may
smallberange,
which
of the order of 10 to 15%. Hence the best method
regenerative
is to operate, the machine on a variable
for obtainingbraking
the
supply.
As the pulled below the value of the induced emf
voltage is
continuously
the speed
steadily
comes
down.
The field current is held constant by means of
separate d.c.
excitation.
variable
supply The
voltage can be obtained by Ward-Leonard
arrangement, in
shown
schematically
Fig. .
Braking torque can be obtained right up to zero speed. In modern
times static
Ward- Leonard
scheme is used for getting the var iable d.c.
voltage.
This
hasitsmany
advantages
over
rotating machine counter part. Static set is
compact, has
higher
efficiency,
requir
es lesser space, and silent in operation; however
it
suffers from
drawbacks
like large ripple at low voltage levels, unidir ectional power
load
capacity.
Bidirectional power flow capacity is a must if r
flow and
low over
egenerative
braking
is cannot be regeneratively br aked as the
requir
ed. Ser
ies motors
characteristics
do not
extend to the second
quadrant.
Plugging
The third method for braking is by plugging. Fig. shows the method of
connection
for the plugging
of a shunt motor. Initially the machine is connected to
the supply
switch with
S in position number 1. If now the switch is moved
to position
2, then
a
reverse
voltage
is applied
across the ar mature. The induced
armature
voltage
E each
and other and a large reverse current flows
supply
voltage
V aid
This
produces
a large negative torque or braking torque. Hence
through
the armature.
pluggingvoltage
is alsobraking.
termed as
reverse
The machine instantly comes to rest. If the
motor
notinstant
switched
off
at isthis
the dir ection of rotation reverses and the motor
reverse
and
have
Plugging
plug
direction.
open
isto
a the
stop.
convenient
This
If we
type
Sneed
mode
atofzero
the
braking
for
plugging
speed.
quick
therefore
Ifonly
rever
nothing
for
has
salbringing
isoftwo
done
dirmodes
ection
the
it isspeed
viz.
of
plug
starts2)torotating
theswitch
1) zero,
to
rotation
rives.
plug
reverse
Just
to
then
inreverse
as
mode.
reversible
we
in star ting, during

Lecture notes

Figure Regenerative braking of a shunt machine

Lecture notes

Figure : Plugging or reverse voltage braking of a shunt motor

Lecture notes

Plugging also it is necessary to limit the current and thus the torque, to
reduce
stress system and the commutator. This is done by
on
the the
mechanical
Resistance
in series with the a mature during plugging.
adding additional
Series motors
In the case of ser ies motors plugging cannot be employed as the field
current when
too reverse voltage is applied across the machine.
gets reversed
This keeps
direction
of the
the torque produced unchanged. This fact is used with
operating
advantage,a d.c.
in ser ies motor on d.c. or a.c. supply. Ser ies motors thus
qualify
to be called
as
`Universal
motors'.
Compound motors
Plugging of compound motors proceeds on similar lines as the
shunt
motors.
However
some
precautions have to be observed due to the
winding.
A cumulatively
presence of
series field compounded motor becomes differentially
compounded
plugging.
The on
mmf due to the series field can 'over power ' the shunt
field
forcing
theorflux
to
low
values
even reverse the net field. This decreases the
braking torque,
increases
the dur and
ation of the large braking current. To avoid this it may
deactivate
be advisablethe
to series field at the time of br aking by shortcircuiting
the same.proceeds
In suchjust as in a shunt motor. If plugging is
cases the braking
done toinoper
ate the direction of r otation as well, then the series field
motor
the negative
has toconnected
be reversed
and
for getting the proper mmf. Unlike dynamic br
aking and
regenerative
braking
where
the motor is made to work as a generator during braking
period,the
plugging
makes
motor work on reverse motoring mode.

Deducing the machine performance. (Single phase Induction

motor)
From the equivalent circuit, many aspects of the steady state
of the We will begin by looking at the speed-torque
machinebehavior
can be deduced.
the
machine. We
characteristic
of will
Consider the approximate equivalent circuit of the machine. We
have the
reasoned
earlier that
power consumed by the 'rotor- portion' of the
equivalent
circuit across
is thethe air-gap. Out of that quantity the amount
power
transferred
dissipated
in R0 loss
r is and the quantity consumed by R0r( 1 + s)=s is the
the
rotor copper
developed.
Neglecting mechanical losses, this is the power
mechanical power
torque
voltage
representation
available
In
is
impressed
order
can
the
estimate
be
on
machine,
obtained
the machine.
thethe
speed
bycurrent
dividing
Recalling
torque
drawn
characteristic
thisthat
by
number
the equivalent
circuit
byletthe
usisshaft
suppose
given that a
available at theofto
shaft.
The
The
characteristic of Induction motor
speed.complete
circuit
by
issinusoidal
the pertorque-speed
-phase

Lecture notes

Where Vs is the phase voltage phasor and Is is the current

phasor.
magnetizing
current isThe
neglected.
Since this current is owing through , the air-gap
power is given by

The mechanical power output was shown to be (1_s) Pg (power

dissipated
in R0r=s)
The
torque is obtained
by. dividing
this by the shaft speed .Thus we have,

Where! S is the synchronous speed in radians per second and s is the

slip.torque
Further,
this is per phase. Hence the overall tor que is given by
the
produced

The torque may be plotted as a function of `s' and is called the

torque-slip
torquespeed, since(or
slip
indicates speed) characteristic | a very important
characteristic
of the Equation 16 is valid for a two-pole (one pole
induction
machine.
general,
this expression
should be multiplied by p, the number of
pair) machine.
In
pole-pairs. A typical
torque-speed
characteristic is shown in _g. 22. This plot corresponds to
a 3 machine.
kW, 4 pole,60
Hz
The rated operating speed is 1780 rpm.
We must note that the approximate equivalent circuit was used in
relation.deriving
Readersthis
with access to MATLAB or suitable equivalents
(octave,
available scilab
free under GNU at the time of this wr iting) may find out the
by
using the
`exact' equivalent circuit by using the scr ipt found
difference
caused
here. A comparison
between
the two is found in the plot of fig. The plots correspond to a 3
kW, 4 pole,
50 a rated speed of 1440 rpm. It can be seen that the
machine,
with
approximate
equivalent
circuit
is a good
approximation in the operating speed range of the
the
two figures.
We can see that the slope and shape of the
machine.
Comparing
characteristics
aremachine
dependent
intimately
on the
parameters.
constant.
implies
torque
for
Further,
that
Coupled
a given
if this
this
speed
with
characteristic
curve
the
after
isfact
obtained
allthat
istransients
tothis
be
byis
measured
varying
an
have
equivalent
died
slip
experimentally,
down.
with
circuit
the
One
applied
valid
cannot,
we voltage
under
need
for
example,
tosteady
being
look at
try
state,
held
the it

Lecture notes

Tor que, Nm to obtain this curve by directly starting the motor with full
voltage
appliedand
to measur ing the torque and speed dynamically as it
the
terminals
runs up to steady
speed.
Another point to note is that the equivalent cir cuit and the values
ofistorque
predicted
valid when the applied voltage waveform is sinusoidal.
With non-sinusoidal
voltage
wavefor ms, the procedure is not as straightforward.
With respect to the direction of rotation of the air-gap flux, the rotor
to highermaybe
speedsdriven
by a prime mover or may also be rotated in the reverse
dir ection. Therelation for the machine under the entire speed range is
torque-speed
speed-torque
characteristic. A typical curve is shown in fig for a fourcalled the complete
pole machine,speed
the being 1500 rpm. Note that negative speeds
synchronous
correspond
greater
thanto1,slip
andvalues
speeds greater than 1500 rpm correspond to
negative
plot modes of the induction machine in various
also
showsslip.
the The
operating
is
also shown
for axis
convenience.
regions.
The slip

Lecture notes

Restricting ourselves to positive values of slip, we see that the curve

has
Thisa ispeak
the point.
maximum torque that the machine can produce, and is
torque.
If the
load torque is more than this value, the machine stops
called as
stalling
rotatingatora stalls.
occurs
slip ^s,Itwhich for the machine of fig is 0.38. At values of
slipcurve
lowerfalls
thansteeply
^s,
the
down to zero at s = 0. The torque at synchronous
speedAt
is values
therefore
zero.
of slip higher than s = ^s, the curve falls slowly to a
1.
The torque
at at
s =s 1=(speed = 0) is called the starting torque.
minimum
value
The value of the stalling torque may be obtained by differ entiating the
expression
for torque
with respect to zero and setting it to zero to find the value of
^s. Using this
method,

Substituting ^s into the expression for torque gives us the value of the
stalling torque ^ T

maximum
The
proportional
to
change
expr ession
torque
R0
to R0
r, shows
then
remaining
r. This
we
that
fact
can
constant
^can
Te
get
beisamade
all
the
whole
the
independent
usewhile.
series
of conveniently
But
of of
torque-speed
thisR0istor,a alter
the negative sign being valid for negative slip.
while
^s.
characteristics,
subject
later.
If it^s
is
to possible
isbedir
discussed
the
ectly

Lecture notes

We may note that if R is chosen equal to becomes unity,

which p means that the maximum torque occurs at starting. Thus
changing possible
of R r, can ser ve as a means to control the starting torque.
wherever
While consider ing the negative slip r ange, (generator mode) we
note
that isthe
maximum
torque
higher than in the positive slip region ( motoring
mode).
Operating Point

Consider a speed torque characteristic shown in fig. For an

induction
machine, also super imposed on it. The load is a
having the
load characteristic
constant
torquerequired
load for operation is fixed irrespective of speed. The
i.e.,
the torque
of
the motor
and load will operate at a point where the two
system
consisting
characteristics
From
the
above plot,meet.
we note
that there are two such points. We therefore
need tooffind
which
theseout
is the actual operating point.
To answer this we must note that, in practice, the character istics are
neverslightly
fixed; with time. It would be appropr iate to consider a
they change
the
curve
where the actual points of the characteristic will lie.
small
banddrawn
around
Thisusbeing
the case
let
considers
that the system is operating at point 1, and the
load torque
demand
increases
slightly.
This is shown in fig, where the change is exaggerated
for clarity.
would
shiftThis
the point of operation to a point 10 at which the slip would
be less and
the higher.
developed
torque
The differ ence in torque-developed 4Te, being positive will
accelerate
machine.
Any overthe
shoot in speed as it approaches the point 10 will
cause it to since
furtherthe developed tor que is increasing. Similar
accelerate
arguments
be used
to the developed torque becomes smaller the
show
that ifmay
for some
reason
speed
and
thewould
effectdrop
is cumulative. Therefore we may conclude that 1 is not a
point.
stable oper ating
Let us consider the point 2. If this point shifts to 20, the slip is now
(speed
is lower)higher
and the
positive difference in torque will accelerate the
machine.
This
behavior
will tend to
br ing
the operating point towards 2 once again. I n other
words,
at
pointdisturbances
2 will not cause a runaway effect. Similar arguments may be
where
thethe
load
characteristic shifts down. Therefore we conclude that
given for
case
point 2 is apoint.
stable
operating

Lecture notes

torque, Nm From the foregoing discussions, we can say that the

entire region characteristic
of the
speed-torque
from s = 0 to s = ^s is an unstable region,
whiles the
from
= ^sregion
to s = 0 is a stable region. Therefor e the machine will
operate
salways
= 0 and
s = ^s.between
Modes of Operation

The reader is referr ed to fig which shows the complete speed-torque

of the induction
machine along with the var ious regions of operation.
characteristic
Let us consider a situation where the machine has just been excited
with three
phase supply
and the rotor has not yet started moving. A little reaction
on the
the slip
definition
of
indicates that we are at the point s = 1. When the rotating
up
due to fstator
it is the induced emf that causes current in
magnetic
ield iscurrents,
set
the r otor, and
the the two causes torque. It has already been pointed
interaction
between
out that itofisthe
thenon- zero slip that causes a torque to be developed. Thus
presence
the region of the

Lecture notes

curve between
Figure : Stability of operating point
s = 0 and s = 1 is the region where the machine produces torque to
load androtate
hencea is
called the motoring region. Note further that the
passive
direction
ofthe
rotation
the
rotor is
same of
as that of the air gap flux.
Suppose when the rotor is rotating, we change the phase sequence of
excitation
the machine.
Thisto would cause the rotating stator field to reverse
its dir ection
the and the rotor are now moving in opposite directions.
rotating
stator |mmf
Iconvention
f we adopt that
the positive direction is the direction of the air gap
would
then
be speed
a negative quantity. The slip would be a number
flux, the
rotor
greater than
unity. as we know should be "dragged along" by the
Further,
the rotor
stator isfield.
Since
rotor
rotating
in the opposite direction to that of the field, it would
now tend
slowzero speed.
down,
andtoreach
Therefore this region (s > 1) is called the braking region. (What would
happen
if cut-off when the speed reaches zero?) . There is yet
the supply
is not
another situation.
Consider
a situation where the induction machine is operating from
mains
andload
is driving
an
active
(a load capable of producing rotation by itself). A t ypical
example
is thatwhere the fan like blades of the windmill ar e connected
of
a windmill,
induction
to the shaftmachine.
of the Rotation of the blades may be caused by the
motoring action
the blowing. Further suppose that both acting
machine,
or by ofwind
independently
causedirection. Now when both grid and windact, a
rotation
in the same
strong
wind
may cause
the
rotor
to rotate
faster than the mmf produced by the stator excitation.
supply
generated
therefore
enables
operation.
alone
Further,
wind-energy
negative.
by
Indeed
would
the
the
machine
this
cause.
Itwind
generation.
isis this
is
In
atpreventing
rotating
order
present
action
The
to of
the
do
the
region
the
the
this
rotor
most
speed
wind
it has
of
tocommonly
aslip
to
against
build
speed
contend
s >up.
higher
the
1used
with
The
istorque
than
theanwhat the
A littlethat
reaction
shows
slip is then negative.
opposing
torque
of
generating
approach
the generated
machine
electr
torque
inmode
wind-energy
icalthat
is
of

