Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Calculus III
Lecture Notes
E-Mail Address:
jmh0036@auburn.edu
Author:
James Hammer
May 5, 2014
Preface
ii
Contents
12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space
12.1 Operations in 3-Space . . . . . . .
12.1.1 Points . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.2 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.3 Operations . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Equations in 3-Space . . . . . . . .
12.3 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces . .
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13 Vector Functions
13.1 Vector Functions and Space Curves . . . . .
13.2 Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Functions
13.2.1 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.2 Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Arc Length and Curvature . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.1 Arc Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.2 Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.3 Normal and Bi-normal Vectors . . . .
13.4 Motion in Space, Velocity, and Acceleration
14 Partial Derivatives
14.1 Functions of Several Variables . . . . . . .
14.1.1 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . .
14.1.2 Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1.3 Level Curves . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3.1 First Order Partial Derivatives . . .
14.3.2 Higher Order Partial Derivatives .
14.4 Tangent Planes & Linear Approximation .
14.5 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5.1 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5.2 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . .
14.6 Directional Derivatives & Gradient Vector
14.7 Maximum & Minimum Values . . . . . . .
14.7.1 Local Extrema . . . . . . . . . . .
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1
1
1
2
3
5
7
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11
11
14
14
15
16
16
17
18
20
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21
21
21
22
23
24
27
27
28
29
31
31
33
34
36
36
38
39
15 Multiple Integrals
15.1 Double Integrals over a Rectangle . . . . . . . .
15.1.1 Volumes as Double Integrals . . . . . . .
15.2 Iterated Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3 Double Integrals over General Regions . . . . .
15.3.1 Type 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3.2 Type 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.4 Change of Variables in Multiple Integrals . . . .
15.5 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates . . . . . .
15.5.1 Crash Course in Polar Coordinates . . .
15.5.2 Double Integrals with Polar Coordinates
15.7 Triple Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.8 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates . . .
15.9 Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates . . . .
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41
41
41
43
46
46
46
49
51
51
53
58
59
61
16 Vector Calculus
16.1 Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 Line Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.1 Line Integrals in the Plane . . . . . .
16.2.2 Line Integrals in Space . . . . . . . .
16.2.3 Line Integrals of Vector Fields . . . .
16.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals
16.4 Greens Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5 Curl and Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.1 Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.2 Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.5.3 Vector Forms of Greens Theorem . .
16.6 Parametric Surfaces and Their Areas . . . .
16.6.1 Parametric Surfaces . . . . . . . . . .
16.6.2 Surface of Revolution . . . . . . . . .
16.6.3 Tangent Planes . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.6.4 Surface Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.7 Surface Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.8 Stokes Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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65
65
68
68
71
72
73
77
80
80
82
83
84
84
86
86
87
88
90
iv
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Chapter 12
Vectors and the Geometry of Space
12.1
Operations in 3-Space
We have a lot to cover this semester; however, it is important to have a good foundation
before we trudge forward. In that vein, lets review vectors and their geometry in space (R3 )
briefly.
12.1.1
Points
Hammer 2
12.1.2
Vectors
Definition 6. A vector is a mathematical object that stores both length (which we will
call magnitude) and direction.
Definition 7 (Vector Between Two Points). Let P = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) . Then
PQ) is defined by
the vector with initial point P and terminal point Q (denoted *
*
PQ = hx2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 i .
Definition 8 (Vector Equality). Two vectors are said to be equal if and only if they have
the same length and direction, regardless of their position in R3 . That is to say that a vector
can be moved anywhere in space as long as the magnitude and direction are preserved.
Convention 9. For convenience, we use something called the position vector to denote
the family of vectors with a given direction and magnitude. The position vector, *
v =
hv1 , v2 , v3 i , is formed by making the initial point of the vector the origin, O = (0, 0, 0) , and
terminal point (v1 , v2 , v3 )
Definition 10 (Magnitude (A.K.A. Length or Norm)). Let *
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i . Then the mag*
*
*
nitude of v (denoted |v| or sometimes kvk) is defined by
|*
v| =
Auburn University
Hammer 3
12.1.3
Operations
Definition 14 (Standard Vectors). Any vector can be denoted as the linear combination of
b = h0, 0, 1i . So given a vector
the standard unit vectors bi = h1, 0, 0i , bj = h0, 1, 0i , and k
*
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i , one can express it with respect to the standard vectors as
*
b
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i = v1bi + v2bj + v3 k.
This text, however, will more often than not use the angle brace notation.
Definition 15 (Dot Product). Let *
u = hu1 , u2 , u3 i and *
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i. Then the dot
product or Euclidean Inner Product as it is sometimes referred is
*
u*
v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 = |*
u| |*
v| cos () .
u and *
v are orthogonal if and only if *
u*
v = 0.
