7

METHODS STUDY FOR MANUFACTURING

SYSTEMS

7.1
INTRODUCTION
Modern industry is constantly searching for better methods. When a
business ceases to move forward it will lose ground and may eventually
fail. It is for this reason that major companies are now organizing
industrial engineering groups, work simplification, value analysis,
suggestion systems, and other methods for analysis of present and
proposed work systems to develop an optimal transformation of input to
output.
7.2
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Methods design and work measurement actually grew out of the
pioneering developments of the Gilbreths (Frank B, and his wife Lillian
M) and Taylor in the late 19th and early 20th century.
Gilbreths developed many of the tools of motion study as a part of
formulating a systematic approach to the analysis of work methods.
Gilbreth has originally introduced his ideas and philosophies into brick
laylers trade where he was employed. After introducing methods
improvements through motion study and operator training, he was able to
increase the average number of bricks laid to 350 per man per hour. Prior
to Gilbreths studies, 120 bricks per man per hour was considered as a
satisfactory rate of performance. Gilbreth eventually became so engrossed
in motion study that he gave up his job in order to concentrate his full
attention on the development of motion study along with his wife Lillian
Gilbreth, who was a psychologist, and they developed many of the
analysis technique in common use to-day.

7.3
FIELD OF APPLICATION
The application of methods design may be utilized to find a preferred way
of doing the work and assist in effectively managing or controlling the
activity. It fits equally well when applied to heavy or light factory, office,
production, maintenance, staff or supervisory work. It is equally
applicable to farm work, housework, cafeteria work, department store or
hotel work, the whole range of government activities, or any other human

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activity since requisite human efforts are in all cases composed of the
same basic acts, and the information relating to the economical use of
human effort is universally applicable.
Method study has its application also in the decision making process
in the cycle of managerial control. For instance the problems of designing
or selecting the tools, equipment, workplaces, and methods may be solved
by various methods design techniques.
7.4
METHODS ANALYSIS PHILOSOPHY
Methods analysis, or methods function, has evolved, as already said, from
the initial efforts of people such as Fredrick W Taylor and Frank Gilbreth.
Today the problem solving approaches, techniques and efforts are being
applied to all functions of the enterprises because the products become
more complex and higher order of mechanization and increased in output
became the pre-requisite for the survival of the companies. The basic
philosophies of methods analysis are the following:
1. Increased productivity and developing man power, facilities and
effectiveness are the objectives for studying systems.
2. Methods analysis is concerned with all phases of system design,
development, installation, operation, control and maintenance.
3. The design and planning of systems should consider alternatives from
models of automation to integrated man-machine systems.
4. All aspects of the system under study regardless of the extent of scope
should be considered in methods analysis.
5. The design or analysis of systems is enhanced through recognition of
people and their abilities and talents as an integral part of the process.
.
Methods design is the systematic study of existing as well as proposed
methods of performing a job with purpose of :
1. developing and applying an easier and effective method called a
preferred method usually the one with lowest cost; and
2. standardizing this method.
Methods design consists of a wide variety of procedures for the
description, systematic analysis and improvement of work methods,
considering:
1. The design of the outputs.
2. The process or method of work.
3. The raw materials.
4. The tools, equipment and work place for each step in the process and
5. The human activity used to perform each step.

METHODS STUDY FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

109

The aim is to determine or design a preferable work method, the

criterion of preference being usually economy of money, time and effort.
7.5
METHODS IMPROVEMENT: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE
A problem-solving approach for the purpose of improving methods design
is described below. In fact, the seven steps that are listed and explained
hereunder may be used in solving almost any problem.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Problem definition: It means statement of purpose, goal or objective.

At the outset it is best to define the problem broadly. In many cases,
it is not easy to identify just what the real problem is. However, the
problem must be understood, isolated and brought to light and
carefully studied to accomplish the objective.
Analysis of problem: The analysis of problem implied that once the
problem is identified it becomes necessary to sort out the facts
relating to the function of the components involved and try to
determine their interactions.
Search for possible solutions : The basic objective of this step is to
find the
preferred solution that will meet the criteria and
specifications that have already been gathered through the first two
steps. A normal tendency is to consider-one-method, whereas many
alternatives should be evaluated. A better or best solution can not be
determined unless the alternatives are available.
Evaluation of alternative: In the evaluation of solutions or
alternatives economy and practicability of (a) manpower, (b)
facilities, (c) product, and (d) materials are considered. Also quality
and quantity specifications should not be overlooked in the
evaluation process.
Recommendation for action: The recommendations presented by the
analyst provide management with technical data necessary for
decisions. Three suggested factors such as: (1) benefits, (2) cost, and
(3) savings are generally mentioned in the recommendation.
Follow-up to ensure action: This step is to ensure that the design or
improvement of alternatives is detailed and complete. Decisions must
first be made to proceed on the design and then the responsibility
should be assigned to other aspects and finally to installation.
Validation of results: In addition to achieving the proper functioning
of the design, it is always wise to again check the benefits, costs and
savings predicted in the recommendation and recheck the problem
definition and objectives with the purpose of finding further
possibilities for improvement.

