1

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE IDUKKI

PAINAVU 685 603

LIGHT SEEKING ROBOT

MINI PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
JISMOL JOSEPH (Reg.no:12004755)
KEERTHI V K (Reg. no:12004758)
TEENU JOSEPH (Reg. no:12004781)
VISHNU K (Reg. no:12004789)
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY

MAY, 2015

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE IDUKKI

PAINAVU 685 603

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled LIGHT SEEKING ROBOT is a
bonafide record of the paper presented byJISMOL JOSEPH (12004755),
KEERTHI V K (12004758), TEENU JOSEPH (12004781), VISHNU
K(12004789) during their sixth semester in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the award of B-Tech Degree in Electronics & Communication Engineering of
Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala.
PROJECT GUIDES

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Ms. NELSA ABRAHAM

Asst.Prof.ECE
Mr. SUNIL RAJ
Asst.Prof.ECE
INTERNAL EXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

...

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project titled LIGHT SEEKING ROBOT being
submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of B.Tech degree is the original work
carried out by me. It has not formed the part of any other thesis submitted for
award of any degree or diploma, either in this or any other University.
(Signature of the Candidate)
NAME
Register No: NU

ACKNOWLEDGEMNT
We give all honor and praise to the LORD who gave us wisdom and enabled
us to complete this project successfully.
We express our heartfelt thanks to Dr. J. David, Principal, Government
Engineering College, and Idukkifor granting us permission to do the project.
We express our sincere thanks to our head of the department Prof.K R
Ramesh Babu and project guide Ms Nelsa Abraham and Mr Sunil Raj for their
valuable advice and guidance.
We also express our gratitude and thanks to all our teachers and other
faculty members of the department of Electronics and Communication,Government
Engineering College, Idukki for their sincere and friendly cooperation in completing
this project.
We are extremely grateful to our parents for their silent prayer.

ABSTRACT
It is a robot that senses the light and follows it. A user can shine a flash light
at its front and it will respond by following the light source. This robot uses a
micro controller for processing the sensor readings and responds by controlling the
motors and it can also be designed without using micro controller. So basically it is
a robot that responses according to light.
In this case, light source is the object and the Seeker BOT is moving towards
it by comparing the light intensity on left and right sides.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 07
CHAPTER 2. SYSTEM DESIGN
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM 08
2.2 BLOCK DESCRIPTION ..09
2.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ..14
2.4 WORKING ...16
CHAPTER 3. PCB FABRICATION.17
3.1 COMPONENT LAYOUT ...20
3.2 PCB LAYOUT ......21
.
CHAPTER 4. CONCLUSION ..22

REFERENCE .23
APPENDIX.24

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The light following robot is a mobile machine which is capable of detecting

and following the light source on the traveling path. It is developed without the
help of a micro-controller for providing easier connections and understanding of
the circuit. It requires fewer numbers of electronic components and very costeffective as well.
The concept of this light following robot is very simple. It includes two
LDRs, one on the right and other on the left. When the light falls on the right
LDR, the robot will move on the right side. Similarly, the robot will move on the
left side when the light falls on the left LDR.
The further information about the project is given in the following
chapters.Chapter 2 explains the block level description of the system, it includes
high pass filter, amplifier, comparator, and peak detector blocks. Chapter 3
includes the PCB design general steps, and the specification of op-amp lm324. The
4th chapter deals with the entire working of the system.
The last chapter includes the application and future aspects of our project.

CHAPTER 2

SYSTEM DESIGN
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM
Figure 2.1 shows the major block diagram of light seeking robot which
includes two sensors to detect light intensity, two motors to drive the robot and a
5v battery.
MOTOR

SENSOR

PCB&BATTERY

SENSOR

MOTOR

2.2 BLOCKDESCRIPTION

POWER SUPPLY UNIT

The power supply unit consists of voltage regulator, a 5V dc voltage
regulator using 7805 which supplies a steady state regulated and low ripple pure
5V dc for the proper functioning of the entire circuitry. The positive power supply
is passed to the IN of IC 7805(1), and sent out through the OUT(3). The negative
power supply is sent to the GND(2) connection of IC 7805. In between, two
capacitors(C1 & C2) are connected to the IN and OUT of IC 7805 respectively. As
a result of this process,5V of current is obtained.
SENSOR CIRCUIT
The sensor circuit consists of the following components
IC LM 358
LDR
RESISTORS
POTENTIO METER
LED
L293d
First part of the circuit is a light searching sensor wired around the popular OpAmp LM358N (U1), which is an 8-pin IC having two inbuilt op-amps. Here the