Theorem 16. Two nonzero vectors *
Problem 17. Show that if two non-zero vector are orthogonal then *
u*
v = 0.
May 5, 2014
Auburn University
Hammer 4
and *
v = hv1 , v2 , v3 i. Then the cross
u1 u2
b
bj +
k
v1 v2
= hu2 v3 u3 v2 , u3 v1 u1 v3 , u1 v2 u2 v1 i .
Auburn University
May 5, 2014
Hammer 5
12.2
Equations in 3-Space
t R.
y = y0 + Bt,
z = z0 + Ct
t R.
P
v
0 t 1.
Q
P
May 5, 2014
Auburn University
Hammer 6
Problem 24. Find a vector equation and parametric equation for the line that passes
through the point (5, 1, 3) and is parallel to the vector h1, 4, 2i .
Problem 25. Find the parametric Equation of the line segment from (2, 4, 3) to (3, 1, 1).
May 5, 2014
12.3
Hammer 7
Definition 27 (Cylinder). A cylinder is a surface that consists of all lines that are parallel
to a given line and pass through a given plane curve.
Problem 28. Sketch y = x2 in R3 .
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 8
or
Ax2 + By 2 + Iz = 0.
y2 z2
+
= 1.
9
4
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 9
x2
z2
+ y2
=1
4
4
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Hammer 10
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May 5, 2014
Chapter 13
Vector Functions
13.1
D
E
Theorem 39. If *r(t) = hf (t), g(t), h(t)i , then lim lim f (t), lim g(t), lim h(t) .
ta
ta
1 + t3 , tet ,
11
sin (t)
t
ta
ta
Hammer 12
y = g(t)
z = h(t)
t dom (*r(t)) .
Auburn University
May 5, 2014
Hammer 13
Problem 46. Find a vector equation and a parametric equation for the line segment that
joins the point P = (1, 3, 2) to Q = (2, 1, 3).
Problem 47. Find the vector function that represents the curve of the intersection of the
cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1 and the plane y + z = 2.
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Hammer 14
13.2
13.2.1
Derivatives
Definition 48 (Vector Function Derivative). If *r(t) = hf (t), g(t), h(t)i be a vector function
where f, g, and h are differentiable functions, then
*r0 (t) = hf 0 (t), g 0 (t), h0 (t)i .
Problem 49. Find the derivative of *r(t) = h1 + t3 , tet , sin (2t)i and use it to find the unit
tangent vector at t = 0.
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 15
Theorem 51. When taking derivative, all of the standard methods work, but now we have
two different types of multiplication. Hence, the following two operations hold:
d *
(u (t) *
v (t)) = *
u0 (t) *
v(t) + *
u(t) *
v0 (t).
dt
d *
(u (t) *
v (t)) = *
u0 (t) *
v(t) + *
u(t) *
v0 (t).
dt
13.2.2
Integrals
Auburn University
Hammer 16
13.3
13.3.1
Arc Length
Definition 54 (Arc Length). Let *r(t) = hf (t), g(t), h(t)i be a vector function. Then the
arc length (sometimes just referred to as length) is
L =
a
b
=
a
*r(t+h)*r(t)
limh0
dt
h
|*r0 (t)| dt
bq
bq
a
Notation 55.
ds
= |*r0 (t)| .
dt
dx 2
dt
dy 2
dt
dz 2
dt
dt.
Definition 56 (Arc Length Function). Let s(t) represent the length of a curve from *r(a) to
*r(t). Then s(t) is defined as
s(t) =
a
*0
|r (u)| du =
ts
a
dx
du
2
dy
du
2
dz
du
2
du.
Problem 57. Find the length of the arc of the circular helix with vector equation *r(t) =
hcos(t), sin(t), ti from (1, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 2).
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 17
13.3.2
Curvature
Problem 59. Find the curvature of the twisted cubic *r(t) = ht, t2 , t3 i at a general point,
and at (0, 0, 0).
May 5, 2014
Auburn University
Hammer 18
13.3.3
Definition 60 (Unit Tangent Vector). Given a curve C, the unit tangent vector, *
T, is
the vector that touches the curve at a given point and points in the same direction as the
curve.
N, is the
Definition 61 ((Unit) Normal Vector). Given a curve C, the normal vector, *
derivative of the tangent vector divided by the magnitude. It points into the curve. That is
to say
*
T0 (t)
*
N =
* .
T0 (t)
Definition 62 (Bi-normal Vector). The bi-normal vector, *
B, is the (unit) vector that is
*
*
perpendicular to both T and N. That is to say that it is the cross product of the tangent
vector and the normal vector. In terms of direction, it obeys the right hand rule. In other
words,
*
B=*
T*
N.
