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An overview of fiber-optic
sensors
Eric Udda)
Blue Road Research, 25.55 N. E. 205th Avenue, Troutdale, Oregon 97060
of Physics.
I. INTRODUCTION
Over the past 20 years two major product revolutions
have taken place due to the growth of the optoelectronics and
fiber-optic communications industries. The optoelectronics
industry has brought about such products as compact disk
players, laser printers, bar code scanners, and laser pointers.
The fiber-optic communication industry has literally revolutionized the telecommunication industry by providing higher
performance, more reliable telecommunication links with
ever decreasing bandwidth cost. This revolution is rapidly
becoming a rout as fiber-optic links move steadily toward
fiber to the curb and iinally the home bringing about the
benefits of high volume production to component users and a
true information superhighway built of glass.
In parallel with these developments fiber-optic sensor1-8
technology has been a major user of technology associated
with the optoelectronic and fiber-optic communication industry. Many of the components associated with these industries
were often developed for fiber-optic sensor applications.
Fiber-optic sensor technology in turn has often been driven
by the development and subsequent mass production of components to support these industries. As component prices
have fallen and quality improvements have been made, the
ability of fiber-optic sensors to displace traditional sensors
for rotation, acceleration, electric- and magnetic-field measurement, temperature, pressure, acoustics, vibration, linear
and angular position, strain, humidity, viscosity, chemical
measurements, and a host of other sensor applications has
been enhanced. In the early days of fiber-optic sensor technology most commercially successful fiber-optic sensors
were squarely targeted at markets where existing sensor technology was marginal or in many cases nonexistent. The inherent advantages of fiber-optic sensors which include their
)E-mail: ericudd@aol.com
Light Modulator
Input Fiber
r-----l
-I
Output Fiber
--.
Environmental Signal
Flexible
Mounted
Mirror
----------I
Detectors
Input
Light
Collection
Fibers
1995
sensors
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Variable
Reflectance
Shaft
Input/Output
Fibers
Detector
delay
0 -Time
loops .
Copyright1993,Eric Udd/BlueRoadResearch,
Inc.
Copyright1993,Eric Udd/BlueRoadResearch,
Inc.
FIG. 6. Fiber-optic rotary position sensor based on reflectance used to measure rotational position of the shaft via the amount of light reflected from
dark and Iight patches.
Fiber Core
Al
x3
Light Input,
Output
Fiber Cladding
Mirror
FIG. 9. Fiber sensor using critical angle properties of a fiber for pressure/
index of refraction measurement via measurements of the light reflected
back into the fiber.
Light Source
Detector
Interaction Length
Light In
--i\
AL
Microbend
Transducer
temperature, pressure, and strain measurements. The difficulty with this sensor that is common to many fiber sensors
is optimizing the design so that only the desired parameters
are sensed.
Another way that light may be lost from an optical fiber
is when the bend radius of the fiber exceeds the critical angle
necessary to confine the light to the core area and there is
leakage into the cladding. Microbending of the fiber locally
can cause this to result with resultant intensity modulation of
light propagating through an optical fiber. A series of microbend based fiber sensors have been built to sense vibration, pressure, and other environmental effects.20-22 Figure
12 shows a typical layout of this type of device consisting of
a light source, a section of optical fiber positioned in a microbend transducer designed to intensity modulate light in
response to an environmental effect, and a detector. In some
cases the microbend transducer can be implemented by using
special fiber cabling or optical fiber that is simply optimized
to be sensitive to microbending loss.
One last example of an intensity based sensor is the grating based deviceZ3 shown in Fig. 13. Here an input optical
light beam is collimated by a lens and passes through a dual
grating system. One of the gratings is fixed while the other
moves. With acceleration the relative position of the gratings
Stationary Mount
outputs
Copyright 1993, Eric Udd/Blue Road Research, Inc.
Shring
Copyright 1993, Eric Udd/Blue Road Research, Inc.
FIG. 11. Evanescence based fiber-optic sensors rely on the cross coupling of
light between two closely spaced fiber-optic cores. Variations in this distance due to temperature, pressure, or strain, offer environmental sensing
capabilities.
4018
1996
FIG. 13. Grating based fiber intensity sensors measure vibration or acceleration via a highly sensitive shutter effect.