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In addition to the aforesaid steps, abilities of observing, questioning,

recording, analysis, reasoning and synthesizing are important in
application of problem-solving approach.
7.5.1
Approach to Developing Preferred Method
In practice there is no perfect method and there are always opportunities
to improve methods and processes. In designing a method for an existing
activity, one usually does not have enough freedom as more constraints or
restrictions are imposed on it simply because the activity is an on-going
one. On the other hand, in designing a method for a new activity there is,
of course, lesser restriction and greater freedom, but the added cost to
make the change must be considered.
However, the following cost-elimination approaches provide possible
solutions in developing a better or more appropriately called preferred
method particularly suitable for a new activity.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Eliminate all unnecessary work.

Combine operations or elements.
Change the sequence of operations.
Simplify the necessary operations.

Eliminate all unnecessary work: It is suggested that the factor

contributing major cost should be selected first. If the factor eliminated, ,
there will be elimination of many smaller operations and/or unnecessary
work.
Combine operations or elements : It is customary to break down or
sub-divide a process into too many operations. It is therefore necessary to
make the job easier by simply combining two or more than two
operations or by making some changes in the method which permits
operations to be combined for the purpose of reducing costs.( use of turret
lathe, for example)
Change the sequence of operations: It is sometimes desirable to
change the order in which the various operations are performed. When a
new product first goes into production, the experimentation should be
carried out in this respect. The process chart and flow diagram reveal the
desirability of changing the sequence in minimizing cost.
Simplify the necessary operations: In this step, each operations in the
process is analyzed with the object of simplifying or improving it. The
smaller details are examined after the overall picture is studied and major
changes are made.

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111

7.6
METHODS IMPROVEMENT : QUESTIONING TECHNIQUE
One of the best ways to approach the problem of methods improvement is
to question everything about the job the way the job is being done now,
the materials that are being used, the tools and equipments, the working
condition and the design of the product itself.
The questioning technique consists of two sets of detailed questions:
the primary questions to indicate the facts and the reasons underlying
them, and the secondary questions to indicate the alternatives as a means
of improvement upon the existing method.
Primary questions : The following are the primary questions
under their respective headings:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Purpose.
Place.
Sequence.
Person.
Means.

What is achieved?
Where is it done?
When is it done?
Who does it?
How is it done?

Why is it necessary?
Why there?
Why then?
Why that person?
Why that way?

The primary questions clearly indicate any part of the work which is
unnecessary or inefficient in respect of place, sequence, person or means.
Secondary questions. The following are the secondary questions
under their respective heading. These secondary questions are asked only
when the answers to the primary questions are subjected to further query
to establish alternatives to existing or previously proposed methods.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Purpose.
Place.
Sequence.
Person.
Means.

What else might be done?

Where else might it be done?
When might it be done?
Who else might do it?
How else might it be done?

What should be done?

Where should it be done?
When should it be done?
Who should do it?
How should it be done?

When the (two) primary questions and (two) secondary questions

under each of the headings are combined, it forms a complete list, which
sets out the questioning technique in full.
The activities under the questioning techniques are undertaken with a
view: (1) eliminating, (2) combining, (3) rearranging, or (4) simplifying,
these activities as given hereunder:
1.
2.
3.

Eliminate unnecessary part

Combine wherever possible
Rearrange the sequence of operations
for more effective result

: Purpose
: Place and sequence
: Place, sequence and person

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INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

Simplify the operation

: Means

The questioning pattern ensures that every aspect of the activity is

examined and that all alternatives are fully considered with the result that
an improved method may be developed.
7.7
TOOLS FOR METHODS IMPROVEMENT
Whether methods work is being used to design a new work or to improve
one already in operation, it is helpful to present in clear and logical form
the factual information related to the process. Pertinent information such
as the quantity to be produced, delivery schedules, operational times,
facilities, machine capacities, special materials and special tools may
have an important bearing on the solution of the problem. Visual
observations, calculations or photographic techniques prove useful. That is
why methods analysis is carried out by a series of process charts and
diagrams prepared for both existing as well as proposed methods. These
are:
1.