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 19
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Hammer 20
13.4
Definition 68 (Velocity, Acceleration, & Speed). Let *r(t) be a position vector for a particle
at time t. Then the velocity of the particle at time t is *
v(t) = *r0 (t) and the acceleration
a(t) = *
v0(t) = *r00 (t). The speed of the particle at time t is defined
of the particle at time t is *
0
by |*
v(t)| = |*r (t)| .
Problem 69. Given a position vector *r(t) = ht3 , t2 i , find the velocity, speed, and acceleration at t = 1.
Problem 70. A moving particle starts at an initial position *r(0) = h1, 0, 0i, has initial
velocity *
v(0) = h1, 1, 1i, and acceleration is defined by *
a(t) = h4t, 6t, 1i . Find the particles
position and velocity at time t.
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May 5, 2014
Chapter 14
Partial Derivatives
14.1
14.1.1
x+y+1
Evaluate f (3, 2) and give its domain.
Problem 73. Let f (x, y) =
x1
21
Hammer 22
14.1.2
p
9 x2 y 2 .
Graphs
Definition 76 (Graph). If f is a function of two variables with domain D, then the graph
of f is the set of all points (x, y, z) R3 such that z = f (x, y) for all (x, y) D.
Problem 77. Sketch the graph of f (x, y) = 6 3x 2y.
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p
9 x2 y 2 .
May 5, 2014
Hammer 23
14.1.3
Level Curves
Definition 79 (Level Curves). The level curves of a function of two variables, f , are the
curves of the equation f (x, y) = k for some k K R.
Problem 80. Sketch the level curves of f (x, y) = 6 3x 2y for k = {6, 0, 6, 12} .
p
9 x2 y 2 for k = {0, 1, 2, 3}
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Hammer 24
14.2
lim
(x,y)(a,b)
lim
(x,y)(a,b)
lim
(x,y)(a,b)
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x2 y 2
does not exist.
(x,y)(0,0) x2 + y 2
lim
lim
(x,y)(0,0) x2
xy
exist?
+ y2
May 5, 2014
May 5, 2014
lim
2xy
exist?
+ y2
lim
2xy
exist?
+ y2
Hammer 25
(x,y)(1,1) x2
(x,y)(0,0) x2
xy 2
exist?
(x,y)(0,0) x2 + y 4
lim
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Hammer 26
Problem 90. Is
2xy
x2 +y 2
x2 y 2
x2 +y 2
3x2 y
= 0.
(x,y)(0,0) x2 + y 2
lim
continuous?
May 5, 2014
Hammer 27
14.3
Partial Derivatives
14.3.1
f
x
fy =
f
y
f (x+h,y)f (x,y)
h
f (x,y+h)f (x,y)
.
h
In other words, to find the partial derivative of f with respect to x (i.e. fx ), simply take the
derivative of f treating x as the variable and y as a constant. Similarly, to get the partial
derivative with respect to y (i.e. fy ), simply take the derivative of f treating y as the variable
and x as a constant.
Observation 94. The partial derivative with respect to x represents the slope of the tangent
lines to the curve that are parallel to the xz-plane (i.e. in the direction of h1, 0, . . .i).
Similarly, the partial derivative with respect to y represents the slope of the tangent lines to
the curve that are parallel to the yz-plane (i.e. in the direction of h0, 1, . . .i).
Problem 95. If f (x, y) = x3 + x2 y 3 2y 2 , find fx (2, 1) and fy (2, 1).
May 5, 2014
x
1+y
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Hammer 28
Problem 97. Let z = f (x, y). Find
14.3.2
May 5, 2014
Hammer 29
14.4
Goal 101. As one zooms into a surface, the more the surface resembles a plane. More
Specifically, the surface looks more and more like the tangent plane. Some functions are
difficult to evaluate at a point; so, the equation of the tangent plane (which is much simpler)
is used to approximate the value of that curve at a given point.
Theorem 102 (Equation of Tangent Plane). Suppose that f (x, y) has continuous partial
derivatives. An equation of the tangent plane (equivalently, the linear approximation) to the
surface z = f (x, y) at the point P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) is
z z0 = fx (x0 , y0 ) (x x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 ) (y y0 ) .
Problem 103. Find an equation for the tangent plane to the elliptic paraboloid z = 2x2 +y 2
at the point (1, 1, 3).
Problem 104. Give the linear approximation of f (x, y) = xexy at (1, 0). Then use this to
approximate f (1.1, 0.1).
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Hammer 30
Problem 105. Find the linear approximation of f (x, y) =
to evaluate f (3.04, 0.09).
p
3
y 2 + z 2 at
Problem 106. Find the linear approximation of the function
f
(x,
y,
z)
=
x
q
the point (2, 3, 4) and use it to estimate the number (1.98)3 (3.10)2 + (3.97)2 .