Fiber-optic
sensors
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Position of Grating
FIG. 14. Dynamic range limitations of the grating based sensor of Fig. 13
are due to smaller grating spacing increasing sensitivity at the expense of
range.
FIG. 16. Diagram illustrating quadrature detection method which shows that
this method allows one area of maximum sensitivity, while the other reaches
a minimum and vice versa, allowing uniform sensitivity over a wide dynamic range.
BASED FIBER-OPTIC
i
I\
I
FIG. 15. Dual grating mask with regions 90 out of phase to support quadrature detection which allows grating based sensors to track through multiple
lines.
Blackbody Cavity
(j &Tz:-----JK\
Optical Fiber
-
SENSORS
_---
Detector
FIG. 17. Blackbody fiber-optic sensors allow the measurement of temperature at a hot spot and are most effective at temperatures of higher than
300 C.
Fiber-optic sensors
4019
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 66, No. 8, August 1995
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End Tip
:.
-lg
Fluorescent Material
10
Wavelength
Etched
15
(microns)
Input Fiber
GaAS
--
Pattern
Copyright 1993, WC Udd/Blue Road Research, Inc.
Output Fiber
Copyright 1993, Uric Udd/Blue Road Research, Inc.
FIG. 19. Fiber-optic sensor based on variable absorption of materials such
as GaAs allow the measurement of temperature and pressure.
4020
1995
FIG. 21. Fabrication of a fiber grating sensor can be accomplished by imaging to short-wavelength laser beams through the side of the optical fiber to
form an interference pattern. The bright and dark fringes which are imaged
on the core of the optical fiber induce an index of refraction variation resulting in a grating along the fiber core.
Fiber-optic
sensors
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Light Source
-
Fiber Gratings
cI2Ln
FIG. 24. Diagram illustrating the transmission characteristics of a fiber etalon as a function of finesse which increases with mirror reflectivity.
-.
.-I-
T-
I-
Intrinsic
Tube
__-___
Extinsic
mperature
Air Gap
FIG. 23. Fiber etalons are formed by in-line reflective mirrors that can be
embedded into the optical fiber, forming an intrinsic etalon formed by two
mirrored fiber ends in a capillary tube, resulting in an extrinsic fiber etalon
or, by two reflective fiber ends that have a variable spacing, resulting in a
fiber etalon based spectral tilter or demodulator.
FIBER-OPTIC SENSORS
One of the areas of greatest interest has been the development of high performance interferometric fiber-optic sensors. Substantial efforts have been undertaken on Sagnac inring
terferometers,
resonators, Mach-Zehnder,
and
Michelson interferometers as well as dual mode, polarimetric, grating, and etalon based interferometers. In this section
the two interferometers that have received the most attention,
the Sagnac and Mach-Zehnder, will be briefly reviewed.
A. The Sagnac interferometer
The Sagnac interferometer has been principally used to
measure rotation37-40 as a replacement for ring laser gyros
that are based on vacuum tube technology and mechanical
gyros. It may also be employed to measure time varying
effects such as acoustics and vibrations and slowly varying
phenomena such as strain. By using multiple interferometer
configurations it is possible to employ the Sagnac interferometer as a distributed sensor capable of measuring the amplitude and location of a disturbance. In this section these
various uses of the Sagnac interferometer will be briefly described.
The single most important application of fiber-optic sensors in terms of commercial value is the fiber-optic gyro. It
was recognized very early that the fiber-optic gyro offered
the prospect of an all solid-state inertial sensor, with no moving parts, that could offer unprecedented reliability and had
the prospect of being very low cost. These advantages allowed the potential displacement of mechanical and ring laser gyros. Today this potential is being realized as several
manufacturers worldwide are producing fiber-optic gyros in
quantities and they are being used to support automobile
navigation systems, pointing and tracking of satellite antenna, inertial measurement systems for commuter aircraft,
4022
1995
Detector
Fiber Optic
coil
FIG. 26. Open-loop fiber-optic gyros are the simplest and lowest cost implementation of this rotation sensor and are widely used in commercial applications where their dynamic range and linearity limitations are not constraining.
and missiles and as the backup guidance system for the Boeing 777. They are also being base lined for such future programs as the Comanche helicopter and are being developed
to support long duration space flights. Other applications
where fiber-optic gyros are being used include mining operations, tunneling, attitude control for a radio controlled helicopter used for agricultural spraying, cleaning robots, antenna pointing and tracking, and guidance for unmanned
dump trucks and carriers.