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two op-amps are configured in comparator mode.I.e. the reference voltage is set at
the inverting input pin (-), and then it is compared with the input at non-inverting
(+) input pin (reference voltage at inverting input pin can be set with the help of
associated pot meter). When voltage at non-inverting input pin exceeds this
reference voltage, output of the comparator goes high (H), otherwise it remains in
low (L) state. 2-channel output from U1 is fed to the inputs of the integrated motor
driver L293D (U2), which is an easy-to-use 16-pin IC capable of driving two dc
motors at a time in clockwise (CW) and counterclockwise (CCW) direction
individually.
MOTOR DRIVER
Here gear motor is used for controlling the movement of the vehicle. A motor is
a device that translates electrical signal into mechanical movement. To control the
rotation of the motor here we uses L293D.
L293D is a typical Motor driver or Motor Driver IC which allows DC motor
to drive on either direction. It is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC
motors simultaneously in any direction. It means control of two DC motor with a
single L293D IC. It is a Dual H-bridge Motor Driver integrated circuit (IC).

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PIN

FUNCTION

NAME

Enable pin for Motor 1; active high

Enable 1,2

Input 1 for Motor 1

Input 1

Output 1 for Motor 1

Output 1

Ground (0V)

Ground

Ground (0V)

Ground

Output 2 for Motor 1

Output 2

Input 2 for Motor 1

Input 2

Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to

vcc 2

36V)
9

Enable pin for Motor 2; active high

Enable 3,4

10

Input 1 for Motor 1

Input 3

11

Output 1 for Motor 1

Output 3

12

Ground (0V)

Ground

13

Ground (0V)

Ground

14

Output 2 for Motor 1

Output 4

15

Input2 for Motor 1

Input 4

16

Supply voltage; 5V (up to 36V)

Vcc 1

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L293D is a typical Motor Driver IC which allows DC motor to drive on

either direction
L293D is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors
simultaneously in any direction.
L293D IC is a dual H-bridge Motor Driver integrated circuit(IC).
It works on the concept of H-bridge.
H-bridge is a circuit which allows the voltage to be flown in either direction.
As the voltage need to change its direction for being able to rotate the motor
in clockwise or anticlockwise direction, hence H-bridge IC are ideal for
driving a DC motor.
There are two Enable pins on l293d. Pin 1 and pin 9, for being able to drive
the motor, the pin 1 and 9 need to be high
There are two Enable pins on l293d. Pin 1 and pin 9, for being able to drive
the motor, the pin 1 and 9 need to be high.
For driving the motor with left H-bridge you need to enable pin 1 to high.
And for right H-Bridge you need to make the pin 9 to high. If anyone of the
either pin1 or pin9 goes low then the motor in the corresponding section will
suspend working.

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WORKING OF L293D:
There are 4 input pins for this l293d, pin 2, 7 on the left and pin 15, 10 on
the right.
Left input pins will regulate the rotation of motor connected across left side
and
Right input for motor on the right hand side.
The motors are rotated on the basis of the inputs provided across the input
pins
As LOGIC 0 or LOGIC 1.
For rotating the motor in clockwise direction the input pins has to be
provided with
Logic 1 and Logic 0.
Pin

2 = Logic

Pin

2 = Logic

1 and Pin
0 and Pin

7 = Logic
7 = Logic

0|
1|

Clockwise

Direction

Anticlockwise

Direction

Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | Idle [No rotation] [Hi-Impedance state]
Pin 2 = Logic 1 and Pin 7 = Logic 1 | Idle [No rotation]

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2.3 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