May 5, 2014
Hammer 31
14.5
Chain Rule
14.5.1
Chain Rule
u
u
x1
u
x2
u
xn
u
xn1
x2
x1
xn1
x1
t1
x1 x2
tm t1
x2
tm
t1
tm t1
tm
xn1
t1
t1
xn1
tm
xn
t1
tm t1
xn
xn
tm
tm
z
when t = 0.
t
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 32
z
z
and
.
s
t
Problem 112. Write the chain rule for w = f (x, y, z, t), where x = x(u, v), y = y(u, v), z =
w
w
z(u, v), and t = t(u, v). That is, find
and
.
u
v
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 33
14.5.2
Implicit Differentiation
F
F
x
F
y
y
y
x
x
x
y
Fx
= .
x
Fy
z
z
z
Fx
z
Fy
and
if x3 +y 3 +z 3 +6xyz = 1. Hint.
=
and
= .
x
y
x
Fz
y
Fz
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Hammer 34
14.6
Goal 117. It would be nice to be able to find the slope of the tangent line to a curve C on
a surface S in the direction of a unit vector *
u = ha, bi .
m = Dub f
S
u
, ,
.
x y z
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 35
3
2
*
Problem 123. Find the directional derivative D*
u f (x, y) if f (x, y) = x 3xy + 4y and u
is the unit vector given by the angle = 6 .
Problem 124. Find the directional derivative of f (x, y) = x2 y 3 4y at the point (2, 1)
v = h2, 5i .
and in the direction of the vector *
Problem 125. If f (x, y, z) = x sin(yz), find the directional derivative of f (1, 3, 0) in the
direction of *
v = h1, 2, 1i .
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Hammer 36
14.7
14.7.1
Local Extrema
Definition 126 (Local Minimum). A function f of two variables x and y has a local
minimum at the point (a, b) if f (x, y) f (a, b) when (x, y) is near (a, b).
Definition 127 (Local Maximum). A function f of two variables x and y has a local
minimum at the point (a, b) if f (x, y) f (a, b) when (x, y) is near (a, b).
Theorem 128 (First Partial Test). If f has a local extreme at (a, b) and the first order
partials exist, then fx (a, b) = 0 and fy (a, b) = 0.
Theorem 129 (Second Partial Test). Suppose that the second order partial derivatives of
f are continuous on the disc centered at (a, b) and suppose that fx (a, b) = fy (a, b) = 0. Let
D = D(a, b) = fxx (a, b)fyy (a, b) [fxy (a, b)]2 .
If D > 0 and fxx (a, b) > 0, then f (a, b) is a local minimum.
If D > 0 and fxx (a, b) < 0, then f (a, b) is a local maximum.
If D < 0, then f (a, b) is a saddle point.
If D = 0, then no conclusion can be drawn from this test.
Note 130. There is nothing sacred about fxx . D > 0 means that both fxx and fyy have the
same sign. Moreover, we could equivalently check fyy instead of fxx in those cases.
Problem 131. Find all local extrema of f (x, y) = x4 + y 4 4xy + 1.
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Hammer 37
Problem 132. Find the shortest distance from the point (1, 0, 2) to the plane x+2y+z = 4.
Problem 133. A topless rectangular box is made from 12m2 of cardboard. Find the dimensions of the box that maximizes the volume of the box.
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 38
14.7.2
Absolute Extrema
May 5, 2014
Hammer 39
14.8
Lagrange Multipliers
Goal 137. To have a way of finding absolute extrema of a function that is subject to certain
constraints.
Strategy 138 (Lagrange Multipliers). Let k R. To find the maximum and minimum
values of f (x, y, z) subject to g(x, y, z) = k,
Find all values of x, y, z, and such that f (x, y, z) = g(x, y, z) and g(x, y, z) = k.
Evaluate all of these points to find the maximum and minimum values.
Problem 139. A topless rectangular box is made from 12m2 of cardboard. Find the dimensions of the box that maximizes the volume of the box.
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 40
Problem 141. Find the maximum value of f (x, y, z) = x + 2y + 3z on the curve of the
intersection of the plane x y + z = 1 and the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1.
May 5, 2014
Chapter 15
Multiple Integrals
15.1
f (x) dx = lim
15.1.1
n
X
f (xi ) x.
i=1
n
n X
X
f (xij , yij ) A.
i=1 j=1
Definition 144 (Double Integral). The Double Integral of f over the rectangle R is
f (x, y) dA = lim
m,n
n X
n
X
41
i=1 j=1
f (xij , yij ) A.
Hammer 42
We can simplify this if we choose each sample point, (xij , yij ), to be the point in the
upper right corner of each sub-rectangle. Call this point (xi , yj ). Then we get:
f (x, y) dA = lim
V =
m,n
n X
n
X
f (xi , yj ) A.
i=1 j=1
Problem 145. Estimate the volume of the solid that lies above the square R = [0, 2] [0, 2]
and below the elliptic paraboloid z = 16 x2 2y 2 . Divide R into four equal squares and
choose the sample point to be the upper right corner of each square Rij . Approximate the
Volume.