Lecture notes

generation. It may be noted from the torque expression of equation that

torque
is negative
for
negative
values of slip.
Braking of d.c shunt motor: basic idea
It is often necessar y in many applications to stop a running motor
We know
that quickly.
any moving or rotating object acquires kinetic energy.
rather
Therefor
e, how
we can bring
thefast
object to rest will depend essentially upon how quickly
wekinetic
can extract
its
energy and make arr angement to dissipate that energy
somewhere
else.
If bicycle,
you
stop pedaling
your
it will eventually come to a stop eventually
after moving
quite
some
distance.
The initial kinetic energy stored, in this case
friction
of the
r oad.inHowever,
to make the stopping faster, brake is
dissipates
as heat
the
applied
theshoes
help on the rim of the wheels.
of
rubberwith
brake
Thus stored K.E now gets two ways of getting dissipated, one at the
wheel-brake
shoe interface
(where most of the energy is dissipated) and the
other at the
interface.
Thisroad-tier
is a good method no doubt, but r egular maintenance of
brake
shoes
to
wear and
teardue
is necessary.
If a motor is simply disconnected fr om supply it will eventually come
to stop
doubt, but
willnotake longer time particular ly for large motors
having Because
high rotational
inertia.
her e the stored energy has to dissipate mainly through
bearwind
ing friction
and
friction. The situation can be improved, by forcing the
generator
during as
braking.
The idea can be understood remembering that
motor to operate
a
in motor mode torque acts along the direction of rotation while in
electromagnetic
generator the torque acts in the opposite direction of rotation.
electromagnetic
Thus by to
forcing
theas generator during the braking period, a tor
machine
operate
que opposite
to thewill be imposed on the shaft, thereby helping the
direction
of rotation
machine
to come
stop
quickly.
Dur to
ing braking action, the initial K.E stored in the rotor is
in
an external
resistance or fed back to the supply or both.
either
dissipated
Rheostatic braking

Consider a d.c shunt motor operating from a d.c supply with the
switch
S
connected
to position
1 as shown in figure. S is a single pole double throwand
switch
can
be connected either to position 1 or to position 2. One end of an external
Rb
is
resistance to position 2 of the switch S as shown.
connected
Let with S in position 1, motor runs at n rpm, drawing an armature
and
Ia
the backcurrent
emf is Note the polar ity of
which,
Ebas usual for motor mode in

Lecture notes

opposition with the supply voltage. Also noteand nTehave same clockwise direction.

Now if S is suddenly thrown to position 2=at0, thet armature gets disconnected from
the supply and terminated by
withRb
field coil remains energized from the supply. Since
speed of the rotor can not change instantaneously, the back emf
is still
Eb
value
maintained
with same polarity prevailing at t = 0-. Thus
= 0+,atarmatur
t
e current will
be I a = Eb/(ra
) and
+ Rb
with reversed direction compared to direction prevailing during
motor mode at t = 0-.
Obviously for
> 0,t the machine is operating as gener ator dissipating powerRb
to
and now the electromagnetic torque
mustTeact in the opposite direction to that of
n

since Ia has changed direction but has not As time passes after
switching, n decreases reducing K.E and as a consequence both Ebdecrease.
and Ia In
other words value of braking torque will be highest at= 0+, t and it decreases
progressively and becoming zero when the machine finally
Here
This
double
method
pole
of braking
double throw
can beswitch.
understood
For usual
by r eferr
motoring
ing tomode,
figures 39.25
comeStois
aastop.
Plugging
S
positions
is connected
and
1orand
39.26.
dynamic
to1'.
braking

Lecture notes

Across terminals 2 and 2', a series combination of an external resistanceRb

and
supply voltage with polar ity as indicated is connected. However, dur
part
of the mode
circuitthis
remains inactive.
ing motor

To initiate braking, the switch is thrown to position 2 and 2' at= 0, thereby
t
disconnecting the armature from the left hand supply. Here
= 0+,
at thet armature cur rent
will
be But
I attained?
abraking,
=what
(can
Ebhappens,
+The
V)/(ra
and
asat Eb
the
right
hand
supply
voltage
have
additive
rheostatic
has
been
not
substantial
become
answer
if+SRb)
zero
continuous
ismagnitude
rather
any
simple,
totime
ofbebraking
the
indue
position
machine
totorque
presence
1'will
and
prevails.
start
2'ofeven
supply
after
V. So
polar
ities
by
virtue
of
the
connection.
Here
also
Ia
r
everses
direction-producing
Te
in
opposite
However,
Hence
the
picking
motor
stopping
zero
updir
isIa
speed
expected
speed
ection
unlike
of
in toton.beIa
much
decreases
faster decreases
then
as Eb
rheostatic
withbreaking.
time as speed decreases.

Lecture notes

the reverse direction operating as a motor. So care should be taken to

disconnect
thethe
right
hand
supply,
moment armature speed becomes zero.
Regenerat ive braking
A machine operating as motor may go into regenerative braking mode
its speed high so as to make back emf greater than the
becomesif sufficiently
Eb
>
V. Obviously
under this condition the directionwill
of reverse
Ia
imposing torque
supply
voltage i.e.,
which is opposite to the direction of rotation. The situation is explained
in figur
es 39.27
and
39.28.
The nor mal motor operation is shown in figure 39.27
where ar mature
motoring
current Ia is drawn from the supply and as usual
Eb
. Since
<V
The question is how speed on its own become large enough to make
Eb<
V causing regenerative braking. Such a situation may occur in
practice load
whenitself
the becomes active. Imagine the d.c motor is coupled
mechanical
to the
wheel which is moving along a plain track without any
of
locomotive
gradientMachine
as shown
in
figure.
is running
as a motor at a speed
1 rpm.
of However,
n
when the track has
a downward gradient (shown in figure 39.28), component of
gravitational
force which
along the
track
also appears
will try to accelerate the motor and may
n2
increase
to a scenar io, direction of
such thatits
Ebspeed
In such
reverses,
Ia feeding power
back to supply.
Regenerative br aking her e will not stop the motor but will help to
arresthigh
rise speed.
of
dangerously

Lecture notes

UNIT-III
STARTING METHODS
STARTING OF D.C. MACHINES:
For the machine to start, the torque developed by the motor at zero
speed
must
exceed that
demanded
by the load. Then TM _ TL will be positive so
also machine
is di=dt, and
the
accelerates. The induced emf at starting point is zero
as mature
the i =cur
0 rent
The with rated applied voltage is given by V=Ra
ar
circuit
where resistance.
Ra is ar mature
Normally the armature resistance of a d.c. machine is such as to
to load
5 current. Hence the starting current tends to rise
percent cause
drop at1full
to several
times
the
full load
current. The same can be told of the torque if full flux is
already
established.
The
machine
instantly picks up the speed. As the speed increases
appears
across
the ter minals opposing the applied voltage. The
the induced
emf
mains
torque
acceleration
thus
are
equal
decr
is
zero
eases,
to each
atthe
this
soother.
also
point
the
Machine
oftorque.
operation.
tends
ThisThe
continues
to run
starting
continuously
till
is the
nowload at
current drawn from
torque
this
discussed
to
DC
specific
shunt
speed,
andwith
motor
machines.
the
as motor
the
respect

Lecture notes

If ar mature and field of d.c. shunt motor are ener gized together, large
currentatisstart but the torque builds up gradually as the field flux
drawn
improve
torque per
increasesthe
gradually.
To ampere of line current drawn it is advisable to
energize
fieldcurrent is given by V=Ra and hence to reduce the
first.
Thethe
starting
starting
current
a
safe
value,
the tovoltage
V can be reduced or ar mature circuit
resistance Ra
can be
increased.
Variable
voltage V can be obtained from a motor
generator set.isThis
arrangement
called Ward-Leonard arr angement. A schematic
Leonard
arrangement
is shown in Fig. By controlling the field of
diagram of
War dthe Ward-Leonard
generator
one can get a variable voltage at its terminals, which is used,
for starting
the
motor.
The second
method of starting with increased armatur e circuit
resistancebycan
be additional resistances in series with the ar mature, at
obtained
adding
start.the
The
current
and
torque
get r educed. The torque speed curve under these
Fig.
(a). It can
be readily
conditions
is shown
in seen
from this gr aph that the unloaded machine reaches its final speed but a
loaded
machine
may crawl
at a speed much below the normal speed. Also, the starting
resistance
wastes
large
amount
of power. Hence the starting resistance must be reduced to
zero
the endprocess. This has to be done progressively, making
of theatstarting
does
not the
jump
sure that
currupentto large values. Starting of ser ies motor and
compound
motors
are
similar
to the
shunt motor.
Better starting torques are obtained for
compound
motors
as is more. Characteristics for series motors are
the torque per
ampere
given in fig.
Grading of starting resistance for a shunt motor
If the starting resistor is reduced in unifor m steps then the current peaks
reached
as we cut
down the resistances progressively increase. To ascertain that
at no step does

Starting of D.C shunt motor

1. Problems of starting with full voltage
We know armature current in a d.c motor is given by

At the instant of starting, rotor speed n = 0, hence starting armature current is

Since, ar mature resistance is quite small, starting current may be quit e
highin
times
larger
will
maintained
and
large
dip
This
internal
to(many
pick
current.
dip
the
than
theresistance.
terminal
in
armature
up
the
for
supply
The
speed
rated
quite
other
voltage,
winding.
The
some
voltage
current).
rather
loads
duration
time
every
slowly.
Also
is
already
Aso
large
caused
time
for
the
asThus
to
connected
which
source
machine,
acause
D.C
due
thethis
motor
should
to
serious
level
character
to
sudden
drop
the
isbe
of
damage
attempted
in
same
capable
high
rise
voltage
ized
source,
in
to
starting
by
of
to
the
voltage
will
large
start
)J,
rotor full
current
brush/
supplying
would
with
drop
persist
inertia
incommutator
experience
once
may
the
voltage.
this
(source's
again
be
burst
a of

Lecture notes

depends on inertia (size) of the motor. Hence, for small D.C motor s
extrabeprecaution
not
necessarymay
dur ing starting as large starting current will very
because
rise in the back emf. However, for large motor, a is starter
to be used
quickly of
die fast
down
during starting.
2. A simple starter
To limit the starting current, a suitable external resistance
is connected
Rext
in
series (Figure (a)) with the armature so that At the time of starting, to
sufficient starting torque, field current is maximized by keeping
have
the external
resistance
Rf,field
to zero value. As the motor picks up speed, the value of is gradually
Rext
decreased to zero so that during running no external resistance remains
in the arBut
mature
circuit.
each time one has to the
restart
motor, the external armature resistance must
be set to maximum value by moving the jockey manually.
Imagine, the motor to be running with Rext = 0 (Figure (b) ).

Now if the supply goes off (due to some problem in the supply
side or duemotor
to load
shedding),
will come to a stop. All on a sudden, let us imagine,
This
nothing but full voltage starting. In other wor ds, one
supplyisisthen
restored.
should
be constantly
alert
to set
the resistance to maximum value whenever the motor comes
to a major
stop. This
is
one
limitation
of a simple rheostatic starter.
resistance
overcomes
a3-point
bit clumsy
A
starter
starter
3-point
theconnected
atdifficulty
The
a first
starter
starter
glance,
toof
aisis
shunt
ashown
extensively
plain
themotor
basic
enclosed
resistance
is working
shown
used
within
starter,
toin start
pr
figure
theinciple
but
dotted
a . D.C
Although,
also
is shunt
3.
3-point
starter
provides
protective
the
same
rectangular
circuit
asmotor.
that
additional
features
looks
boxof
Ithaving
plain
not
such
only
as over load protection and no volt protection
. The diagram of a

Lecture notes

three ter minals marked as A, L and F for external connections.