POWER SUPPLY

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MAIN CIRCUIT

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2.4 WORKING
Construction and Working Principle:
Connect a 9V batteryto the breadboard with the help of a battery holder. The
positive power supply is passed to the IN of IC 7805 (1), and sent out through the
OUT (3). The negative power supply is sent to the GND(2) connection of IC 7805.
In between, two capacitors (C1 & C2) are connected to the IN and OUT of IC 7805
respectively. As a result of this process, 5V of current is obtained.
Now, connect an IC LM358in the breadboard. As it is a voltage comparator,
it will predict the output from the photodiodes based on the input voltage. For
instance, let us consider that the voltage at 3rd pin is more than or equal to the
voltage at 2nd pin. At this time, the 1st pin of IC LM358 will be high or else it will
stay low. A 10K resistor is coupled with each photodiodes. Then, place an IC
L293Din the breadboard, and join the 2ndand 15th pin of it with 1st pin of IC
LM358. In between this connection, include a LEDwith the 10K resistor.
The four core wire of left motor is connected to the 3rd& 6th pin of IC
L293D, while the right motor is attached with 11th& 14th pin. The two 10cm
wheels are mounted with the motors. A castor wheelis included at the front of the
robot for balanced and comfortable movements. A power supply of 5Vis applied to
the 1st, 7th, 8th, 9th, & 16th pins. The remaining 4th, 5th, 10th, 12th,& 13th pins are
connected to the ground.After finishing all the circuit connections, place the robot
in the dark room. Connect the 9V battery and power the robot. Now, show the
lightin front of the robot, and it will followthe light wherever it goes.

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CHAPTER 3

PCB FABRICATION

A printed circuit board is defined as an insulating material into

which an electronic circuit has beenprinted or etched.PCB is developed by etching
process. First of all the required circuit is designed and a layout is prepared. The
layout can either be done with hand or by using PCB designing software like
WINBOARD or ORCAD. Since layout preparation using software is much
less tedious and more flexible,the layouts for circuits was designed using
orchard.The layout of the circuit is transferred to the PCB with proper
interconnections.The layout is made on the PCB on the component side as well as
on the copper clad side.Spaces are provided for drilling holes for inserting the
respective components of the circuit. Now the instrumental interconnections are to
be done.

Printed wiring is of two types:

Rigid type
Flexible type
The process begins with copper foil bonded to an insulating
copper

clad

material.The

bonding

occurs

through

an

electroplating

operation.Following suitable cleansing and other preparations, a pattern of desired

circuit configuration with interconnections are marked first with a scribbler. Then

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the stencil of the above layout is made on a plastic transparent sheet and is used as
a mask.

Different steps involved in the fabrication of a PCB are as follows:

1. Components layout designing.

2. PCB layout designing.
3. Transferring the PCB layout design onto the PC board laminate.
4. Developing the PCB.
5. Other operations like drilling, cutting, tinning etc.

1. COMPONENTS LAYOUT DESIGNING

Component layout designing is the placement of different components with

their interconnections as per the circuit diagram on PCB board. This exercise
usually begins with an estimate of size of PCB needed to accommodate various
circuit components. Interconnections can be made by drawing lines known as
tracks.
2. PCB LAYOUT DESIGN

PCB layout designing is the mirror image of components layout. The

components layout is drawn looking from the components side whereas the PCB
layout is drawn looking from the copper side. It is obtained by taking a carbon
copy of the computer layout by placing a reverse carbon underneath the paper.

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3. PCB LAYOUT ONTO PCB LAMINATE

First the PCB laminate is chosen. The copper side of the laminate is
thoroughly cleaned with petrol to make it completely free from contaminants. The
PCB layout is drawn on the copper side. Care should be taken to position of the
holes. The same is redrawn giving proper width to different tracks and leaving
proper space using permanent marker.
4. DEVELOPING THE PCB

In this process, all excess copper is removed leaving behind only the drawn
pattern. To do etching, an aqueous solution of ferric chloride is poured into a tray
with the quantity depending upon the size of the PCB to be etched. The mark is
then removed using an alcohol.
5. DRILLING AND TINNING

After etching, drilling is done. The diameter of holes varies from

components to components. It is1mm for IC pins, 1.25 for resistors and capacitors,
1.5mm for diodes and even larger for mounting presence. Tinning can prevent the
oxidation of copper portions which can be done by using a soldering.
3.1 SOLDERING

Solder is an alloy of lead and tin used to fuse metals at relatively low
temperature, about 260-315k. The joint where two metal conductors are to be fused
is heated and then solder is applied so that it can melt and cover the connection.
The reason for soldering is that it makes good bond between the joint metals,
covering the joints completely to prevent oxidation. The coating of solder provides
protection for practically long period of time. The trick in soldering is to heat the

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joints and not the solder. Either a soldering iron or soldering gun can be used, rated
at 25-100W.
In addition to the solder, flux is used to remove any oxide film on the metal
being joined. The flux enables the molten solder to wet the met.