Two types of fiber-optic gyros are being developed, an
open-loop fiber-optic gyro with a dynamic range on the order
of 1000-5000, with scale factor accuracy of about 0.5% and
sensitivities that vary from less than 0.01 to 100 de&h and
higher.40 These fiber gyros are generally used for low cost
applications where dynamic range and linearity are not the
crucial issues. The second type of fiber-optic gyro is the
closed-loop fiber gyro which may have a dynamic range of
lo6 and scale factor linearity of 10 ppm or better.40 These
types of fiber-optic gyros are-primarily targeted at medium to
high accuracy navigation and applications that have high
turning rates requiring high linearity and dynamic range.
The basic open-loop fiber-optic gyro is illustrated by Fig.
26. A broadband light source such as a light emitting diode is
used to couple light into an input/output fiber coupler. The
input light beam passes through a polarizer to insure the
reciprocity of the counterpropagating light beams through
the fiber coil. The second central coupler splits the two light
beams into the fiber-optic coil where they pass through a
modulator that is used to generate a time varying out signal
indicative of rotation and is offset from the center of the coil
to impress a relative phase difference between the counterpropagating light beams. After passing through the fiber coil
the two light beams recombine and pass back though the
polarizer and are directed onto the output detector.
When the fiber gyro is rotated in a clockwise direction
the entire coil is displaced slightly in the time it takes light to
traverse the fiber optic coil. Thus the clockwise propagating
light beam has to go through a slightly longer optical path
length that the counterclockwise beam which is moving in a
direction opposite to the motion of the fiber coil. The net
phase difference between the two beams is proportional to
the rotation rate.
Fiber-optic
sensors
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Light
Source
Pofarizer
Modulator
D@ctor)rrciic
WA
Coil
Oscillator
Copyright 1993, Eric. Udd/Blue Road Research, Inc.
Relative Phase
Copyright 1993, Eric Udd/Blue Road Research, Inc.
FIG. 27. An open-loop fiber-optic gyro has predominantly even order harmonica in the absence of rotation and upon rotation has odd harmonic output
whose amplitude indicates the magnitude of the rotation rate and phase
indicating direction.
By including a phase modulator into the loop and offsetting it from the center of the fiber coil so that at the modulator there is a time difference in the arrival of the two light
beams, a convenient demodulation signal can be generated.
This is shown in Fig. 27. In the absence of rotation the two
light beams traverse the same optical path and are in phase
with each other. Thus the action of the phase modulator is
that of the left-hand curve of Fig. 27 and primarily secondand higher-order even harmonics of the modulator drive fYrequency appear as an intensity modulation on the detector.
When the fiber gyro rotates the relative phases of the counterpropagating light, beams shift and the action of the modulator is to set up f&t- and higher-order odd harmonics of the
modulator drive frequency. The amplitudes of these signals
are proportional to the rate of rotation and their phase
changes by 180 with the direction of rotation. The result is
that the first- or a higher-order odd harmonic can be used as
a rotation rate output. A representative open-loop fiber-optic
gyro output is shown in Fig. 28. As the rotation rate increases
/
----
FIG. 29. Closed-loop fiber-optic gyros use an artificially induced nonreciprocal phase between counterpropagating light beams to counterbalance rotationally induced phase shifts. These fiber gyros have the wide dynamic
range and high linearity needed to support stringent navigation requirements.