Terminal
A is connected
to
one armature
terminal Al of the motor. Terminal F is connected to one
F1
ofterminal
the motor and terminal L is connected to one supply terminal as
field
shown.
ter is
minal
of
fieldF2
coil
connected to A2 through an external variable field
resistancepoint
and connected
the
common
to supply (-ve). The external armatures
resistances
consist connected
of
several
resistances
in series and are shown in the for m of an
arc.the
The
junctionsare brought out as terminals (called studs) and marked
of
resistances
beneath
the resistances,
a continuous copper strip
also in the form of an arc is present.
as 1,2,.. .12.
Just
There is awhich
handlecan be moved in the clockwise direction against the
spring tension. The spring tension keeps the handle in the OFF
position to
when
attempts
movenoit.one
Now let us trace the circuit fr om terminal L
( supply
+ ve).through
The wirae small electro magnet called OLRC, (the
from
L passes
shall
discuss
a littlewelater) and enters through the handle shown by
function
of which
dashed
lines.
Neartwo
the copper strips are fir mly connected with the wire.
end
of the
handle
The
furthest
strip shaped and the other strip is shown to be rectangular.
is shown
circular
When
the to
handle
is
moved
the right, the circularofstrip
the handle will make contacts with resistance
terminals 1, 2 etc. progressively. On the other hand, the
contact
with strip
the continuous
. The
strip
other end of this strip is brought as
rectangular
will make arc copper
terminal F after going through an electromagnet coil (called
NVRC).
TerminaltoFmotor
is field terminal Fl.
finally connected

Lecture notes

4.Working principle

Let us explain the operation of the starter. Initially the handle is

the OFFar mature nor the field of the motor gets supply.
position.in Neither
Now theto handle
is
moved
stud number
1. In this position armature and all the
resistancestointheseries
getsField coil gets full supply as the rectangular
connected
supply.
strip arc
makes
contact
with
copper
strip. As the machine picks up speed handle is moved
further r2.toInstud
number
this position the external resistance in the armature circuit
resistance
is first
left out. Field however, continues to get full voltage
is less as the
by vir tue of
continuous
arc the
strip. Continuing in this way, all resistances will be
left
out 12
when
stud
number
(ON)
is reached. I n this position, the electromagnet
(NVRC)
the to the handle. Even if the operator removes
soft
iron will
pieceattract
attached
his
handit will
fromstill
theremain in the ON position as spr ing restoring force
handle,
the
of attraction
no volt
willforce
be balanced
by between NVRC and the soft iron piece of the
handle. coil
The (NVRC) carr ies same cur rent as that of the field coil. In case supply
release
goes off, fieldvoltage
coil cur rent will decrease to zero. Hence NVRC will be
deenergised
andto exert any force on the soft iron piece of the handle.
will
not be able
Restoring
of the handle back in the OFF position.
the spr ingforce
will bring
The starter also provides
over load
protection for the motor. The other
electromagnet, OLRC overload releasealong
coil with a soft iron piece kept under it, is
used to achieve this. The current flowing through OLRC is the line
drawn IL
by
current
the
motor. As the motor is loaded, Ia hence IL increases. Therefore,
is a measure
IL
of
loading of the motor. Suppose we want that the motor should not be
rated
current.beyond
Now gap between the electromagnet and the soft iron
over loaded
piece is so adjusted
that for the iron piece will not be pulled up. However, if
rated I
I force of attraction will be sufficient to pull up iron piece. This upward
movement
the
iron
piece ofof OLRC
is utilized to de-energize NVRC. To the iron
a copperin strip
(is attached. During over loading condition, this
shaped
figure)
copperup
strip
move
andwill
put also
a shortbetween
circuit two terminals B and C. Carefully note that B and
C are nothing but the two ends of the NVRC. In other words, when
over load
occurs
short
circuit
path ais created across the NVRC. Hence NVRC will not
carryand
anygets
current
now
deenergised. The moment it gets deenergised, spr ing
action will
handle
in thebring
OFFthe
position thereby disconnecting the motor from the
supply. Three-point star ter has one disadvantage. If we want to run the machine
at higher
speed (above
rated speed) by field weakening
( i.e., by reducing field cur rent) , the strength
of NVRC magnet may become so weak that it will fail to hold
the handle
ON action will bring it back in the OFF position.
position
andin
thethespring
Thus
we find thatTYPES
a of the motor
false
disconnection
takes place even
when
is neither over
nor load
any
DIFFERENT
OF STARTERS
FOR
3 there
PHASE
sudden
disruption
.
MOTOR
INDUCTION
INSTRUCTIONAL
(IM) of supply
OBJECTIVES

Lecture notes

Need of using starters for Induction motor

Two (Star-Delta and Auto-transfor mer) types of starters used
for Squirrel
cage
Induction
motor
Starter using additional resistance in rotor circuit, for Wound rotor
(Slip-r ing) Induction
motor
Introduction

In the previous, i.e. fourth, lesson of this module, the expression of

gross
developed,
astorque
a function of slip (speed), in IM has been derived first.
The sketches
of the (speed) characteristics, with the variations in
different
torque-slip
and
resistance,
inputrotor
(stator)
voltageare presented, along with the explanation of their
features.
Lastly,of maximum torque developed and also the slip,
the
expr ession
wherederit ived.
occurs,
havelesson, starting with the need for using starters in
been
In this
IM to reduce
the first two (Star-Delta and Auto-tr ansfor mer) types
starting
current,
Squirrel
of starterscage
usedIMforand then, the starter using additional resistance
in rotorrotor
circuit,
for
Wound
( Slip-ring)
IM, are presented along with the starting
current
drawn from
the and also the starting torque developed using the
input
(supply)
voltage,
above starters.
Keywords:
Direct-on-Line (DOL) starter, Star-delta starter, auto-transformer
starter,
rotor
resistance
starter,
starting cur rent, starting torque, starters for squir
rel cage
and wound
rotor
induction
motor, need for starters.
Direct-on-Line (DOL) Starters

Induction motors can be started Direct-on- Line (DOL), which

meansis that
the to the stator, with the rotor ter minals shortrated voltage
supplied
rotor
(slip-ring)
motor. For the cage rotor, the rotor bars are short
circuited
in a wound
circuited
via two end
rings. Neglecting
stator impedance, the starting current in the stator
windings

Lecture notes

The input voltage per phase to the stator is equal to the induced emf per
phase
in
the stator
winding,
as the stator impedance is neglected (also shown
in the last
(#32)).
In thelesson
formula for starting current, no load current is neglected.
It may
noted current is quite high, about 4-6 times the current at
that
thebestarting
full load,
may be on the rating of IM, as compared to no load
higher,
depending
cur rent. The starting
torque is which shows that, as the starting current increases, the
starting torque also incr eases. This results in higher accelerating torque
(minus the
loadtorque component of the losses), with the motor
torque
and the
reaching
rated
or near
rated
speed
quickly.

Need for Starters in IM

Lecture notes

The main problem in starting induction motors having large or medium

liesrequirement of high starting current, when started
mainly size
in the
direct-on-line
(DOL).
Assume
that the
distr ibution line is starting from a substation
(Fig.), where
the supply
voltage
is constant.
The line feeds a no. of consumers, of which one
induction
consumer motor
has anwith a DOL starter, drawing a high current from the
line, which
is higher
than
the current
for which this line is designed. This will cause a
drop (dip)
the the line, both for the consumers between the
voltage,
all inalong
substation , and those,
this who are in the line after this consumer. This drop
consumer
in the voltage
more
than theis drop permitted, i.e. higher than the limit as per ISS,
drawn
more
than the current for which the line is designed. Only for
becauseisthe
current
lower
the current for
which the line is designed, the drop in voltage is lower
the limit.
So, the set a limit on the rating or size of IM, which can be
supply
authorities
star tedexceeding
DOL. Any the specified rating, is not permitted to be started
motor
DOL, for
a to reduce the current drawn at starting.
starter
is towhich
be used

Starters for Cage IM

The starting current in IM is proportional to the input voltage per phase
to
the motor ( stator), i.e. , where, as the voltage drop in the
stator impedance is small compared to the input voltage, or if
impedance
the stator is neglected. This has been shown earlier. So, in a (squirrel)
cage
induction
motor,
the starter is used only to decrease the input voltage to the motor
the
starting
current. As described later, this also results in decrease of
so as to decrease
starting torque.

Lecture notes

Lecture notes

This type is used for the induction motor, the stator winding of
which
is connected (Fig. 33.2a). If the above winding is
nominally
deltareconnected
as star per
(Fig.phase supplied to each winding is reduced by3(.577).
33.2b),
the voltage
)1/
This is
a simple starter, which can be easily reconfigured as shown in Fig.
33.2c.
As the
per
phase
in voltage
delta connection is, V
the sphase current in each stator winding is
, where is the impedance of the motor per phase at standstill or start
impedance (stator
and rotor impedance referred to the stator, at standstill).
The line curr ent or
the input current to the motor is which is the curr ent, if the
motor is started direct-on-line (DOL). Now, if the stator winding is
connected as star, the
phase or line current drawn from supply at start (standstill) is which
is of the starting current, if DOL starter is used. The voltage per
phase in each stator winding is now (. ).3 So,
/ s the
V starting cur rent using star-delta
starter is reduced by 33.3%. As for starting torque, being proportional to
the
of
the
current
inreduced
each
windings
two
different
alsosquare
that
torque
started
Fig.
transformer
the
second
reduced
(ratio)
33.2c,
is
and
using
the
case
starter
of
need
by
this
loss
the
with
(of
starter.
2be
by
with
torque,
)the
voltages
3the
used,
33.3%
/ the
1stator
The
stator
(must
3voltage
thus
,advantage
/applied
which
1winding
be
=making
),ratio
lower
asis
tothe
is
reconnected
ain
each
as
that,
than
disadvantage
itratio
57.7%.
simple.
winding
no
the
ofextra
the
starting
Alternatively,
as
As
two
star,
component,
as
ofconnections
shown
currents
torque,
the
shown
canuse
be
later,
if
the
of
isthe
as
earlier,
is
( 3 shown
earlier.
motor
except
this
starting
found
/ starter.
1isby
),
isthat
an
So,
current
same
tousing
autobe
shown
The
the
asstar
load
in
starting
in-

Lecture notes

delta conversion as given in lesson #18, with the impedance per phase
after converting
delta,
found as
3(to),s and
Z the starting current now being reduced to (1/3 ) of the
starting current obtained using DOL starter, with the stator winding
connected in delta.

Auto-transformer Starter

Lecture notes

An auto-transformer, whose output is fed to the stator and input is from

the ,supply
(Fig. 33.3)
is used to start the induction motor . The input voltage of
IM is , which
the the auto-tr ansfor mer, the input voltage being .VThe output
output
voltageis of
s
voltage/input voltage ratio is , the
x value of which lies between 0.0 and 1.0

Let be the starting current, when the motor is started using DOL
starter, i.e applying r ated input voltage. The input current of IM,
current
of the
auto-transformer,
when this starter is used with input
which is
output
voltage of
as .auto-transfor
The input mer, which is the starting current drawn
current
from
the by
supply,
is, input and output volt-amperes, neglecting
obtained
equating
lossesly and
near
sameassuming
power factor on both sides. As discussed earlier, the
proportional
to the
square of the input current to IM in two cases, with
starting torque,
being
and without (i.e.
auto-direct), is also reduced by , as the ratio of the two
transformer
currentsofis the
same
as that applied to the motor as shown ear lier. So,
(ratio)
voltages
the starting
torque
reduced
by the
sameisratio as that of the starting current.
If
ratio
isis
, both
starting
and
torque
are
%)
80
( start
8the
.%)
0 =64 ( x64 . 0
is nearly
starting
the
torque.
current
starting
The
curr
2the
times
drawn
star
ent
torque
-delta
isthe
from
increased,
values
starter
now
the supply
obtained
doubled,
with
can be
the
iscurrent
to
using
considered
r such
be
esult
kept
star-delta
thatwithin
equivalent
lower
thestarter.
motor
limits,
rated
to
So,
motor
can
while
anthe
can
)with
8 . 0be
( 2started,
2times
=%)
xthe
of starting
and70
torque
which
disadvantage
now
advantage
against
autotransformer
the
higher
ratio,
is=that
is
as
load
that
starter
7 .values
57 ( 577
. 0 = current
x . If %)
( 7 . ,0with
both
= DOL
starting
x starting,
current
and

Lecture notes

torque are times the values of starting current and torque with DOL
starting,
which
near
ly 1.5
timesis the values obtained using star delta starter.

Rotor Resistance Starters for Slip-ring (wound rotor) IM

In a slip-ring (wound rotor) induction motor, resistance can be
inser via
ted slip
in the
rotor circuit
r ings ( Fig. 33.4), so as to increase the starting tor
que. Theinstarting
current
the rotor winding is

where = Additional resistance per phase in the rotor circuit.

The input (stator) current is proportional to the r otor current as shown

lier. The
starting ear
current
(input) reduces, as resistance is inserted in the
rotor circuit. But the
starting torque increases, as the total resistance in
the rotor circuit is increased. Though the starting current decreases, the
increases,
thus resulting in increase of starting torque as shown in
total resistance
Fig. 32.2b,
also
obtained
byand
using
the expression given earlier, for increasing values of
in If the additional resistance is used only for
the resistance
rotor circuit.
intermittent
Finally,
(0.0),
external
starting
may
rotor
obtain
,
be
thus
the
having
current,
the
resistance
noted
above
external
leaving
duty,
same
along
advantages.
the
with
the
resistance
the
rpower
with
esistance
cost
intermittent
slip-rings
increase
ofrating.
This
aisissliptois
toshort-circuited.
be
of
rating
only
So,
be
ring
completely
starting
decreased
inused
induction
isboth
toin
torque,
becase
cases,
cut
incurred,
inHere,
steps,
isout,
higher
both
higher
additional
i.e.
also
as
being
which
starting
to
the
than
the
bemotor
cost
that
starting, being that
rated
for
speed
made
additional
results
advantageous.
of
is
torque
IM
to equal
be
increases.
with
is
in needed
decrease
incurred
cost
to
cage
zero
Also
of
toof
to
the
it

Lecture notes

start IM with high load torque. It may be obser ved from Fig. 32.2b that
the starting tor que
increases till it reaches maximum value, the external resistance in the
rotor circuit is incr eased, the range of total resistance being
The range of external resistance is between zero (0.0) and 2

-) . Ther starting
x

torque is equal to the maximum value, i.e. if the external resistance

inserted is equal to if the external resistance in the rotor cir cuit is
increased
further, the starting torque decreases. This is, because the
This is, because the starting curr ent decreases at a faster rate, even if
the total resistance in the rotor circuit is increased.
In this lesson - the fifth one of this module, the direct-on-line (DOL)
for IM, starter
along with
usedthe need for other types of starters, has been
described
first. Then,
types
of starters
- star-two
delta and autotransformer, for cage type IM, ar e
presented.
Lastly, starter for slip-ring (wound rotor) IM is briefly
the
rotor resistance
described.
In thelesson
next of this module, the various types of single-phase
(sixth
and last)
induction
along
withmotors,
the starting methods, will be presented.