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3.1COMPONENT LAYOUT

POWER SUPPLY

MAIN CIRCUIT

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3.2 PCB LAYOUT

POWER SUPPLY

MAIN CIRCUIT

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CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION
Light seeking robot is a mobile machine capable of detecting and
following the light source on the travelling path. It is developed without the help of
a microcontroller. It requires fewer number of electronic components and very cost
effective as well.
ADVANCEMENTS:

An array of LDRs sensors can be used for improvement of light sensing

That will give a high accuracy of readings.
We can also design it using micro controller
If an ultrasonic sensor is added in this robot then it can avoid obstacles
Which are in its path during following light.
APPLICATIONS:

alarm devices
This technology can also be used to measure light intensity for
Applications that require greater precision.
Camera can use this technology to determine the proper exposure
Time; laptops may use in a circuit that varies screen brightness
According to ambient lighting conditions.
In solar tracking systems.
Industrial applications

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REFERENCE

1. www.Electronicsbible.com

2. www.Wikipedia.com

3. www.alldatasheets.com

4. www.Electronicscircuits.com

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APPENDIX

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COMPONENT STUDY

MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA
3-Terminal 1A Positive Voltage Regulator
Features
Output Current up to 1A
Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
Thermal Overload Protection
Short Circuit Protection
Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

Description
The MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA series of three
terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output
voltages, making them useful in a wide range of
applications. Each type employs internal current limiting,
thermal shut down and safe operating area protection,
making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking
is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current.
Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators,
these devices can be used with external components to
obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

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Absolute Maximum Ratings (Note 11)

If Military/Aerospace specified devices are required, please contact the National Semiconductor Sales Office/
Distributors for availability and specifications.
LM158/LM258/LM358 LM2904
LM158A/LM258A/LM358A
Supply Voltage, V+ 32V 26V
Differential Input Voltage 32V 26V
Input Voltage 0.3V to +32V 0.3V to +26V
Power Dissipation (Note 3)
Molded DIP 830 mW 830 mW
Metal Can 550 mW
Small Outline Package (M) 530 mW 530 mW
Micro SMD 435mW
Output Short-Circuit to GND
(One Amplifier) (Note 4)
V+ 15V and TA = 25C Continuous Continuous
Input Current (VIN <0.3V) (Note 5) 50 mA 50 mA
Operating Temperature Range
LM358 0C to +70C 40C to +85C
LM258 25C to +85C
LM158 55C to +125C
Storage Temperature Range 65C to +150C 65C to +150C
Lead Temperature, DIP
(Soldering, 10 seconds) 260C 260C
Lead Temperature, Metal Can

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(Soldering, 10 seconds) 300C 300C
Soldering Information
Dual-In-Line Package
Soldering (10 seconds) 260C 260C
Small Outline Package
Vapor Phase (60 seconds) 215C 215C
Infrared (15 seconds) 220C 220C
See AN-450 Surface Mounting Methods and Their Effect on Product Reliability for other methods of soldering surface
mount devices.
ESD Tolerance (Note 12) 250V

__

_____

___ _____

SLRS008C SEPTEMBER 1986 REVISED NOVEMBER 2004

POST OFFICE BOX 655303

DALLAS, TEXAS 75265 1

_ Featuring Unitrode L293 and L293D

Products Now From Texas Instruments

_ Wide Supply-Voltage Range: 4.5 V to 36 V

_ Separate Input-Logic Supply
_ Internal ESD Protection
_ Thermal Shutdown
_ High-Noise-Immunity Inputs
_ Functionally Similar to SGS L293 and
SGS L293D

_ Output Current 1 A per Channel

(600 mA for L293D)

_ Peak Output Current 2 A per Channel

(1.2 A for L293D)

_ Output Clamp Diodes for Inductive

Transient Suppression (L293D)

Description/ordering information
The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current
Half-H drivers. The L293 is designed to provide
Bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages
From 4.5 V to 36 V. The L293D is designed to

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Provide bidirectional drive currents of up to
600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both
devices are designed to drive inductive loads such
as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping
motors, as well as other high-current/high-voltage
loads in positive-supply applications.
All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a
complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a
Darlington transistor sink and a pseudoDarlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with drivers 1 and 2 enabled by 1,2EN and drivers 3 and
4
enabled by 3,4EN. When an enable input is high, the associated drivers are enabled, and their outputs
are active
and in phase with their inputs. When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled, and their outputs
are
off and in the high-impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or
bridge)

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reversible drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications.

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