Light Source h 1
Light Source h2
output Volts
-200
-100
L---L---
100
200
Detector, h2
Position
Fiber-optic sensors
4023
Rev. Sci. Instrum., Vol. 66, No. 6, August 1995
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I I
Elements
Planar Arrays
Line Arrays
Elements
FIG. 31. Flexible geometries of interferometric fiber-optic sensor transducers are one of the features of fiber sensors that are attractive to designers
configuring special purpose sensors.
class of fiber-optic sensors based on the Sagnac interferometer can be used to measure the time and position of rapidly
varying environmental signals such as acoustics.2-44 Figure
30 illustrates two interlaced Sagnac 100~s~~that can be used
as a distributed acoustic sensor. For a time varying environmental effect the sensitivity of the Sagnac acoustic sensor
depends on the location of the signal. If the effect occurs in
the center of the Sagnac loop, the sensitivity is zero as both
counterpropagating light beams arrive at this point at the
same time. As the position moves away from the center the
sensitivity increases. When two Sagnac loops are superposed
in an offset manner as in Fig. 30 the two outputs of the loops
may be summed to give an indication of the amplitude of the
signal and they may be ratioed to determine position. Several
other combinations of interferometers have been tried and
the first to report position and amplitude information consisted of a combination of the Mach-Zehnder and Sagnac
interferometers.43
6. The Mach-Zehnder
and Michelson
interferometers
Relative Phase
Copyright 1993, Eric Udd/Blue Road Research, Inc.
FIG. 33, In the absence of compensating demodulation methods the sensitivity of the Mach-Zrhnder varies with the relative phase between the two
light beams. It falls to low levels when the light beams are completely in or
out of phase.
GRIN Lens
Homodyne Demodulator
Dual Input
Fibers
Interference
Pattqm
Split Photomasked
Detector, Sine and
Cosine Outputs
1995
sensors
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Lieht Source
Coupler
Detector
Differentiator
.2 4
-(d@dt)sm
Copyright 1993, Eric Udd/Blue Road Research, Inc.
the same quadrature solution as the grating based fiber sensors discussed earlier. Figure 34 illustrates a homodyne demodulator that consists of two parallel optical fibers that are
placed in front of a graded index lens. At the output of the
graded index lens an interference pattern results. As the relative phase of the two light beams changes, the interference
pattern rolls. Now, if a split detector is used with a photomask arranged so that opaque and transparent line pairs
match the interference pattern periodicity and are 90 out of
phase on the detector faces, sine and cosine outputs result.
These outputs may be processed using the differentiate and
cross multiply electronics of Fig. 35 so that the net result is a
direct measure of the phase difference. Still further improvements on these techniques have been made, notably the
phase generated carrier approach shown in Fig. 36. Here a
laser diode is current modulated, resulting in the output frequency of the laser diode being frequency modulated as well.
If a Mach-Zehnder interferometer is arranged so that its reference and signal leg differ in length by an amount
(L, -L,), then the net phase difference between the two
light beams is 27rF(L, -L&z/c,
where F is the frequency
Light Source
Secondary
ConiDliant
t
F(Ll-I-gWc
output
I
Glass Fiber
IIIII
p==
h
Primary
Coating
Pressure
FIG. 38. Coatings can be used to optimize the sensitivity of fiber sensors.
An example would be to use soft and hard coatings over an optical fiber to
minimize the acoustic mismatch between acoustic pressure waves in water
and the glass optical fiber.
Light
FIG. 39. Optical fiber bonded to hollow mandrills and strips of environmentally sensitive material are common methods used to mechanically amplify
environmental signals for detection by fiber sensors.
Fiber
Coil
Seismi
Mass
Pipe Joints
SENSING
Frequency
Chirped
Soft
Rubber
Mandril
1995
sensors
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Light
Source
,II
\
c--.
IIII
Polarization
IIII
Al A2 A3
14
hl
Wavelength Division
Multiplexer/Detectors
h4
Evanescent
Sensors
A2 A3
Detector 2
Copyright 1993, Brie Udd/Blue Road Research, Inc.
uted sensing; notably, Raman scattering for temperature sensors has been made into commercial product by York
Technology and Hitachi. These units can resolve temperature
changes of about 1 C with a spatial resolution of 1 m for a
1 km sensor using an integration time of about 5 min. Brillouin scattering has been used in laboratory experiments to
support both strain and temperature measurements.
A frequency division multiplexed system is shown in
Fig. 42. In this case a laser diode is frequency chirped by
driving it with a sawtooth current drive. Successive MachZehnder interferometers are offset with incremental lengths
(L-L,),
(L-L,),
and (L-L,)
which differ sufficiently
that the resultant carrier frequency of each sensor
(dFldt)(L -L,) is easily separable from the other sensors
via electronic filtering of the output of the detector.