Problem 146. Estimate the volume of the solid that lies above the square R = [0, 2] [1, 2]
and below the function x 3y 2 . Divide R into four equal rectangles and choose the sample
point to be the midpoint of each rectangle Rij . Approximate the volume.
May 5, 2014
Hammer 43
15.2
Iterated Integrals
2
Problem 151. Evaluate the integrals (a)
x y dy dx, and (b)
0
May 5, 2014
x2 y dx dy.
0
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Hammer 44
f (x, y) dx dy
f (x, y) dy dx =
f (x, y) dA =
R
x 2, 1 y 2}.
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 45
Problem 155. Find the volume of the solid S that is bounded by the elliptic paraboloid
x2 + 2y 2 + z = 16, the planes x = 2 and y = 2, and the three coordinate planes.
Problem 156. Find the volume of the solid that lies under the hyperbolic paraboloid z =
3y 2 x2 + 2 and above the rectangle R = [1, 1] [1, 2].
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Hammer 46
15.3
Question 157. Okay, So now we know how to find the volume of the region under a surface
given that the the projection of the region down to the xy-plane is rectangular. What if that
region is defined as the boundary between two functions?
15.3.1
Type 1
y = g2(x)
y = g1(x)
g2 (x)
f (x, y) dA =
R
15.3.2
f (x, y) dy dx.
a
g1 (x)
Type 2
Type II regions are regions of the form R = {(x, y) R2 | h1 (y) x h2 (y), c y d}.
That is to say that the region in the xy-plane looks like this:
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 47
d
x = h1(y)
x = h2(y)
RR
h2 (y)
f (x, y) dx dy.
f (x, y) dA =
R
h1 (y)
y = 2x2 and y = 1 + x2 .
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 48
May 5, 2014
Hammer 49
15.4
We have done changes of variables several times in the past. Dating as far back as Calculus I
when we learned u -substitution, we started using changes of variables (we made u = g(x).)
Goal 161. The goal of this section is to write a general form for a change of variables. In
other words, is there a transformation on the function we can do to make the integral easier.
Definition 162 (Transformation). A change of variables is a transformation , T , from
the uv-plane to the xy-plane, T (u, v) = (x, y), where x and y are related to u and v by the
equations
x = g(u, v)
y = h(u, v).
We usually take these transformations to be C 1 -Transformation, meaning g and h have
continuous first-order partial derivatives.
v
T 1
.
(u, v) y y
u
v
v
u
u
v
(x, y)
du dv.
f (x, y) dA =
f (x(u, v), y(u, v))
(u, v)
R
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 50
with vertices (1, 0), (2, 0), (0, 2), and (0, 1).
May 5, 2014
Hammer 51
15.5
15.5.1
We have spent most of our lives in the Cartesian Coordinate System, which was invented
by none other than Rene Descartes, who was because he thought. Sometimes, however,
functions (and consequently integrals) become simpler when expressed in different coordinate
systems. There are many different coordinate systems. Today, however, we will focus on one
that was invented by Sir Isaac Newton the Polar Coordinate System.
Definition 167 (Origin & polar axis). First, we must pick a special point in the plane
the origin. Once we have the origin, draw a ray from the origin in any direction. This ray
is called the polar axis.
Definition 168 (Points). Points in this system are defined by two parameters (r, ), where
r is the distance the point is from the origin and is the angle between the polar axis and
the line that connects the point to the origin. Since a picture is worth a thousand words,
here is a picture describing what was just described:
P = (r, )
P = (r, )
Polar Axis
{z
y = r sin().
tan() =
Moreover,
y
x
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Hammer 52
135
45
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
180
225
315
270
Figure 15.5: r = 2
Example 171. The graph representing the polar equation = 1 is
90
135
45
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
180
225
315
270
Figure 15.6: = 1
Example 172. The graph representing the polar equation r = 2 cos() is
90
135
45
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
180
225
315
270
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 53
135
45
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
180
225
315
270
135
45
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
180
225
315
270
15.5.2
r=b
R
r=a
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Hammer 54
We can divide up this rectangle just as we did in section 15.1, dividing the rectangle
into tiny rectangular prisms and summing up their volumes. Moreover, we can generalize
Fubinis theorem (theorem 152) as follows:
Problem 175. Show that when dealing with polar coordinates, dA = r dr d.
Theorem 176 (Polar version of Fubinis Theorem). If f is continuous on the polar rectangle
R given by 0 a r b, , where 0 2, then
b
f (x, y) dA =
f (r cos(), r sin()) r dr d
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 55
Problem 178. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the plane z = 0 and the paraboloid
z = 1 x2 y 2 .