STARTING METHODS FOR SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION

MOTOR
Instructional Objectives

Why there is no starting torque in a single-phase induction motor

with winding
one
(main)
in the stator?
Various starting methods used in the single-phase induction
motors, with
introduction
of the
additional features, like the addition of another
winding
in the
stator, and/or
capacitor in series with it.

Introduction

starting
starter
described
connected
presented,
rotor
resistance
used
Incurrent
first.
where
the
stator
in previous,
Two
starter
thr
decreases
winding,
both
ee-phase
types
for
decrease
i.e.
slip-ring
of
and
along
starters
IM,
fifth,
autotransformer,
inwith
along
(wound
starting
lesson
- star-delta,
increase
with
rotor)
current
of this
the
used
for
inIM
and
need
module,
motors
starting
for
has
torque
for
been
cage
with
the
torque.
starters,
occur.
rotor
direct-on-line
In
has such
nominally
IM,
Lastly,
discussed,
all
been
arethe
(DOL)
then
deltawhere

Lecture notes

cases, additional cost is to be incurred. In the last (sixth) lesson of this

module,
firstly it is shown that there is no starting tor que in a single-phase
induction
with
onlymotor
one (main) winding in the stator. Then, the various
used
for methods
such motors, like, say, the addition of another (auxiliary)
starting
winding
in thecapacitor in series with it.
stator,
and/or
Keywords:
Single-phase induction motor, starting torque, main and auxiliary
starting windings,
methods, split-phase, capacitor type, motor with capacitor
start/run.
Single-phase Induction Motor

The winding used normally in the stator (Fig.) of the single-phase

induction motor (IM) is a distributed one. The rotor is of squirr el cage
type,
whichone, as the rating of this type of motor is low, unlike that for
is
a cheap
a three-IM. As the stator winding is fed from a single-phase supply, the
phase
fluxgap
in the
air
is alternating only, not a synchronously rotating one produced by
a poly-( may be two- or three-) winding in the stator of IM. This type of
phase
alternating
field cannot produce a torque if the rotor is stationery
so, a single-phase IM is not self-starting, unlike a
three-phase one. However, as shown later, if the rotor is initially
given some
torque in either direction then immediately a torque is produced in
the motor. The motor then accelerates to its final speed, which is
lower than
its speed. This is now explained using double field revolving
synchr
onous
theory.
Double field revolving theory

Lecture notes

When the stator winding (distributed one as stated earlier) carries

sinusoidal
a current (being fed from a single-phase supply), a
sinusoidal space
distributed
mmf, whose peak or maximum value pulsates
(alternates) with time,
is produced in the air gap. This sinusoidally varying flux is the
sum of two
rotating
fluxes or fields, the magnitude of which is equal to half the
value of the
alter nating flux and both the fluxes rotating synchronously at the
speed,
in opposite directions. This is shown in Fig. The first set of
figur es (Fig. 34.1a (i-iv)) show the resultant sum of the two
rotating
or axis (angle) is changing from Fig.shows
fields, asfluxes
the time
the alternating or pulsating flux (resultant) varying with time or angle.

Lecture notes

The flux or field rotating at synchronous speed, say, in the

direction, i.e. the same direction, as that of the motor (rotor)
anticlockwise
taken as emf
positive
induces
(voltage) in the rotor conductors. The rotor is a squir
rel cage
with
barsone,
short circuited via end rings. The curr ent flows in the rotor
conductors,
and the electromagnetic torque is produced in the same direction
above,
which is termed as positive (+ve). The other part of flux or field
as given
rotates
at speed in the opposite (clockwise) direction, taken as negative.
the
same
So, theproduced by this field is negative (-ve), as it is in the clockwise
torque
direction,
same as that of the direction of rotation of this field. Two torques
are in thedirection, and the resultant (total) torque is the difference
opposite
of the two
torques produced (Fig. 34.3). If the rotor is stationary the slip due to
forward (anticlockwise) rotating field is 0 . 1
backward rotating field is also

. =Similarly,
sf
the slip due to

s b 0= .1. The two torques are equal and opposite,

and the resultant torque is 0.0 (zero). So, there is no starting torque in
phase
a singlIM.
eBut, if the motor ( rotor) is started or rotated somehow, say in
anticlockwise
(for ward) direction, the forward torque is more than
the
the
backward
torque,
with
the
resultant
torforward
que
positive.
The
forward
The
rmotor
esultant
Mathematically,
direction,
speed
torque
with
is isdecided
thus
the
the
mmf,
positive
bynow
which
the
torque
asbeing
load
the
is distributed
motor
being
torque
more
rotates
supplied,
sinusoidally
than
inmotor
the
theincluding
forward
in space,
accelerates
in
the
backward
direction.
the
(specially
peak
losses
value
with
mechanical
torque.
pulsating
its
loss).
with time, is described as (space

Lecture notes

angle) measured from the winding axis. Now, So, the mmf
is distributed both in space and time, i.e.
This can be expressed as,

which shows that a pulsating field can be considered as the sum

of two
synchr onously rotating fields The forward rotating field is,
and the backward rotating field is,
Both the fields have the same amplitude equal to
where is the maximum value of the pulsating mmf along the axis
of the winding. When the motor rotates in the for ward
(anticlockwise) direction
with angular speed the slip due to the forward rotating field is,
Similarly, the slip
due to the backward r otating field, the speed of which is is,
fields are in opposite direction.

The torques produced by the two

The resultant tor que is,

It was earlier shown that, when the rotor is stationar y,
with both as Therefore, the
resultant tor que at start is 0.0 (zero).

STARTING METHODS

The single-phase IM has no starting torque, but has resultant

when it torque,
rotates at any other speed, except synchronous speed. It is also
athat,
torque-speed
starting
auxiliary
balanced
in
,
athe
winding
balanced
two-phase
also
rotating
characteristic
running
is two-phase
introduced
magnetic
supply,
torque
is with
same
as
fields
IM
inshown
two
the
having
asstator,
are
voltages
that
earlier.
produced,
two
in
of addition
equal
aSo,
windings,
three-phase
inas
in
a single-phase
to
magnitude,
in each
the
a three-phase
one,
mainat
known and
number
an
of
having
IM,
winding,
placed
angle
90
ifoan
IM.
at
equal
both
ofbut
aturns
The
space
andangle
placed
ofat90
a space
(electrical),
90 ting
(electr
torque
produced.
are fed from
The
o angle of star
o ical),isand

Lecture notes

currents in the two (main and auxiliary) stator windings also must be at
o , to produce maximum starting tor que, as shown in a balanced twoan 90
angle
of
stator. phase
Thus, rotating magnetic field is produced in such motor,
starting
torque.
giving rise
to The various starting methods used in a singlephase IM here.
are
described
Resistance Split-phase Motor

The schematic (circuit) diagram of this motor is given in Fig. . As

earlier , detailed
another (auxiliary) winding with a high resistance in series is to
be added
along
with the main winding in the stator. This winding has higher
resistance to
reactance r atio as compared to that in the main winding, and is
placed at a space angle of from the main winding as given
earlier. diagram
The
phasor
of the cur rents in two windings and the input voltage is
shown
in The current (I
Fig.
34.4b.
) ina the auxiliary winding lags the voltage (V ) by an
torque
amount
auxiliary
the
motor
ofwhich
ofwinding.
100-200%
starting
attains
Itatorque.
of
automatically
speed
full
load
The
close
switch,
torque,
to
cuts
full
out
S
with
load
(centrifugal
thethe
auxiliary
speed.
starting
The
or
current
starting
motor
isas
in
5-7
has lags the
angle,
is small,
whereas
the
current
(I
) inswitch)
the
main
winding
m
voltage
two
series
awinding,
times
starting
currents
the
with
(Vwhen
)the
by
is an
which
angle,
should
which
be is
at nearly
least 90
phase
This
30 .
angle
results
between
in a small
the
o . The

Lecture notes

full load current. The torque-speed characteristics of the motor

with/without
auxiliary winding ar e shown in Fig. The change over occurs, when
the auxiliary
winding
is switched off as given earlier. The direction of rotation is
reversing
the terminals of any one of two windings, but not both,
reversed by
before
connecting the motor to the supply terminals. This motor is used in
applications,
such as fan, saw, small lathe, centrifugal pump, blower, office
equipment,
washing machine, etc.
The motor described earlier, is a simple one, requiring only
second
(auxiliary)
winding placed at a space angle of 90 fromo the main winding, which
is there in nearly all such motors as discussed here. It does not need
any other
thing,
except for centrifugal switch, as the auxiliar y winding is used as
a starting But the main problem is low starting torque in the motor, as
winding.
is
a function
this
torque of, or related to the phase difference (angle) between the
currents
the two in
windings. To get high starting torque, the phase difference
required
is
90 (Fig. 34.5b),
when the starting torque will be proportional to the product
of the
magnitudes of two currents. As the current in the main winding is
lagging by
the current in the auxiliary winding has to lead the input voltage
by with
is taken as negative (-ve), while is positive (+ve). This
can be can be achieved by having a capacitor in series with the auxiliary
which results in additional cost, with the increase in starting torque,
winding,
The two types of such motors are described here.

Capacitor-start Motor

Lecture notes

The schematic (circuit) diagram of this motor is given in Fig. It may be

capacitor
observed
that a along with a centrifugal switch is connected in series with the
auxiliary
winding, which is being used here as a starting winding. The
capacitor
be
rated
onlymay
for intermittent
duty, the cost of which decreases, as it is used
onlytime
at of starting.
the
The function of the centrifugal switch has been described ear lier. The
two currof
ents as described ear lier, and the torque-speed characteristics
phasor diagram
of the motor auxiliary winding, are shown in Fig. respectively. This
with/without
motor
is used such as compressor, conveyor , machine tool drive,
in
applications,
refr igeration
and
air-conditioning equipment, etc.

Capacitor-start and Capacitor-run Motor

Lecture notes

Lecture notes

In this motor (Fig. 34.6a), two capacitor s -C s for starting,for

andrunning,
C r
ar e
used. The first capacitor is rated for intermittent duty, as described
earlier,
used
only
for being
starting.
A centr ifugal switch is also needed here. The second
onecontinuous
is to be rated
for
duty, as it is used for running. The phasor diagram of
two
currents
both
cases,
and theintorque-speed
characteristics with two windings having
differ ent values
of
capacitors,
are shown
in Fig. 34.6b and Fig. 34.6c respectively.
The phase difference
between the two currents is in the fir st case ( starting), while it is for
90 second case (running). In the second case, the motor is a balanced
phase one,having
the same number of turns and other conditions as
two windings
given
earlier,
ar e also
satisfied.
So, only
the forward rotating field is present, and the no
exists.
capacitors,
running.
The
This
the
efficiency
motor
performance
is used
of the
in
of applications,
the
motor
motor
under
improves
such
thisascondition
both
compressor,
at theistime
higher.
of
backward rotating field
Hence, and
starting
refrigerator,
using
then
etc.two

Lecture notes

Beside the above two types of motors, a Per manent Capacitor Motor (
the sameFig.)
capacitor
with being utilised for both starting and running, is also
used. The
power
factor
of this
motor, when it is operating (running), is high. The
operation
is also
and
smooth.
Thisquiet
motor is used in applications, such as ceiling
fans, air blower, etc.
circulator,

Shaded-pole Motor
A typical shaded- pole motor with a cage r otor is shown in Fig. This is
a singlephase
induction motor, with main winding in the stator. A small portion of
each pole is
covered with a short-circuited, single-turn copper coil called the shading
coil. The
sinusoidally varying flux created by ac (single-phase) excitation of the
main winding
induces emf in the shading coil. As a result, induced currents flow in the
shading coil
producing their own flux in the shaded portion of the pole.
Let the main winding flux be

Lecture notes

where

As per the above equations, the shading coil current (I

phasors lag behind the induced emf (E
phasor leads the induced emf (E

sc

sc

) andsc flux

) by angle while the flux

) by 90 o. Obviously the phasor is in phase

with The resultant flux in the shaded pole is given by the phasor
sum as shown in Fig. and lags the flux

of the remaining pole

by the angle The two sinusoidally varying fluxes are displaced in

space as well as have a time phase difference thereby producing
forward
and backwar d rotating fields, which produce a net torque. It may
be noted
the
motor that
is self-starting unlike a single-phase single-winding
motor.theItphasor
is seen
from
diagram (Fig. 34.8b) that the net flux in the shaded
portion of the
pole lags the flux in the unshaded portion of the pole resulting in a net
torque, which causes the rotor to rotate from the unshaded to the shaded
portion
of the pole. The motor thus has a definite direction of rotation, which
cannot
be The reversal of the direction of rotation, where desired,
reversed.
achieved
open-circuiting
fact
has
used
projectors,
starting
low
that
forelectric
one,
by
efficiency
the
domestic
small
providing
makes
shaded-pole
one
clocks
business
set
and
fans,
it less
two
and
ofis shading
record
costly
usually
other
shading
motor
machines,
single-phase
and
players
coils
is
available
coils,
singleresults
etc.
andone
and
by
The
in
winding
in
synchronous
on
tape
short-circuiting
arugged
shaded
each
range
recorders,
(no
end
construction.
of
-pole
of
auxiliar
1/300
timing
every
the
principle
toother
y
can
be
pole,
set.
winding)
The
1/20
humidifiers,
is
motors.
used
The
motor
and
kW.inby
selfIt is
slide

Lecture notes

In this lesson - the sixth and last one of this module, firstly, it is shown
that, no torque
starting
is produced in the single-phase induction motor with only one
winding,
as the flux produced is a pulsating one, with the winding being
(main) stator
fed fr om
single
phase supply. Using double revolving field theory, the
torque-speed
characteristics
of this type of motor are described, and it is also shown that, if
the motor
is some torque in either direction, the motor acceler
initially
given
ates in that
direction,
and also the torque is produced in that direction. Then,
types
of single-phase induction motors, along with the starting
the various
methods
in
each
one used
ar e presented.
Two stator windings - main and auxiliary, are needed to produce
starting the
torque. The merits and demer its of each type, along with their
area, are presented. The process of production of starting torque in
application
shade
motor -pole
is also described in brief. In the next module consisting of seven
lessons,
the construction and also operation of dc machines, both as
generator
motor, willand
be discussed.