Wavelength division multiplexing is one of the best
methods of multiplexing using optical power very efficiently.
It also has the advantage of being easily integrated into other
multiplexing systems, allowing the possibility of large numbers of sensors being supported in a single fiber line. Figure
43 illustrates a system where a broadband light source that
could be a light emitting diode is coupled into a series of
Detector 1
FIG. 45. Polarization multiplexing is used to support two fiber sensors that
access the cross polarization states of polarization preserving optical fiber.
Control System
-Performance
Optical/
Sources
Unbalanced
Interferometers
Detectors
F2
*3
OJ
JK
1995
Environmental Effect
FIG. 48. Fiber-optic smart structure systems consist of optical fiber sensors
embedded or attached to parts sensing environmental effects which are multiplexed and directed down an optical fiber to an optical/electronic signal
processor that in turn feeds the information to a control system that may or
may not act on the information via a fiber link to an actuator.
will dominate large segments of this market. Significant development efforts are underway in the United States in the
area of fly-by-light where conventional electronic sensors
are targeted to be replaced by equivalent fiber-optic sensor
technology that offers relative immunity to electromagnetic
interference and as a result significant weight savings and
safety improvements. In manufacturing fiber sensors are being developed to support process control. Often times the
selling points for these sensors are improvements in environmental ruggedness and safety, especially in areas where electrical discharges could be hazardous. One other area where
fiber-optic sensors are being mass produced is the field of
medicine48-51 where they are being used to measure blood
gas parameters and dosage levels. Because these sensors are
completely passive they pose no electrical shock threat to the
patient and their inherent safety has led to a relatively rapid
introduction. Many other areas using sensors such as the automotive industry, sensors to support the construction industry, and other traditional users of sensors remain relatively
untouched by fiber sensors mainly because of cost considerations. This can be expected to change as the improvements
in optoelectronics and fiber-optic communication continue to
expand along with the continuing emergence of new fiberoptic sensors.
The second area of application into entirely new market
opportunities where equivalent sensors do not exist will take
some time to develop. Once they do the impact is quite likely
to be enormous. A prune example of this is the area of fiberoptic smart structures.5-55 Here fiber-optic sensors are being
embedded into or attached to materials (1) during the manufacturing process to augment process control systems, (2) to
augment nondestructive evaluation once parts have been
made, (3) to form health and damage assessment systems
once parts have been assembled into structures, and (4) to
augment control systems. A basic fiber-optic smart structure
system is shown in Fig. 48. Fiber-optic sensors are embedded into a panel and multiplexed to minimize the number of
ingress and egress points to the part. The resultant signals ate
then fed back to an optical/electronic processor to separate
Fiber-optic
sensors
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Data Formatter
and Transmitter
Optical
Switch 7
FIG. 51. A typical vehicle health management bus for an avionics system
would be the interface point for the fiber-optic smart structure modules of
Fig. 50.
Sensor String
Buildings
Vehicle Health
Management Bus
Maintenance
Copyright 1993, Eric Udd/Blue Road Research, Inc.
FIG. 50. A modulator architecture for a large smart structure system would
consist of strings of fiber sensors accessible via an optical switch and demodulator system that could select key sensors in each string. The information would then be formatted and transmitted after conditioning to a vehicle
health management bus.
processed and distributed to the pilot or, more likely to reduce his workload, directly to the necessary control function.
As fiber to the curb and liber to the home moves closer
to reality, there is the prospect of merging fiber-optic sensor
and communication systems into very large systems capable
of monitoring the status of buildings, bridges, highways, and
factories over widely dispersed areas. Functions such as fire,
police, maintenance scheduling, and emergency response to
earthquakes, hurricanes, and tornadoes could be readily integrated into very wide area networks of sensors as in Fig. 52.
It is also possible to use fiber-optic sensors in combination with fiber-optic communication links to monitoring
stress buildup in critical fault locations and dome buildup of
volcanoes. These widely dispersed fiber networks may offer
the first real means of gathering information necessary to
form prediction models for these natural hazards.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Figures 1-52 are drawn from the Fiber Optic Sensor
Wwkbook, Copyright Eric Udd/Blue Road Research and
used with permission.
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