Theorem 179 (Polar version of section 15.3.2). If f is continuous on a polar region of the
form D = {(r, ) | , h1 () r h2 ()}, then
h2 ()
f (x, y) dA =
D
f (r cos(), r sin()) r dr d
h1 ()
=
r = h2()
RR
r = h1()
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Hammer 56
Problem 180. Use a double integral to find the area enclosed by one loop of the four leaved
rose r = cos(2).
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Hammer 57
Problem 181. Find the volume of the solid that lies under the paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 ,
above the xy-plane, and inside the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 2x.
Hint.
First, find what the rectangle in polar coordinates looks like.
That is to say, translate x2 + y 2 = 2x into polar coordinates and see what that region
looks like.
This will be your rectangle.
Then, look at z = x2 + y 2 as a polar function.
Use this as your integrand.
Evaluate.
Dont forget the r in r dr d!
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Hammer 58
15.7
Triple Integrals
1 dV.
V (E) =
E
Problem 185. Use the triple integral to find the volume of the tetrahedron T bounded by
the planes x + 2y + z = 2, x = 2y, x = 0, and z = 0.
May 5, 2014
Hammer 59
15.8
y = r sin()
tan() = xy
z=z
z=z
h2 () u2 (r cos(),r sin())
f (x, y, z) dV =
f (r cos(), r sin(), z) r dz dr d.
E
h1 ()
u1 (r cos(),r sin())
z = u2 (x, y)
z = u1 (x, y)
r = h1 ()
=
=
r = h2 ()
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 60
Problem 189. (a) Plot the point with cylindrical coordinates (2, 2
, 1) and find its rectan3
gular coordinates.
(b) Find cylindrical coordinates of the point with rectangular coordinates (3, 3, 7).
4x2
4x2
(x2 + y 2 ) dz dy dx.
x2 +y 2
May 5, 2014
Hammer 61
15.9
0 2.
Definition 193 (Spherical to Rectangular). To convert from Spherical to Rectangular coordinates, the following equations can be used:
x = sin() cos()
y = sin() sin()
z = cos().
Moreover,
2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
= arctan
y
x
= arccos
p
x2 + y 2 + z 2
P = (, , )
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 62
Definition 194 (Higher order Jacobian). The Jacobian of T is the following determinant
(recall determinants from doing the cross product):
x x x
u v 2
(x, y, z)
y y y
=
.
(u, v, w) u v 2
z z z
u v 2
(x, y, z)
du dv dw.
f (x, y, z) dV =
f (x (u, v, w) , y (u, v, w) , z (u, v, w))
(u, v, w)
R
Problem 196. Show that when dealing with spherical coordinates, dV = 2 sin() d d d.
Recall. x = sin() cos(), y = sin() sin(), and z = cos().
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 63
f (x, y, z) dV =
g2 (,)
f (x, y, z) dV =
E
May 5, 2014
g1 (,)
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Hammer 64
x2 +y 2 +z 2
2
B = (x, y, z) | x2 + y 2 + z 2 1 .
Problemp
201. Use spherical coordinates to find the volume of the solid that lies above the
cone z = x2 + y 2 and below the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = z
May 5, 2014
Chapter 16
Vector Calculus
16.1
Vector Fields
65
Hammer 66
Problem 205. Show that each vector defined in the vector field from problem 204 is tangent
x = hx, yi (this is called the position vector).
to a circle with center at the origin. Hint. Let *
Use the dot product to show that they are perpendicular.
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 67
Definition 207 (Gradient Field). Since the gradient of a function is the vector of partial
derivatives, it is really a vector field called the gradient vector field. Namely, if f (x, y)
is a function of two variables, f (x, y) = hfx (x, y), fy (x, y)i is a gradient vector field of R2 .
Similarly, if f is a function of three variables, f (x, y, z) = hfx (x, y, z), fy (x, y, z), fz (x, y, z)i
is a gradient vector field of R3 .
Problem 208. Find the gradient vector field of f (x, y) = x2 y y 3 . Plot the gradient vector
field together with a contour map of f . How are they related?
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Hammer 68
16.2
Line Integrals
Up to this point, our intervals of integration were always either bijective function or a closed
interval [a, b]. In this section, we will be integrating over a parametrized curve instead of a
nice interval as before.
16.2.1
b
2
x
y
f (x(t), y(t))
f (x, y) ds =
+
dt.
t
t
a
C
Problem 212. Evaluate (2+x2 y) ds, where C is the upper half of the unit circle x2 +y 2 = 1.
C
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Hammer 69
True Fact 213. If C is the union of finitely many smooth surves C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn , then
Cn
C2
(0, 0) to (1, 1) followed by the vertical line segment C2 from (1, 1) to (1, 2).