Lecture notes

Lecture notes

UNIT-IV
CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF
D.C. DRIVES
SPEED CONTROL OF D.C. MOTORS:
In the case of speed control, armature voltage contr ol and flux
control The
methods
are available.
voltage control can be from a variable voltage
source like
WardLeonard
arrangement
or by the use of series armature resistance.
Unlike thethe
starting
conditions
ser ies resistance has to be in the circuit throughout
control.
Thatofmeans
in the case
speedconsiderable energy is lost in these resistors.
Further
these resistor
s
must
be adequately
cooled
for continuous operation. The variable
voltage
sourgives
ce onthe
themotor the voltage just needed by it and the losses
other
hand
in athe
control gear
is
minimum.
This method is commonly used when the speed ratio
required
is large,
as
also
the power
rating.
Field control or flux control is also used for speed control
field weakening
used. This causes operation at higher speeds than the
purposes.is Normally
nominal speed.the field has little scope for speed control as the
Strengthening
machines
are alreadyand
in alarge field mmf is needed for small
state of saturation
increaseflux
in the
flux. Even
though
weakening
gives higher speeds of operation it reduces
the torque
produced
by
the machine
for a given ar mature curr ent and hence the
increase
at any armature
current. The machine is said to be in constant
power delivered
does not
powerweakening
mode undermode of control. Above the nominal speed of
field
operation,
constant ux
mode with increased
applied voltage can be used; but this is never done
as the
stress on insulation increases.
the
commutator
Thus operation below nominal speed is done by voltage control.
nominalAbove
speed field
the weakening is adopted. For weakening the field,
seriesfor
resistances
e as compound motor s. In the case of series
used
shunt asarwell
weakening
is donefield
by the use of diverters . Diverters are resistances
motors however
thatparallel
are connected
in
to the series winding to reduce the field current without
affecting
current. the ar mature

Speed control of shunt motor

We know that the speed of shunt motor is given by:

motor we have
is the
essentially
voltage two
applied
methods
across
forthe
controlling
armature speed,
and namely
is the flux per pole
where,
Va
proportional
the
For
an
controlling
by:
external
mechanical
fixed supply
resistance
and
external
to the
load
isvoltage
field
present
field
connected
current
and
resistance
on
thethe
connected
in
motor
If.shaft.
ser
AsRf
ies
explained
connected
Therefore,
with
withthe
the
earlier,
as
armature.
by
shunt
field
var
ofarmature
course
we
circuit.
yingcan
If can
vary
Thus
current
Vaby
iswe
be
and
controlling
decided
for
varied
can
Va
IfIa
shunt
varby
ny.

Lecture notes

1. var ying armature r esistance.

2. var ying field resistance.
1. Speed control by varying armature resistance
The inherent armature resistance ra being small, ver
speed
sus armature
n
current
Ia character istic will be a straight line with a small negative slope as
theshown
discussion
to follow
in figure
. In we shall not disturb the field current from its
rated value. At no
load ( i.e., Ia = 0) speed is highest and Note that for shunt motor voltage
applied to the field and armature circuit are same and equal to
V.
the supplyasvoltage
However,
the motor is loaded, drop
I ara
increases making speed a little less than the
no load speed
0. For
n a well-designed shunt motor this drop in speed is small and about
3 respect to no load speed. This drop in speed from no
to 5% with
load to full
load
condition
expressed
as a percentage of no load speed is calledinherent
the
speed
regulation of the motor.

motor
. Therefor
(with
It is e,
for
nospeed
this
external
reason,
vs. torque
ar amature
d.c
characteristic
shunt
resistance
motoris isalso
connected)
saidsimilar
to be practically
to
since
speed vs.a
speed
amount
Ia
characteristic
connecting
armature
drops
constant
Since
The
from
external
curr
slope
no
by
asfor
ent
shown
speed
load
aof
constant
small
resistance
the
to in
full
nfigure.
vs
load
in
operation,
Ia
the
rext
condition.
orarncharacteristic
mature
vs Te circuit.becomes
can
One
beTe
can
modified
simply
get a family
proportional
by deliberately
of speed
to

Lecture notes

vs. ar matur e curves as shown in figur es for various values of . From

rextthese
characteristics it can be explained how speed control is achieved. Let us
load
torque
TL is constant and field current is also kept constant. Therefore, since
assume
that the
steady Te = TL, Te = a ktoo
state operation demands
I will remain constant; which means
Ia
will not change. Suppose= 0,
rext
then at rated load tor que, operating point will be at C
and motor speed will be n. If additional resistance
1 is introduced
rext
in the ar mature
circuit, new steady state operating speed will1be
corresponding
n
to the operating point
D. In this way one can get a speed2ofcor responding
n
to the oper ating point E, when
rext 2 is introduced in the armature circuit. This same load torque is supplied
at various
speed.
Variation of the speed is smooth and speed will decrease
rext
is
smoothly if
increased.
Obviously, this method is suitable for controlling speed below thespeedbase
and
for supplying constant rated load torque which ensures rated ar
mature
current
always.provides smooth wide range speed control (from
Although,
this method
base
speed
down has a serious draw back since energy loss takes
to
zero
speed),
place
in the
resistance
rextexternal
reducing the efficiency of the motor.

Lecture notes

2. Speed control by varying field current

In this method field circuit resistance is varied to control the speed of a
motor. Let
rewrite .the basic equation to understand the method.
d.c us
shunt

If we vary If, flux will change, hence speed will vary. To change
an external
If
resistance is connected in series with the field windings. The field
coil produces
flux
when no rated
external resistance is connected and rated voltage is
coil.
It should
applied
across fbe
ieldunderstood that we can only decrease flux from
its
ratedexternal
value resistance.
by
adding
Thus the speed of the motor will r ise as we
decreaseand
thespeed
field control above the base speed will be achieved.
current
Speed versus armature current characteristic is shown in figure
for two flux
values and Since no load speed for flux value is than the no load
speed no corresponding to . However, this method will not be suitable for
loadpoint clear, let us assume that the load torque is
torque. Toconstant
make this
constant at rated
value. So from the initial steady condition, we have If load
torque remains constant and flux is r educed to new armature current
in the steady
state is obtained from
Ther efore new ar matur e current is

But the fraction, ; hence new armature current will be greater than
the
rated armature
current and the motor will be over loaded. This method
suitable
output
reaction
power
Therefore
effect
for
a
will
loadatbewhose
higher
more
as shown
pr
torque
speed
onounced
demand
in
main
figure.
causing
flux
decreases
Obviously
may
problem
become
with
in
this
theso
method
rise
weakened,
in
therefor e, will constant
be
speed
is
weakening
commutation.
based
keeping
that
onofarmature
the
themain field.
flux

Lecture notes

3. Speed control by armature voltage variat ion

figure. Here
voltage
In
source,
this
themethod
while
armature
the
of speed
field
resistance
iscontrol,
separately
and
armature
field
excited
current
is with
supplied
are
fixed
not
from
rated
vara ied.
separ ate
voltage
Since
speed
for
different
the
the
var
asno
speed
shown
iable
values
loadversus
d.c
inof Va.
characteristic
Ia
will shift parallely as shown in figure

Lecture notes

As flux remains constant, this method is suitable for constant torque

a
way ar loads.
matureInvoltage
control method is similar to that of
armature
resistance
control
method except
that the
for mer one is much superior as no extra power
the
mature
circuit.
Armature voltage control method is adopted for
lossartakes
place
in
controlling
speeddown to very small speed, as one should not apply
from
base speed
across
armature
a than the r ated voltage.
voltage,the
which
is higher

4. Ward Leonard method: combination of Va and If control

Arr angement
rheostat
used
requir
3-phase
toed.
Insupply
supply.
inA
this
the
3-phase
for
scheme,
field
the
By
field
motor
induction
controlling
circuit
control
botharmature.
field
formotor
is this
rather
and
the purpose.
isarmature
field
Obviously
simple.
usedcurrent
asHowever,
control
One
thetoprime
of
has
runare
the
to
this
in
mover
integrated
simply
generator,
the
generator,
pre
which
as shown
connect
power
aobtaining
is
the
supplied
generated
electronic
in
anafigure.
from
appropriate
variable
d.c
emf,
aera,
supply was not easy and a separately excited d.c generator
prime mover
was
is

Lecture notes

hence Va can be varied. The potential divider connection uses two r heostats in
facilitate rparallel
eversaltoof generator field curr ent. First the induction
generator
field current
motor is started
with zero (by adjusting the jockey positions of
the rheostats).
Field is switched on with motor field r heostat set
supply
of the motor
to zero. toThe
voltage
theapplied
motor
, can Va
now be gradually increased to the rated value by slowly
incr easing the gener ator field current. In this scheme, no starter is
required
the d.c voltage to the armature is gradually increased. To
motor
as for
the applied
of
the d.c
control
themotor
speedbelow base speed by armature voltage, excitation of the
d.c generator
is control the speed above base speed field current of the
varied,
while to
d.c motor is varied
maintaining
constant. Reversal
Va
of direction of rotation of the motor can be obtained
by adjusting jockeys of the generator field rheostats. Although, wide
range smooth
speed the cost involved is rather high as we require
control
is achieved,
generator
and a 3-phase
induction motor of simialr rating as that of the
one additional
d.c
d.c motor
whose to be controlled.
speed
is intended
In present day, variable d.c supply can easily be obtained from
a.c supplyrectifier
by
using controlled
s thus avoiding the use of additional
generator
to implement
War d leonard method.
induction set
motor
and

Series motor

Lecture notes

In this motor the field winding is connected in ser ies with the
armature
and the with d.c voltage as depicted in figure
combination
is supplied
motor,
here field
current is not independent of armature cur rent.
39.13. Unlike
a shunt
In mature
fact, field
and are equal i.e.,
ar
currents
Now torque produced in a d.c motor is:

Since torque is proportional to the square of the armature current,

starting
of a series
motortorque
is quite high compared to a similarly rated d.c shunt
motor.

1.Characteristics of series motor

Torque vs. armature current characteristic
Since in the linear zone and the saturation zone, the
characteristic is as shown in figure
From the KVL equation of the motor, the relation between speed
speed vs.
current
can
and
armature
be
armature
obtained
current
as follows:

vs.
Ia
T

Lecture notes

The relationship is inverse in natur e making speed dangerously

high as
Remember that the value
, isofa measure
Ia
of degree of loading. Therefore, a
series motor should never be operated under no load condition. Unlike a
shunt motor,
a no finite no load speed. Speed versus ar mature current
series
motor has
shown
in figure
characteristic
is nvsia:side:

Lecture notes

Since in the linear zone, the relationship between speed and

torque is
represent appropriate constants to take into account the
proportionality that exist between current, torque and flux in the linear
zone.
relation
is
alsoThis
inverse
in nature indicating once again that at light load or condition;
series
no loadmotor speed approaches a dangerously high value. The
characteristic
shown ainseries motor is never connected to mechanical
figure.
For thisisreason,
load
drive.through
If belt belt
snaps, the motor becomes unloaded and as a
consequence
speed goes
up
unrestr
icted causing
mechanical
damages to the motor.
Speed control of series motor
1. Speed control below base speed

For constant load tor que, steady ar mature current remains

constant,
henceSince
fluxthe machine resistance aiss quite
also remains
constant.
r +resmall, the back emf
Eb is appr oximately equal to the armature terminal voltage
. Therefore,
Va
speed is
proportional to Va. If Va is r educed, speed too will be reduced. This
can beVa
controlled
either by connecting external resistance in series or by changing the
supply voltage.
Series-parallel connection of motors
If for a drive two or more ( even number) of identical motors are
cases
traction)
the
approximately
motors
(which
, the
formotors
means
controlling
half than
may
fluxspeed.
that
beper
suitably
inpole
Inthe
ser
isconnected
latter
ies
same),
connection
case.
speed
to have
Forof
will
same
different
t hebemotors
arhalf
mature
in
used (as in
shown
applied
current
ser
compared
ies in
connection
voltages
voltage
in
voltage
figure
toboth
parallel
across
,across
the
across
the connection.
each
each
motor
motor
/2 while
is. is
The
V in Vparallel
back emf
connection
in the former
shown case
in figure,
will the
be

Lecture notes

2. Speed control above base speed

Flux or field cur rent control is adopted to control speed above the base
speed.independent
In a
series motor,
control of field current is not so obvious as
coils
through
in
fact
are
it
In
the
is
in
this
less
ser
diverter
method
ies.However,
than
resistance.
the
shown
armature
this
inSo
figure
can
curr
field
beent.
39.19,
curr
achieved
Flux
ent
a portion
weakening
isby
now
thenot
offollowing
the
thus
equal
ar caused,
mature
to the current
armature and field
1. mature
methods:
ar
raises
the
Using
motor.
the
isaspeed
diverted
current;
diverter
of resistance connected across the field coil.

