Chapter 4 | Prenatal Development and Birth 157

genotype across developing organisms. So this is another example of the active child effect, which precedes consciousness and choice.
Looking next at nature and nurture interactions, it would be difcult to pinpoint any
aspect of prenatal development or birth that did not involve the reciprocal interaction of
nature and nurture on development. Returning to the teratogen example, the principles
of teratogenic effects, taken together, represent an integration of biological inuences and
environmental inuences. One does not operate without the other. Even the birth process
represents an interaction of nature and nurture. There is a strong biological determinism
about the birth process, proceeding through each stage in order and with little potential
for interruption or interference from the environment during a normal birth. But the environment surrounding the birth clearly inuences the health of the baby and the mother,
and the feelings of bonding and engrossment that the parents feel for their new baby.
We encountered three different qualitative stage progressions in this chapter. First,
the developing organism proceeds through three qualitatively distinct stages in prenatal
development: the zygote, the embryo, and the fetus. Second, the pregnant woman goes
through three qualitatively distinct stages during pregnancy: the rst, second, and third
trimesters. (And remember that the stages of the developing organism do not correspond
chronologically to the pregnant womans stages.) Finally, we saw that the birth process
can be divided into three qualitatively distinct stages: labor, birth, and afterbirth. As usual,
however, we can also see quantitative change in prenatal development. For example, the
period of the fetus consists mainly of quantitative changes as the organism grows in size
and renes the structures and functions that rst develop in the period of the embryo.
Finally, we can consider the holistic nature of child development when we recall that
prenatal development affects a childs future physical development as well as cognitive and
emotional development, especially in cases in which teratogenic effects interfere with these
aspects of development. We saw many examples of problems in prenatal development
causing later mental retardation, and some cases of emotional disturbances. When examining the birth process we saw that emotional and social support for the woman giving
birth was just as important as the physical assistance she needs with this process. And after
birth, parents who are trained to respond to and engage their infants in social interaction
are more likely to have infants who are able to overcome early physical complications.
In sum, we saw evidence for each of the enduring developmental themes in our examination of prenatal development and birth. Perhaps now it is easier to see that the developing organism is active in its own development, that it moves through a series of both qualitative and quantitative changes as it develops, that both nature and nurture play important
roles in the prenatal period, and that we must always consider the child holistically.

SUMMARY
From Conception to Birth
Prenatal development is divided into three phases:
The period of the zygote lasts about 2 weeks, from
conception until the zygote (or blastocyst) is rmly implanted in the wall of the uterus.
The inner layer of the blastocyst will become the
embryo.
The outer layer forms the amnion, chorion, placenta, and umbilical cordsupport structures that
help to sustain the developing prenatal organism.
The period of the embryo lasts from the beginning
of the third through the eighth week of pregnancy.
This is the period when all major organs are
formed and some have begun to function.
The period of the fetus lasts from the ninth prenatal
week until birth.

All organ systems become integrated in preparation for birth.

Fetuses move and begin to use organ systems during this period in preparation for the use of those systems after birth.

Potential Problems in Prenatal Development

Teratogens are external agents such as diseases, drugs,
and chemicals that can harm the developing organism.
Teratogenic effects are worst when a body structure is
forming (usually during the period of the embryo) and
when the dose of the teratogen is high.
Teratogenic effects differ for different genotypes. One
teratogen can cause many birth defects, and different
teratogens can cause the same birth defect.

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Teratogenic effects can be altered by the postnatal environment (through rehabilitation efforts). Some teratogenic effects (like those from DES) are not apparent at
birth but become apparent later in a childs life.
Maternal
characteristics also inuence prenatal
development.
Pregnant women who are malnourished (particularly
during the third trimester) may deliver a preterm baby
who may fail to survive.
Supplements of folic acid help to prevent spina bida and other birth defects.
Malnourished babies are often irritable and unresponsive, interfering with positive developmental outcomes.
Pregnant women under severe emotional stress risk
pregnancy complications.
Complications are also more likely among women
over 35 and teenage pregnant women who lack adequate
prenatal care.

Birth and the Perinatal Environment

Childbirth is a three-step process:
It begins with contractions that dilate the cervix (rst
stage of labor).
These are followed by the babys delivery (second
stage of labor).
And nally the afterbirth is expelled (third stage of
labor).
The Apgar test is used to assess the newborns condition
immediately after birth.

The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS),

administered a few days later, is a more extensive measure
of the babys health and well-being.
Labor and delivery medication given to mothers to
ease pain can, in large doses, interfere with the babys
development.
Many mothers feel exhilarated shortly after birth if they
have close contact with their babies and begin the process
of emotional bonding with them.
Fathers are often engrossed with their newborns.
The support of fathers during pregnancy and childbirth
can make the birth experience easier for mothers.

Potential Problems at Birth

Anoxia is a potentially serious birth complication that
can cause brain damage and other defects. Mild anoxia usually has no long-term effects.
Women who abuse alcohol and drugs, who smoke, or
who receive poor prenatal care risk delivering preterm or
low-birth-weight babies.
Small-for-date babies usually have more severe and
longer-lasting problems than do preterm infants.
Interventions to stimulate these infants and to teach
their parents how to respond appropriately to their sluggish or irritable demeanor can help to normalize their
developmental progress.
The problems stemming from both prenatal and birth
complications are often overcome in time, provided that
the child is not permanently brain damaged and has a stable
and supportive postnatal environment in which to grow.

CHAPTER 4 PRACTICE QUIZ

Multiple Choice: Check your understanding of prenatal
development and birth by selecting the best choice for each
question. Answers appear in the Appendix.
1. The _________ is an organ formed from the lining of
the uterus and the chorion that provides for respiration and nourishment of the prenatal organism and the
elimination of its metabolic wastes.
a. amnion
b. chorion
c. placenta
d. umbilical cord
2. Which period of prenatal development is characterized
by rapid growth and renement of all organ systems?
a. blastocyst
b. fetus
c. embryo
d. zygote
3. During which trimester of pregnancy does the developing organism pass through the periods of the zygote,
embryo, and fetus?
a. rst trimester
b. second trimester

c. third trimester
d. fourth trimester
4. The concept of sensitive periods in prenatal development best illustrates which of the following principles
of the effects of teratogens?
a. Not all embryos or fetuses are equally affected by a
teratogen.
b. The longer the exposure to or the higher the dose of
a teratogen, the more likely it is that serious harm
will be done.
c. The effects of a teratogen on a body part or organ
system are worst during the period when that structure is forming and growing most rapidly.
d. Some teratogens cause sleeper effects that may
not be apparent until later in the childs life.
5. To protect the prenatal organism against the effects of
toxoplasmosis, pregnant woman should be given a pass
from which of the following household chores?
a. washing dishes with antibacterial soap
b. cleaning the cats litter box
c. vacuuming
d. changing burned-out lightbulbs and other work
with electrical xtures