Definition 215 (Line Integral with respect to x and y). Let x = x(t), y = y(t), dx = x0 (t) dt,
and dy = y 0 (t) dt. Then the line integral with respect to x and y are respectively:
f (x, y) dx =
May 5, 2014
f (x, y) dy =
b
a
b
a
f (x(t), y(t))x0 dt
f (x(t), y(t))y 0 dt
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Hammer 70
Problem 216. Evaluate
y 2 dx + x dy, where
C is the line segment from (5, 3) to (0, 2). Recall. The vector representation of the
line segment starting at *r0 and ending at *
r1 is given by *r(t) = (1 t)*r0 + t*r1 .
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 71
16.2.2
First, the definition for the line integral with respect to arc length (definition 211) can be
generalized as follows:
Definition 217. (Line Integral with respect to Arc Length) If f is defined on a smooth
curve C (parametric equation with respect to t), then the line integral of f along C in
R3 is
s
2 2
b
2
x
y
z
f (x(t), y(t), z(t))
f (x, y, z) ds =
+
+
dt.
t
t
t
a
C
x = cos(t), y = sin(t), z = t, 0 t 2.
(2, 0, 0) to (3, 4, 5), followed by the vertical line segment C2 from (3, 4, 5) to (3, 4, 0).
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 72
16.2.3
*F d*r =
*F(*r(t)) *r0(t) dt = *F *
T ds.
C
*F d*r, where *F(x, y, z) = hxy, yz, zxi and C is the twisted cubic
given by x = t, y = t2 , z = t3 , 0 t 1.
*F d*r = P dx + Q dy + R dz.
C
Problem 223. Take another look at problem 219. Express problem 219 as
*F(x, y, z) = hy, z, xi .
*F d*r, where
May 5, 2014
Hammer 73
16.3
Recall 224 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus part II). If f is continuous on [a, b], then
Fd*r 6= *
Fd*r; however, theorem
Observation 228 (Independence of Path). In general, *
C2
C1
* *
* *
*
226 says that F dr = F dr whenever F is a conservative vector field! Thus, we can
C1
C2
say that line integrals of conservative vector fields are independent of path.
Problem 229. Find a function f such that *
F(x, y) = hx2 , y 2 i = f and use this to evaluate
* *
F dr along the arc C of the parabola y = 2x2 from (1, 2) to (2, 8).
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Hammer 74
Definition 230 (Closed Curve). A curve is called closed if its terminal point coincides with
its initial point. That is to say that *r(a) = *r(b).
r(a) = r(b)
C = r(t)
closed path C in D.
Definition 232. (Open Set) A set D is said to be open if every point P in D has a disk with
center P that is contained wholly and solely in D. Note. D cannot contain any boundary
points.
rP Q
Q
May 5, 2014
Hammer 75
D1
D2
D3
D4
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 76
Problem 240. If *
F(x, y, z) = hy 2 , 2xy + e3z , 3ye3z i , find a function f such that f = *
F.
May 5, 2014
Hammer 77
16.4
Greens Theorem
C
Positive Orientation
Negative Orientation
Q P
dA.
P dx + Q dy =
x
y
C
integrals calculated by using the negative orientation of the closed curve C by P dx + Q dy,
C
Theorem 244 (Area Using Greens theorem). The area of a region D can be calculated
using Greens Theorem as follows:
1
x dy y dx.
AD = x dy = y dx =
2
C
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Hammer 78
Problem 245. Evaluate
line segments from (0, 0) to (1, 0), from (1, 0) to (0, 1), and from (0, 1) to (0, 0).
x2 + y 2 = 9.
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p
3y esin(x) dx + 7x + y 4 + 1 dy, where C is the circle
May 5, 2014
Hammer 79
x2 y 2
Problem 247. Find the area enclosed by the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1. Hint. The ellipse has a
a
b
parametric equation x = a cos(t), y = b sin(t), where 0 t 2.
Theorem 248 (Extended Greens Theorem). Let D = D1 D2 , where D1 and D2 are both
simple. Let C = C1 C2 denote the boundary of D. Then,
Q P
dA.
P dx + Q dy =
x
y
C1 C2
C4
D0
D
C2
D00
C1
C3
Problem 249. Evaluate y 2 dx + 3xy dy, where C is the boundary of the semiannual region
D in the upper half-plane between the circle x2 + y 2 = 1 and x2 + y 2 = 4. Hint. Use Polar
Coordinates.
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Hammer 80
16.5
16.5.1
Curl
We now define a the curl of a function, which helps us represent rotations of different sorts
in physics and such fields. It can be used, for instance, to represent the velocity field in fluid
flow.
E
D
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 81
Theorem 253. If f is a function of three variables that has continuous second order partial
0.
derivatives, then curl (f ) = *
Problem 254. Prove theorem 253.
Theorem 255. If *
F is a vector field defined on all R3 whose component functions have
continuous partial derivatives and curl *
F=*
0, then *
F is a conservative vector field.