Lecture notes

2. Changing number of turns of field coil provided with tapings.

In this case shown figure 39.20, armature and field currents are
same.
However
provision
is kept
to change the number of turns of the field coil. When
number offield
turns
changes,
mmf se f N I changes, changing the flux hence speed of the motor.

will be
field
coils
4Generally
individual
(woundthe
over
coils
field
each
placed
terminals
pole)
over
in of
ser
thea ies.
poles.
d.c Consider
machine
If the terminals
are
a 4-pole
brought
series
of out
the after
3. Connecting
motor
individual
where
connecting
coils
there
field
are the
coils wound over each pole in series or in. parallel.

Lecture notes

brought out, then there exist several options for connecting them. The
four coils could
be as in figure 39.21; the 4 coils could be
connected
in series
parallel
combination
2 in series and other 2 in series as shown in
connected
in parallelofor
figure
39.22.
n figure of the coils (figure 39.21) flux produced is
For
series
connection
and
Ia
proportional
to
for
series-parallel
connection (figure 39.22) flux produced is
proportional to
Therefore, for same ar mature current
, flux will
Ia be doubled in the second case and
naturally speed will be approximately doubled as back emf in both the
cases isvoltage
close
to V control of speed in the ratio of 1:2 is possible for series parallel
supply
. Thus
connection.

In a similar way, reader can work out the variation of speed possible
all coilsbetween
connected
( i)in ser ies and (ii) all coils connected in par allel.

Lecture notes

UNIT-V
CONVENTIONAL AND SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL OF
A.C. DRIVES
SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINES:
We have seen the speed torque char acteristic of the machine. In the
stableinregion
of operation
the motoring mode, the curve is rather steep and goes
from zero torque
at to the stall torque at a value of slip s = ^s. Normally
synchronous
speed
^s may
such is about three times that of the rated operating torque of
that
stallbetorque
hence
may be
the machine,
andabout 0.3 or less. This means that in the entire
loading
of the
machine,range
the speed
change is quite small. The machine speed is quite
with respect
load speed variation is only in the range ns to (1
changes.
Theto entire
_dependent
^s)ns, nsonbeing
supply frequency and number of poles.
The foregoing discussion shows that the induction machine, when
mains isoperating
essentially
a constant speed machine. Many industrial drives,
from
typically
for fan or have typically constant speed requirements and
pump
applications,
hence the is
induction
machine
ideally suited for these. However, the induction
machine,
especially
squirrel cage
type, isthequite rugged and has a simple construction.
candidate
iable speed applications if it can be achieved.
Therefore for
it isvargood
1. Speed control by changing applied voltage
From the torque equation of the induction machine , we can see that
dependsthe
on torque
the square of the applied voltage. The variation of speed
respect
to ves
the with
applied voltage is shown in Fig. These curves show
torque cur
that the slip
at ^s remains same, while the value of stall torque
maximum
torque
comes down
wit h voltage. The speed range for stable operation
decrease
in applied
remainsFurther,
the same.
we also note that the starting torque is also lower at lower
Thus, level is sufficient for achieving the running
even if voltages.
a given voltage
may
notthestart.
This method of tr ying to control the speed is best
torque,
machine
suited efor
requir
veryloads
littlethat
starting tor que, but their torque requirement may
increase with speed.

Lecture notes

Figure : Speed-torque curves: voltage variation

Figure also shows a load torque characteristic | one that is typical of a
type
of load.type
In of load, the variation of torque with speed is such
afanfan
(blower)
that can
T /! see
2. that it may be possible to run the motor to lower speeds
one
within
ns since
to the load torque at zero speed is zero, the
(1
_ ^s)the
ns.range
Further,
machine
canvoltages.
start evenThis will not be possible with constant torque
at
r educed
type of
may
noteloads.
that ifOne
the applied voltage is reduced, the voltage across the
also
comes down.
This in turn means that the magnetizing current and
magnetizing
br anch
hence ux level
are in the ux level in the machine impairs torque
reduced.
Reduction
production ( recall
explanations
on torque production). If, however, the machine is
running conditions,
under lightly
loaded
then operating under rated flux levels is not
conditions,
reduction
required. Under
such in magnetizing current improves the power
factor amount
of operation.
Some
of energy saving may also be achieved. Voltage control
mayadding
be achieved
by
series resistors (a lossy, inefficient proposition), or a ser
ies inductor / (a bulky solution) or a more modern solution
autotransformer
using semiconductor
devices.
A typical solid-state circuit used for this purpose is the AC
voltage
controller
or use of voltage control is in the so-called `softAC
chopper.
Another
This
in the section on starting methods.
start' is
ofdiscussed
the machine.
2. Rotor resistance control
The reader may recall the expression for the torque of the
doesatthe
Clearly,
independent
resistance.
torque
family
slip
which
point
of
Note
itstarting
torque-speed
Therefore,
isshift
of
that
maximum
dependent
the
while
to
torque.
rotor
higher
we
character
the
torque
resistance.
may
on
Whether
slip
maximum
the
expect
occurs
values,
istic
rotor
the
The
that
obtained
torque
increases
while
resistance.
load
slip
if the
at
and
retaining
isby
maximum
rotor
with
of
synchronous
changing
Further,
constant
incr
resistance
a constant
ease
torque
the
that
torque
in
speed
rotor
isrotor
theremain
r
induction
machine.
maximum
dependent
changed,
torque.
esistance.
resistance,
type
or Figure
constant,
fan-type,
the
on
and
value
maximum
the
shows
sothe
ris
itotor
isa

Here

Lecture notes

evident that the speed control range is more with this method.
Further,could
rotoralso
resistance
control
be used as a means of gener ating high starting tor
que. For all its advantages, the scheme has two serious drawbacks. Firstly, in
vary theorder
rotorto resistance, it is necessary to connect external
variable resistors
(winding
resistance
itself cannot
be changed). This, therefor e necessitates a
slip-r ing
since
onlymachine,
in that case r otor terminals ar e available outside. For
cage rotor
there
are nomachines,
rotor terminals. Secondly, the method is not very
additional
resistance
efficient since
the and operation at high slips entails dissipation
resistors
connected
to should have good power dissipation
the
slip-ring
brushes
capability.may
Water
rheostats
be based
used for this. A `solid-state' alternative to a r
heostat is aresistance
chopper where the duty ratio control of the chopper
controlled
presents aload
variable
resistance
to the rotor of the induction machine.

Figure: Speed-tor que curves : rotor resistance variation

3. Cascade control
The power drawn from the rotor terminals could be spent more
usefully.
Apartgenerated in meaning full ways, the slip ring
from using
the heat
output could
be
connected
to another
induction machine. The stator of the second
slip
frequency
machine
would currents
carr y of the fir st machine, which would generate
some usefulpower. A still better option would be to mechanically couple
mechanical
the shafts
of the
two
machines
together. This sort of a connection is called cascade
p1,
the
hence
are
coupled
second
and
in
Let
its
the
slip
machine.
the
at
stator
of
the
frequency
operation
of
shaft,
The
thecontrol
second
frequency
the
of be
supply
speed
s1.
Let
given
of currents
f2;
thebelow.
is
to
p2
r otor
s1f1.
the
and
owing
first
is
Therefore
s2 common
be
machine
inthe
the f2
rotor
be
for
= s1f1.
f1,
both.
ofits
thenumber
connection
andof
it speed
gives
some
measure
asmachine
shown
corresponding
first
Since
Hence,
speed
machine
the
ofpoles
ifthe
machines
n rotor
isbe
and
quantities
the
for

Lecture notes

Figure: Generalized rotor control

in radians,

Note that while giving the rotor output of the first machine to the stator
of
the second,
resultant
statorthe
mmf of the second machine may set up an air-gap flux
which
rotates
in as that of the rotor, or opposes it. This results in
the
same
dir ection
values for speed as

The latter expression is for the case where the second machine is
in
oppositeconnected
phase sequence
to the fir st. The cascade-connected system can
therefore
run speeds.
at
two
possible
Speed control through rotor terminals can be
considered
in away.
muchConsider the induction machine equivalent
more general
circuit
beenthe
terminated
circuit,has
where
rotor with a voltage source Er.
If the rotor terminals are shorted, it behaves like a nor mal induction
machine.
This that across the rotor terminals a voltage source of
is equivalent
to saying
zero
magnitude
is
connected.
Dif ferent situations could then be considered if this
non-zer
o magnitude.
voltage source
Er had Let
a the power consumed by that source be Pr.
Then considering
the dissipation per phase
rotor
side circuit power

Clearly now, the value of s can be changed by the value of Pr. For
0, athe
machinePris=like
normal machine with a short circuited rotor. As Pr
all
other circuit
conditions
remaining constant, s increases or in the
becomes
positive,
for
other words,
reduces.
As Prspeed
becomes negative, the right hand side of the equation
and
hence the
decreases.
Theslip
physical interpretation is that we now have an active
the
R2
is
connected
circuit,
recover
zero.
the
rotor
entire
which
power
This
side,
to
the
copper
can
which
corresponds
back
process
to
loss
ismay
the
able
isthis
mains.
not
supplied
to supply
be
operation
power
Such
a simple
bypart
requir
circuits
theatof
resistor
external
ement.
synchr
theare
rotor
called
oronous
source.
This
acopper
machine
static
circuit
speed.
The
losses.
kramer
RHS
but
may
Ina dr
source connectedrotor
on
When
and
gener
power
ive
4.
drives.
Pole
ahence
machine
al
Pr
electronic
changing
the
=the
_Icircuitr
02
slip
or 2schemes
y

Lecture notes

Sometimes induction machines have a special stator winding

externally
connected
to form two different number of pole
capable
of being
numbers. Since
theof the induction machine is given by ns = fs=p (in
synchronous
speed
rev./s)
whereofppole
is pairs, this would cor respond to changing the
the
number
synchronous
With
the
slip nowspeed.
corresponding
to the new synchronous speed, the
operating This
speed
is of speed control is a stepped var iation and gener
changed.
method
two
steps.
ally restricted
to
If the changes in stator winding connections are made so that the
gap fluxthen at any winding connection, the same
remainsairconstant,
maximum torque
is
achievable.
Such winding
ar rangements are therefore referred to as
constant -torque
connections.
If however such connection changes result in air gap flux
inversely
proportional
to the synchronous speeds, then such
changes that
are
connections are called
constant-horsepower
type. The following figure serves to illustrate
the
basic aprinciple.
Consider
magnetic pole structure consisting of four pole faces A, B, C,
D inwound
fig. Coils
are
on A & C in the directions shown. The two coils on A & C
may
be connected
in series
in two different ways | A2 may be connected to C1 or C2.
terminal
A1 with at
theC then
otherform the terminals of the overall combination. Thus
two connections
result
as shown in fig.
Now, for a given dir ection of current flow at terminal A1, say into
A1,within the poles ar e shown in the figures. In case
the fluxterminal
dir ections
(a),
thethe
flux
lines
are from the rotor) for and into pole C, thus
out of
pole
A (seen
establishing a two- pole
structure.

Figure: Pole arrangement

In case (b) however, the flux lines are out of the poles in A & C. The
flux lines
will be then
have to complete the circuit by owing into the pole
structures
the the
sides.
I f,the pole emanating flux lines is considered
when
seenon
from
rotor,
the
pole into
as north
polewhich
and they enter is termed as south, then the pole
configurations
produced
by
field.
half
voltage
gap
these
changing
fr
flux
Inom
isan
connections
in
balanced
case
induction
the
both
( ter
a)cases
to
by
minal
is
machine
case
the
aistwo-pole
connections
series
(b).
the this
same.
Further
addition
would
arrangement
Cases
we
note
of
correspond
getthat
(a)
induced
either
in
and
irrespective
figaemfs
(b)
to
two
and
a therefore
synchronous
apole
infour
of
two
air
the
-pole
coils.
-gap
form
arrangement.
field
speed
connection,
aTherefore
torque
pairorreduction
of
connections.
a constant
fourthe
the
Thus
air
pole
applied
in-

Lecture notes

Consider, on the other hand a connection as shown in the fig. The

T1 the input excitation is given. Note that current
and T2 terminals
are where
now
resembles
direction
in the that
coils of case ( b) , and hence this would result in a
four -pole in
structure.
However,
fig, there is only one coil-induced emf to balance the
applied
voltage.
Ther
efore
flux in case (c) would therefore be halved compared to that
of case
(ormatter).
case
(a),
for(b)
that
Cases (a) and (c) ther efore form a pair of
constant horsepower
connections.
It is impor tant to note that in generating a different
current
through the
one coil ( out of two, coil C in this case) is reversed. In
pole numbers,
the case
of a threephase
machine,
the following example serves to explain this. Let the
machine have
coils [C1 _ C6]
connected
as shown
The current directions shown in C1 & C2 correspond to the case where
T2; with three phase excitation and Ta; Tb & Tc are
T3 are T1;
supplied
(STAR
applied voltage must be balanced by induced emf in
shorted point).
to eachThe
other
oneC2
coilaronly
(C1
&
e parallel).
If however the excitation is given to Ta; Tb& Tc
with
T2;
T3
open,T1;
then
current

through one of the coils (C1 & C2) would reverse. Thus the effective
numberinverters,
of also
poles
would
increase,
thereby
bringing
speed.
The
other
coils
frequency
called
The
expression
it which
can
be convert
for
changed.
the dc
synchronous
This
todown
accan
of the
be
desired
speed
achieved
frequency.
indicates
by using
that
power
by changing
also
face
similar
conditions.
5. Stator
electronic
Depending
thefrequency
circuits
on
stator
the type
control
of