2.

3.

Charts indicating process sequence

(a) Outline process chart
(b) Flow process chart man, material and equipment
(c) Gang process chart
(d) Two handed process chart
Charts using a time scale
(a) Multiple activity chart
(b) Man and machine chart
(c) Simo chart
(d) Memo chart
Diagrams indicating movements
(a) Flow diagram
(b) String diagram
(c) Cyclegraphs and chronocyclegraphs.

7.7.1
Process Chart Symbols
The symbols used for recording the nature of activities are:
Operation : Indicates the main steps (operations) in a process,
method or procedure.
Transport : Indicates the movement of workers, material or
equipment from place to place.
Storage :
Indicates a controlled storage in which the material is
held, kept or retained for reference purpose.

METHODS STUDY FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Temporary storage or delay : D

operation.

113

Indicates a delay in the sequence of

Inspection : Indicates an inspection for quality and/or a check for

quantity.
Combined activities : Combined activities can be shown by super
imposing their respective symbols so that the outer symbol represent the
major activity, e.g. the circle within the square represent a combined
operation and inspection.
These standard symbols serve as a very convenient, widely
understood type of shorthand, saving a lot of writing and helping to show
clearly just what is happening in the sequence being recorded.
7.8
PROCESS CHARTS
The process chart in general is a sequential listing of brief descriptions of
each of the steps in a system. In comparison, the flow-process chart is a
graphical illustration of a system. The process chart is often developed in
conjunction with the flow-process chart to provide for a thorough analysis
of a system for improvement. Several rules should be adhered to in the
completion of the process chart form:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The heading and outline inform action of the form should be

completed.
The symbols should be outlined or highlighted.
The chart should start and end with a store.
Numbers should be entered in the symbols independently.
Diagonal lines should be drawn joining the symbols to indicate flow.
Additional information such as distance moved, operation,
description, type of equipment, etc may be incorporated.
The summary section must be completed either at the top or bottom
of the form.

7.8.1
Outline Process Chart
The outline process chart or the operation process chart, as it is
sometimes called, shows the chronological sequence of all operations,
inspections, time allowances and materials to the packaging of the finished
product.
The chart does not show where work takes place or who performs it,
and because it is concerned only with operations and inspections, only the
symbols for operation and inspection are necessary.

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INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

Figure 7.1 Operations process chart

The charts are often used to assist in the layout of plant, and in the design
of the product or of the machinery for making that product. The outline
process chart effectively states the problem and indicates the areas which
require improvement. A typical outline process chart is shown in Fig. 7.1.

METHODS STUDY FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

115

7.8.2
Flow Process Chart
The flow process chart is an amplification of the outline process chart, in
that it shows transports, delays and storage as well as operations and

Figure 7.2

Flow process chart

inspection. It is used primarily on one component of an assembly or a

system at a time to effect maximum savings in manufacturing or in the
procedures applicable to a particular component or sequence of work. The
chart is especially valuable in recording hidden costs such as distance
traveled, delays and temporary storages.

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INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

Flow process charts recording simultaneous activities of two or more

subjects can be presented alongside each other on the same sheet of paper
to indicate more clearly their interdependence. It is essential, however, that
the activities of a particular subject to which it refers, either man, material
or equipment are recorded on any single chart. A typical example of flow
process chart is shown in Fig. 7.2
7.8.3
Gang Process Chart
The gang process chart is an aid in studying the activities of a group of
people working together. The chart is a composite of individual member
flow process charts, arranged to permit thorough analysis. Those
operations which are performed simultaneously by gang members are
indicated side by side. The basic purpose of the chart is to analyze the
activities of the group and then compose the group-so as to reduce to a
minimum all waiting time and delays. A typical gang process chart is
shown in Fig. 7.3
7.8.4
Two-handed Process Chart
A two-handed process chart, sometimes referred to as a left and right hand
process chart is, in effect, a tool of motion study. The chart shows all
movements and delays made by both the right and the left hand. This is an
effective tool to:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Balance the motion of both hands and reduce fatigue.

Eliminate and / or reduce non-productive motions.
Shorten the duration of productive motions.
Train new operators in the ideal method.