Problem 256. Show that the vector field *
F(x, y, z) = hxz, xyz, y 2 i is not conservative.
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 82
16.5.2
Divergence
F is the velocity of a
The divergence can be understood once again in terms of fluid flow. If *
*
fluid, then the divergence of F represents the net rate of change with respect to time of the
mass of the fluid per unit volume.
Definition 257 (Divergence). If *
F = hP, Q, Ri, then the divergence, div *
F, is defined as
div *
F=*
F=
P
Q R
+
+
.
x
y
z
Problem 258. If *
F(x, y, z) = hxz, xyz, y 2 i , find div *
F.
Theorem 259. If *
F = hP, Q, Ri is a vector field in R3 and P, Q, and R have continuous
second order partial derivatives, then
div curl *
F = 0.
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 83
16.5.3
Greens theorem as we have studied in section 16.4 can be viewed as the line integral of
the tangential component of *
F along the curve C as the double integral of the vertical
components of the curl *
F over the region D enclosed by C. That is to say,
Theorem 261 (Line Integral of Tangential Component). Let C be a positively oriented,
piecewise-smooth, simple closed curve in the plane and let D be the region bounded by C.
If P and Q have continuous partial derivatives on an open region that contains D, then the
F along a curve C is
line integral of the tangential component of *
A similar thing can be said for the line integral of the normal component of *
F along the
curve C.
Definition 262 (Outward Unit Normal Vector). Let *r(t) denote the vector equation of the
n(t) is
curve C. That is, *r(t) = hx(t), y(t)i , a t b.The outward unit normal vector, *
defined as
0
y (t)
x0 (t)
*
n(t) = *0
,
.
|r (t)| |*r0 (t)|
Theorem 263 (Line Integral of Normal Component). Let C be a positively oriented,
piecewise-smooth, simple closed curve in the plane and let D be the region bounded by
n denote the outward unit normal vector of C. If P and Q have continuous partial
C. Let *
derivatives on an open region that contains D, then the line integral of the normal component
F along a curve C is
of *
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Hammer 84
16.6
16.6.1
Parametric Surfaces
Goal 264. This section will aim to describe surfaces by a function *r(u, v) = x(u, v)bi +
b in a similar way that we described vector functions by *r(t) in previous
y(u, v)bj + z(u, v)k
chapters.
Problem 265. Identify and sketch the surface with vector equation *r(u, v) = h2 cos(u), v, 2 sin(u)i .
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May 5, 2014
Hammer 85
Problem 268. Find a vector function that represents the elliptic paraboloid z = x2 + 2y 2 .
p
Problem 269. Find a parametric representation for the surface z = 2 x2 + y 2 , that is, the
top half of the cone z 2 = 4x2 + 4y 2 .
May 5, 2014
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Hammer 86
16.6.2
Surface of Revolution
y = f (x) cos()
z = f (x) sin().
Problem 271. Find parametric equations for the surface generated by rotating the curve
y = sin(x) from 0 x 2 about the x-axis.
16.6.3
Tangent Planes
x
y
z
= u (u0 , v0 ), u (u0 , v0 ), u
(u0 , v0 ) .
*rv =
*ru
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16.6.4
Hammer 87
Surface Area
Definition 274 (Surface Area). If a smooth parametric surface S is given by the equation
*r(u, v) = x(u, v)bi + y(u, v)bj + z(u, v)k,
b (u, v) D and S is covered just once as (u, v) ranges
through the parameter domain D, then the surface area of S is
where *ru =
, y ,
and *rv =
u u u
y z
,
,
.
v v v
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Hammer 88
16.7
Surface Integrals
Definition 276 (Surface Integral). Suppose S is a surface with vector equation *r(u, v) =
b (u, v) D. Then the surface integral of f over the surface
x(u, v)bi + y(u, v)bj + z(u, v)k,
S is
, y ,
and *rv =
u u u
y z
,
,
.
v v v
z 2 = 1.
Theorem 278 (Surface Integral of Graphs). Let S be a surface with equation z = g(x, y).
Moreover, S has parametrization
x=x
y=y
z = g(x, y),
f (x, y, z) dS =
S
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s
z
x
2
z
y
2
+ 1 dA.
May 5, 2014
Hammer 89
Definition 280 (Orientable Surface). A surface is called orientable if it has two sides.
Definition 281 (Surface Integral over Vector Field). If *
F is a continuous vector field defined
*
F over
on an oriented surface S with unit normal vector n, then the surface integral of *
S is
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Hammer 90
16.8
Stokes Theorem
*F d*r,
where *
F(x, y, z) = hy 2 , x, z 2 i and C is the curve of
Fd*
S, where *
F(x, y, z) =
curl *
hxx, yz, xyi and S is the part of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 that lies inside the cylinder
x2 + y 2 = 1 and above the xy-plane.
May 5, 2014