Lecture notes

control scheme of the inverter, the ac generated may be var iablefrequency-fixedamplitude or var iable-frequency- variable-amplitude type. Power
achieves
variation of voltage and frequency of the ac output.
electronicsmooth
contr ol
This when
to theof running at a controlled speed. However, consider
machine
is fed
capable
equationemf
for in the induction machine.
the induced

Figure : Pole change example: three phase

where N is the number of the turns per phase, _m is the peak flux in the
air gap
and f isNote that in order to reduce the speed, frequency has to
the
frequency.
be reduced.isIfreduced
the
frequency
while the voltage is kept constant, thereby requir
inginduced
the amplitude
of
emf to remain the same, flux has to increase. This is not
advisable likely
since the
machine
to enter deep saturation. If this is to be avoided, then
maintained
constant
flux level must
be which implies that voltage must be reduced
alongratio
withisfrequency.
The
held constant in order to maintain the flux level for
maximum
capability. torque
Actually, it is the voltage across the magnetizing branch of the exact
circuit that
must be maintained constant, for it is that which determines
equivalent
the induced
emf. where the stator voltage drop is negligible
Under
conditions
compared
the applied
voltage,
is valid.
In this mode of operation, the voltage across the magnetizing
inductancecircuit
in thereduces in amplitude with r eduction in
'exact' equivalent
frequency
and so does
theimplies that the current through the
inductive reactance.
This
the
machineand
remains
constant.
The speed torque character istics at any
inductance
the flux
in
frequency may
be
estimated
as before.
There is one cur ve for every excitation
corresponding
to
ever
frequency considered y value of synchronous speed. The curves are
shown
be
seenbelow.
that theIt maximum
may
torque remains constant.

Lecture notes

Figure : Torque- speed curves with E=f held constant

This may be seen mathematically as follows. If E is the voltage across
the
magnetizing
branch
and f is the frequency of excitation, then E = kf, where k
is the constant If!
of = 2_f, the developed torque is given by
proportionality.

If this equation is differentiated with respect to s and equated to zero to

find the sliptorque
at
maximum
^s, we get ^s = _R0 r=(! L0 lr). The maximum
torque
is obtained
by into eqn.
substituting
this value

Equation shows that this maximum value is independent of the

frequency. Further
^s! is This means that the maximum tor que always
independent
of frequency.
occurs than
at a speed
lower
synchronous speed by a fixed difference, independent
of frequency.
overall
effect The
is an appar ent shift of the torque-speed
Though
this isas the
aim, inE fig.
is an internal voltage, which is not
characteristic
shown
accessible.
It is V
only
terminal
voltage
thatthe
we have access to and can control. For a fixed V,
E
changesslip
with(rotor branch impedance changes) and further due to the
operating
stator Thus
impedance
drop.
if we approximate E=f as V=f, the resulting torque- speed
characteristic
shown
in fig. is far from
desirable.

Lecture notes

Figure : Torque- speed curves with V=f constant

At low fr equencies and hence low voltages the curves show a
considerable
in
peak
tor que. reduction
At low frequencies
(and hence at low voltages) the
drop acrossprevents
the statorsufficient voltage availability. Therefore, in
impedance
order to maintain
sufficient
torque at low fr equencies, a voltage more than proportional
low
speeds.
needs
to be given at
Another component of compensation that needs to be given is due to
operating
slip. With
these two components, therefore, the ratio of applied
voltage
to frequency
not
a constant
but is aiscurve such as that shown in fig. With this kind
of control,
it isa good starting torque and steady state
possible
to get

Figure : Voltage boost required for V=f control

perfor mance. However, under dynamic conditions, this control is
control
techniques
such as field- oriented control ( vector control) or
insufficient.
Advanced
direct tor
control
(DTC)
areque
necessary.

Lecture notes

Lecture notes
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Electrical Drives and Control ME 36
(For Mechanical Engineering)
Third Semester
2 marks (Questions & Answers)
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
1.

Define Drive and Electric Drive.

Drive: A combination of prime mover, transmission equipment and
mechanical working load is called a drive
Electric drive:
An Electric Drive can be defined as an
electromechanical device for converting electrical energy to
mechanical energy to impart motion to different machines and
mechanisms for various kinds of process control.

2. List out some examples of prime movers.

I.C Engines, Steam engine, Turbine or electric motors.
3. List out some advantages of electric drives
i.
ii.
iii.

Availability of electric drives over a wide range of power a few

watts to mega watts.
Ability to provide a wide range of torques over wide range of
speeds.
Electric motors are available in a variety of design in order to
make them compatible to any type of load.

4.

Give some examples of Electric Drives.

5.

i.
Driving fans, ventilators, compressors and pumps.
ii.
Lifting goods by hoists and cranes.
iii.
Imparting motion to conveyors in factories, mines and
What
Group
iv. areelectric
warehouses
Running
cars
the types
trolley
drives
excavators
ofbuses,
electric
(Shaft
lifts
&
drive),
drives?
&
escalators,
drumI winders
electric
etc.
locomotives trains,

Lecture notes

ndividual Drives,
Multi motor electric drives.
6. Classify electric drives based on the means of control.
Manual, Semiautomatic, Automatic.
7. What is a Group Electric Drive (Shaft Drive)?
This drive consists of single motor, which drives one or more
line shafts supported on bearings.
The line shaft may be fitted with either pulleys & belts or gears,
by means of which a group of machines or mecha nisms may be
operated.
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Group drive (Shaft
drive)?
Advantages:
A single large motor can be used instead of a number of small
motors.
The rating of the single motor may be appropriately reduced
taking into account the diversity factor of loads.
Disadvantages:
There is no flexibility, Addition of an extra machine to the main
shaft is difficult.
The efficiency of the drive is low, because of the losses occurring
in several transmitting mechanisms.
The complete drive system requires shutdown if the motor,
requires servicing or repair.
The system is not very safe to operate
The noise level at the work spot is very high.
2. What is an individual electric drive? Give some examples.
In this drive, each individual machine is driven by a separate
motor. This motor also imparts motion to various other parts of the
machine.
3. What
activate
is a multi
Single
In
onthis
ofmotor
the
drive,
spindle
working
electric
there
drilling
are
parts
drive?
several
machine,
of the
Give
drives,
driven
Lathe
some
each
mechanisms.
machines
examples.
of which
etc.serves to

Lecture notes

Metal cutting machine tools, paper making machines, rolling

mills, traction drive, Traveling cranes etc.,
4. Write about manual control, semiautomatic control & Automatic
control?
Manual control:
The electric drives with manual control can be as
simple as a room fan, incorporating on switch and a resistance for
setting the required speed.
Semiautomatic control:
This control consists of a manual device
for giving a certain command (Starting, braking, reversing, change
of speed etc.,) and an automatic device that in response to
command, operates the drive in accordance with a preset
sequence or order.
Automatic control:
The electric drives with automatic control
have a control gear, without manual devices
12. What are the Typical elements of an Electric Drive?
Power Supply
Speed & Torque
Control Motor

Geared
Coupling

Mechanical Laod

13. What is a load diagram? What are its types? What are
required
to draw a load diagram?
A load diagram is the diagram which shows graphically the
variation of torque acting on the electric drive. The motor of the
electric drive has to overcome the load torque expressed as a
function of time.
Types:
One for the static or steady state process
Other
for
the
dynamic
process,
when
14. of
(Instantaneous
time
What
of torque
are
are
required
the
are
speed,
induced
types
toacceleration,
draw..
Drive
by
the
systems?
inertia
Torque
ofthe
the
&dynamic
power)
motor &ascomponents
load.
a function

Lecture notes

Electric Drives
Mechanical Drives
Electromechanical Drives Hydraulic drives.
15.

Give an expression for the losses occurring in a machine.

The losses occurring in a machine is given by

W = Wc + x 2 W v
Where
Wc = Constant losses
Wv = Variable losses at full load
X = load on the motor expressed as a function of
rated load.
16.

What are the assumptions made while performing heating &

cooling calculation of an electric motor?
i.

ii.
iii.

The machine is considered to be a homogeneous body having

a uniform temperature gradient. All the points at which heat
generated have the same temperature. All the points at
which heat is dissipated are also at same temperature.
Heat dissipation taking place is proportional to the difference
of temperature of the body and surrounding medium. No
heat is radiated.
The rate of dissipation of heat is constant at all
temperatures.

17. What are the factors that influence the choice of electrical
drives?
1. Shaft power & speed
11. Speed range
2. Power range
12. Efficiency
3. Starting torque
13. Influence on the supply network
4. Maintenance
14. Special competence
5. Total purchase cost
15. Cost of energy losses
6. Influence on power supply 16. Environment
7. Availability
17. Accessibility
8. Nature of electric supply 18. Nature of load
9. Types of drive
19. Electrical Characteristics
10.Service cost
20. Service capacity & rating
18.
Indicate
the
importance
ofselection
power
rating
&
heating
electric
of drives.
consideration
economic
drives.
Power
Heating:
interest
israting:
the
For
heating
as
proper
it isCorrect
effect
associated
selection
with
of power
capital
of power
rating
cost
rating
and
the most
running
ofofelectric
important
costmotor is

Lecture notes

of load. In this connection various forms of loading or

duty cycles have to be considered.
19.

How heating occurs in motor drives?

The heating of motor due to losses occurring inside the motor while
converting the electrical power into mechanical power and these losses
occur in steel core, motor winding & bearing friction.
20. What are the classes of duties?
1. Continuous duty
2. Short time duty operation of motor Main classes of duties
3. Intermittent periodic duty
4. Intermittent periodic duty with starting
5. Intermittent periodic duty with starting & braking
6. Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
7. Continuous duty with starting & braking
8. Continuous duty with periodic load changes
21.

How will you classify electric drives based on the method of

speed control?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Reversible &non reversible in controlled constant speed

Reversible and non reversible step speed control
Reversible and non reversible smooth speed control
Constant predetermined position control
Variable position control
Composite control.

22. List out some applications for which continuous duty is

required.
Centrifugal pumps, fans, conveyors & compressors
23. Why the losses at starting is not a factor of consideration in a
continuous duty motor?
While selecting a motor for this type of duty it is not necessary to
give importance to the heating caused by losses at starting even though
they are more than the losses at rated load. This is because the motor
does
notifAny
require
frequent
starting
it
is
started
only
once
in P
itsfor
duty
cycle
and the
24.
operation
than
P,
What
losses
the
can
iselectric
temperature
meant
be
during
loaded
motor
by
starting
short
for
rise
that
a short
do
isis
time
the
not
rated
time
consideration.
have
rating
for
duty
much
a of
power
(Pmotor?
influence
rating
on
heating.
) that
continuous
is much higher
sh

Lecture notes

25. What is meant by load equalization?

In the method of load Equalization intentionally the motor inertia
is increased by adding a flywheel on the motor shaft, if the motor is not
to be reversed. For effectiveness of the flywheel, the motor should have
aprominent drooping characteristic so that on load there is a considerable
speed drop.
26. How a motor rating is determined in a continuous duty and
variable load ?
1. Method of Average losses
2. Method of equivalent power
3. Method of equivalent current
4. Method of equivalent Torque
27. Define heating time constant & Cooling time constant?

28. Draw the heating & Cooling curve of an electric motor.

29. What are the various function performed by an electric drive?

1. Driving fans, ventilators, compressors & pumps etc.,
2. Lifting goods by hoists & cranes
3. Imparting motion to conveyors in factories, mines & warehouses
and
4. Running excavators & escalators, electric locomotives, trains,
trolley
and
lifts
etc.
30. Write
Heatcars,
Ghd0
down
balance
+ S0
the
.dtequation
heat
=buses
p.dt
balance
is given
equation.
by

Lecture notes
UNIT II
ELECTRICAL MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

1. Why a single phase induction motor does not self start?

When a single phase supply is fed to the single phase induction motor.
stator a flux which only alter nates along one space
windingItsproduces
synchronously
field, as in the case of a 2 or 3phase stator
axis. It is not revolving
a
winding,
from 2
or
3 phasefed
supply.
2. What is meant by plugging?
The plugging operation can be achieved by changing the polar ity of the
there bymotor
reversing the direction of rotation of the motor. This can be
achieved
ac
motors byinchanging
the phase sequence and in dc motors by changing
the polar ity.
3. Give some applications of DC motor .
Shunt : driving constant speed, lathes, centrifugal pumps, machine tools,
blowers andpumps
fans, reciprocating
Series : electric locomotives, r apid transit systems, trolley cars, cranes and
hoists,
conveyors
Compound : elevators, air compressors, rolling mills, heavy planners.
4. What are the different types of electric braking?
Dynamic or Rheostatic braking,
Counter current or plugging and
Regenerative braking
5. What is the effect of variation of armature voltage on N-T curve
andachieved?
how it can
be
The N-T curve moves towards the right when the voltage is increased.
can be of additional resistance in the armature circuit or by
achievedThis
by means
using thyr
istor
power
converter.
6. Compare electrical and mechanical braking.
Can be applied to hold the system at any position cannot produce
Brakes
Not
torque.
holding
Mechanical
smooth
require frequent
smooth
maintenance
Electrical
very little maintenance

Lecture notes

7. When does an induction motor behave to run off as a generator?

When the rotor of an induction motor runs faster than the stator field,
slip
becomesthe
negative.
Regenerative braking occurs and the K.E. of the
rotating
parsupply
ts is return
back
to the
as electrical energy and thus the machine generates
power.
8. Define slip.
S = Ns Nr
N
s
Where, Ns
= synchr onous speed in rpm.
Nr = rotor speed in rpm
S = Slip
9. Define synchronous speed.
It is given by N s = 120f / p rpm.
Where N= synchronous
speed, p = no. of stator poles, f = supply frequency in
s
Hz
10. Why a single phase induction motor does not self start?
When a single phase supply is fed to the single phase induction motor.
stator a flux which only alter nates along one space
windingItsproduces
axis. It is not revolving
a
synchronously
field, as in the case of a 2 or 3phase stator
winding,
from 2
or
3 phasefed
supply.
5. What is meant by regenerative braking?
In the regenerative braking operation, the motor operates as a generator,
while it to the supply here, the motor speed is grater that the
is still connected
synchronousenergy
speed. is converter into electrical energy, part of which
Mechanical
is returned
to the
supply
and rest
as heat in the winding and bear ing.
6. Give some applications of DC motor.
Shunt :: driving
Series
electric constant
locomotives,
speed,
r apid
lathes,
transit
centrifugal
systems,pumps,
trolleymachine
cars, cranes
tools,
blowers
fans,
and
Compound
conveyors
hoists,
reciprocating
and: elevators,
pumps
air compressors, rolling mills, heavy planners.

Lecture notes

7. Compare electrical and mechanical braking.

Mechanical
Electrical
Brakes require frequent maintenance very little maintenance
Not smooth
smooth
Can be applied to hold the system at any position cannot produce
torque.
holding
8. Differentiate cumulative and differential compound mot ors.
Cumulative
differential
The orientation of the series flux aidsthe shunt flux series flux opposes
shunt flux
9. What is meant by mechanical characteristics?
A curve drawn between the parameters speed and torque.

UNIT III
STARTING METHODS
1. Mention the Starters used to start a DC motor.
Two point Starter
Three point Starter
Four point Starter
2. Mention the Starters used to start an Induction motor.
D.O.L Starter (Dir ect Online Starter)
Star-Delta Starter
Auto Transformer Starter
Reactance or Resistance starter
Stator Rotor Starter ( Rotor Resistance Starter)
3. What are the protective devices in a DC/AC motor Starter.
Hold on
Thermal
Fuses(Starting
Over
loadCoil
Relays
Release
relay
/Running)
(O.L.R) or No volt coil

Lecture notes

4. Is it possible to include/ Exclude external resist ance in the

rotor of cage
a induction motor?. Justify
Squirrel
No it is not possible to include/ Exclude external resistance in the
r otor of cage
a
Squirrel
induction motor because, the rotors bars are
permanently
short of circuiting rings (end rings) at both the
circuited
by means
ends. toi.e.
rings
dono
so. slip
5. Give the prime purpose of a starter for motors.
when induction motor is switched on to the supply, it takes about 5 to 8
timescurrent
full at starting. This starting current may be of such a
load
magnitude
as to
cause
objectionable
voltage drop in the lines. So Starters are necessary
6. Why mot or take heavy current at starting?
When 3 phase supply is given to the stator of an induction motor,
magneticinfield
rotating
space at synchronous speed is produced. This magnetic field
is cutrotor
by conductor s, which are short circuited. This gives to
the
them.
induced current in
Since rotor of an induction motor behaves as a short circuited
secondary ofwhose
a
transformer
primary is stator winding, heavy rotor current
corresponding
Thus motor draws heavy
will require heavy stator balancing currents.
current at st arting
7. What are the met hods to reduce the magnitude of rot or
induced
current current)
(rotor at starting?.
By increasing the r esistance in the rotor circuit
By reducing the magnitude of rotating magnetic field i.e by reducing
the applied
voltage
to the stator windings.
8. What is the objective of rotor resistance starter (stator rotor
starter)?
To include resistance in the rotor circuit there by reducing the
inducedatrotor
current
starting. This can be implemented only on a slip ring
induction motor.
9. Why squirrel cage induction motors are not used for loads
requiring
high
torque?
whichstarting
reason
Why
leads squirrel
to
the cage
development
inductionof
motors
low are
starting
not used
torque
for loads
at starting.
.
Squirrel
This
requiring
starting
10.
How
is torque.
the
cage
hig
reduced
h motors
voltage
are starting
started only
of Induction
by
motor
reduced
is achived?
voltage starting
methods

Lecture notes

D.O.L Starter (Dir ect Online Starter)

Star-Delta Starter
Auto Transformer Starter
Reactance or Resistance star ter
11. Give the relation between line voltage and phase voltage in a
(i) Delta connected network (ii) Star connected network
Delta connected network:
V
= V line
phase
Star connected network:
V phase = V line / v3
12. Give some advantages and disadvantages of D.O.L starter.
Advant ages:
Highest starting torque
Low cost
Greatest simplicity
Disadvantages:
The inrush current of lar ge motors may cause excessive voltage drop in
the weak
power
system
The torque may be limited to protect certain types of loads.
13. Explain double st age reduction of line current in an Auto
transformer
starter.
First stage r eduction is due to reduced applied voltage
Second stage reduction is due to reduced number of turns
14. Compare the Induction motor starters
% of
line
Description
volt ag
of Starter
e
applie
d
D.O.L
transformer
Star
starter
Auto
Delta
Starter
57.7%
100%
I80%
I

Starting current
(Is )compared with

Starting torque
(Ts)compared with

D.O.L
current( Idol )

Full load
current( I
)

D.O.L Full load

Torque( Tdol )torque(
T)

Is s=(0.8)
=s (1/
=IdolI v3
)2
dol
2I IIdol

Is =s =
3.84
6I IT
2I

Ts = =(0.8)
(1/
T dol)22 TTdol= =
T
1.28
=
2/3T
T6T
s = v3
sT
ss

Lecture notes

starter 60%
Reactanceresistance
starter

Is =(0.6) 2 I dol

Is = 2.16 I

Ts = =(0.6) 2 T dol= 0.72Ts T

40%

Is =(0.4) 2 I dol

Is = 0.96 I

Ts = =(0.4) 2 T dol= 0.32Ts T

64% I

= (0.64) 2 Idol I
s

= 2.5 I T
s

=(0.425) 2
Tdol T
s

15. Draw t he Speed-Torque characteristics of an Induct ion

motor
variouswith
values of Rotor Resistance.
Rotor Resistance Increasing
Tmax

Torque

Speed

UNIT IV
CONVENTIONAL SPEED CONTROL
1. Give the expression for speed for a DC motor.
Speed N = k (V-I

Ra )

where V = Terminal Voltage in volts

Ia = Armature current in Amps
Armature
by varying
the in
terminal
Racontrol= Armature
resistance
ohms voltage -for below rated
Field
speed
2.control
What
= flux
-are
by
perthe
varying
pole.
waysthe
of speed
flux per
control
pole. in
-fordcabove
motors?
rated speed

= 0.35T
s

Lecture notes

3. Give the Limitation of field control

a. Speed lower than the rated speed cannot be obtained.
b. It can cope with constant kW drives only.
c. This control is not suitable to application needing speed reversal.
4. Compensating winding can be used to increase the speed range in
field
control method
5. What are the 3 ways of field control in DC series motor?
Field diverter control
Armature diverter control
Motor diverter control
Field coil taps control
Series-parallel control
6. What are the main applications of Ward-Leonard system?
It is used for colliery winders.
Electric excavators
In elevators
Main drives in steel mills and blooming and paper mills.
7. What are the merits and demerits of rheostatic control method?
Impossible to keep the speed constant on rapidly changing loads.
A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance.
Loss of power is directly proportional to the reduction in speed. Hence
efficiency is decreased.
Maximum power developed is diminished in the same ratio as speed.
It needs expensive arrangements for dissipation of heat produced in the
8. What
More
controller
It
gives
economical,
are
speed
resistance.
the below
advantages
more
normal,
efficient
of not
field
above.
and
control
convenient.
method?

Lecture notes

It can give speeds above normal speed.

9. Compare the values of speed and torque in case of motors when in
parallel and in series.
The speed is one fourth the speed of the motor when in parallel.
The torque is four times that produced by the motor when in parallel.
10. Mention the speed control method employed in electric traction.
Series-parallel speed control.
11. What is the effect of inserting resistance in the field circuit of a dc
shunt motor on its speed and torque?
For a constant supply voltage, flux will decrease, speed will increase
andwill increase.
torque
12. While controlling the speed of a dc shunt motor what should be
done
to achieve a constant torque drive?
Applied voltage should be maintained constant so as to maintain field strength

Lecture notes

UNIT V
SOLID STATE SPEED CONTROL
1. What is a controlled rect ifier?
A controlled rectifier is a device which is used for converting
fromcontrolled
a control dc
voltage
powerac supply.
2. What is firing angle?
The control of dc voltage is achieved by firing the thyristor at an
withadjustable
respect toangle
the applied voltage. This angle is known as firing angle.
3. Give some applications of phase control converters.
Phase control converters are used in the speed control of fractional kW
welldc
asmotors
in largeasmotors employed in variable speed reversing drives for
rolling mills.
motors
ratingswith
as large as several MW s.
4. What is the main purpose of free wheeling diode?
Free wheeling diode is connected across the motor terminal to
allow for
the stored in motor inductance and to provide for
dissipation
of energy
continuity
of motor
current
when
the thyristors are blocked.
5. What is a full converter?
A full converter is a tow quadrant converter in which the voltage
polarity
of the but the current remains unidirectional because
output
can reverse,
of unidirectional
thyristors.
6. What is natural or line commutation?
The commutation which occurs without any action of external force is
called
natural
or line
commutation.
7. What is forced com mutation?
for aA
The
short
chopper
commutation
timeisintervals
essentially
process
andanapplies
electronic
whichthetakes
source
switch
place
potential
thatby
turns
the
toon
motor
action
the fixedof an
called
8.
terminals
pulses.
external
What
voltage
forced
in
isdc
series
aforce
commutation.
chopper?
source
of
is

Lecture notes

9. What are the two main difficulties of variable frequency system?

Control of rVequires
variation of chopper frequency over a wide range. Filter design
a
for
variable frequency
operation is difficult.
10. At low voltage, a large value of t offmakes t he motor current discontinuous.
Classify commutation.
Voltage commutation
Current commutation.
11. What is voltage commutation?
A charged capacitor momentarily reverse-bias the conducting thyristor
Thistoisturn
known
as voltage commutation.
it off.
12. What is current commutation?
A current pulse is forced in the reverse direction through the conducting
As becomes zero, the thyristor is turned OFF. This is
the thyristor.
net current
commutation.
known as current
13. What is load commutation?
The load current flowing through the thyristor either becomes zero
in natural or
line (as
commutation
employed in converters) or is transferred to another
device
fr om
theistor. This is known as load commutation.
conducting
thyr
14. What are the different means of controlling induction motor?
Stator voltage control.
Frequency control
Pole changing control.
Slip power r ecovery control.
15. What are the two ways of controlling the RMS value of stator
16. Mention
voltage? the
Phase
Integral
t wocontrol
slip-power
cycle control
recovery schemes.

Lecture notes
Static scher bius scheme

Static Kramer drive scheme.

17. Give the basic difference between the two slip-power recovery
schemes.
The slip is returned to the supply network in scherbius scheme and
scheme,init Kramer
is used to drive an auxiliar y motor which is
induction
motor
shaft. to the
mechanically
coupled
18. Writ e short notes on inverter rectifier.
The dc source could be converted to ac form by an inverter,
suitabletransfor
voltagemed
and then
to a rectified to dc form. Because of two stage of
conversion,
thecostly and less efficient.
setup
is bulky,
19. Give the special features of static scherbius scheme.
The scheme has applications in large power fan and pump dr ives which
requires
speed control in anrrow range only.
If max. slip is denoted by ,S then
power rating of diode, inverter and
max
transformer can be just
timesSmax
motor power rating resulting in a low cost
drive.
This dr ive provides a constant torque control.
20. What are the advantages of static Kramer system,, over static
scherbius system?
Since a static Kramer system possesses no line commutated inverter , it
causes less
reactive
power and smaller harmonic contents of current than a static
scherbius.
What is electrical power supply system?
The generation, transmission and distr ibution system of electrical
power is called
electrical
power supply system.
21. What are the 4 main parts of distribut ion system?
22. What
Distributors
Feeders,
Service
are feeders?
mains.
and

Lecture notes

Feeders are conductors which connect the stations (in some cases
stations)generating
to the areas to be fed by those stations.
23. What are the advantages of high voltage dc system over high
voltage ac system?
It requires only tow conductors for tr ansmission and it is also possible
the
power through only one conductor by using earth as returning
to transmit
conductor,
hence much copper is saved.
No inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problem.
There is no skin effect in dc, cross section of line conductor is fully
utilized.
24. What do you mean by the term earthing?
The ter m earthing means connecting the non-current carrying parts of
electrical
equipment
to the neutral point of the supply system to the general mass
of earth that
in such
a time an immediate discharge of electrical energy
manner
at all
takes place without
danger.
25. What are the different methods of providing neutral earthing?
Solid earthing
Resistance earthing
Reactance earthing
Ar c suppr ession coil or Peterson coil earthing.