A two-handed process chart is made up to two columns in which are

recorded the symbols representing the activities of the left hand and the
right hand respectively. They are interrelated by aligning the symbols on
the chart so that simultaneous movements by both hands appear opposite
to each other. In some cases where micro motion analysis is justified,
detailed movements of hands and arms are shown by their respective
symbols.
Movements of the two feet can be recorded by making two additional
columns.
A typical two-handed process chart is shown in Fig. 7.4.

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117

Figure 7.3 Gang process chart

7.8.5
Multiple Activity Chart
A multiple activity chart is a chart on which the activities of more than one
subject (worker, machine or item of equipment) are each recorded on a
common time scale to show their interrelationships.

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INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

Figure 7.4

Left hand right hand chart

By using separate vertical columns or bars to represent the activities

of different operators or machines against a common time scale, the chart
shows very clearly periods of idleness on the part of any of the subjects
during the process.
The multiple activity chart is extremely useful in organizing operating
teams on mass production work and also on maintenance work when

METHODS STUDY FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

119

expensive plant cannot be allowed to remain idle than is absolutely

necessary. It can also be used to determine the number of machines which
an operator or operators should be able to look after. In making a chart the
activities of the different operators and machines are recorded in terms of
working time and idle time. Fig. 7.5 shows a typical multiple activity
chart.
7.8.6
Man and Machine Chart.
The man and machine chart is a common form of multiple activity chart
where man and
machine
relationship
is
shown. The man
and
machine
work
intermittently on
some types of
work. That is , the
machine is idle
while the worker
loads
it
or
removed
the
finished
work
from the machine.
Again, the worker
is idle when the
machine is in
operation. It is
desirable
to
eliminate the idle
time
of
the
worker and at the
Figure 7.5 Multiple activity chart
same time to see
that the machine be kept operating as near capacity as possible without
remaining idle at any time during the working hours.
The first step in eliminating unnecessary waiting time for the worker
and for the machine is to record exactly what each works and what each
does. Many operations consists of three main stages:
1. Make ready required to prepare the material or workpiece and set it, in
position ready to be worked on the machine.
2. Do operation (doing the work) in which the change is made in the
shape such as turning, and

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INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

3. Put away or clear up, such as removing the finished piece from the
machine.
The chart shows the exact relationship on a common time scale
between the working cycle of the person and the operating cycle of the
machine. That is the completed man and machine process chart clearly
shows the areas in which both idle machine time and man time occur.
These areas are generally a good place to start effecting improvements.
A typical man and machine chart is presented in Fig. 7.6.
7.9
MOTION STUDY
Motion study is the careful analysis of the various body motions employed
in doing a job. Its purpose is to eliminate or reduce ineffective movements
and to facilitate and speed up effective movements. Gilbreths pioneered
the study of manual motion and developed basic laws of motion economy
that are still considered fundamental.
Motion study, in the broad sense, covers two degrees of refinement
that have wide industrial application. These are visual motion study and
micromotion study.
Visual motion study involves a careful observation of the operation
and construction of a two-handed process chart, and an analysis of the
chart, considering the laws of motion economy.
Micromotion study provides a technique for recording and timing an
activity. It consists of taking motion pictures of the operation with a clock
in the picture of with a motion picture camera or video camera operating at
a constant and known speed. The film becomes a permanent record of both
methods and time and may be re-examined whenever necessary. As the
implementation is costly it is usually utilized only on extremely active
jobs which are repeated thousands of times such as packing of food cans
into cartons. In such cases, it is worthwhile going into much greater detail
to determine where movements and effort can be saved and to develop the
best possible method of movements. This enables the worker to perform
the operation repeatedly with a minimum of effort and fatigue.

METHODS STUDY FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Figure 7.6 Man machine chart

121

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7.10

FUNDAMENTAL MOTIONS

Most work is done with the two hands and all manual work consists of a
relatively few fundamental motions that are performed repeatedly. Frank
B. Gilbreth, the founder of motion study, developed 17 elementary
subdivisions of a cycle of motion which he called therblig (Gilbreth
spelled backwards) and concluded that any and all operations are made up
of a series of these 17 basic divisions. Therbligs comprise a system for
analyzing the motions involved in performing a task. The identification of
individual motions, as well as moments of delay in the process, was
designed to find unnecessary or inefficient motions and to utilize or
eliminate even split-seconds of wasted time. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
invented and refined this system, roughly between 1908 and 1924.
The 17 fundamental motion or hand motions as they are sometimes
called, modified somewhat from Gilbreths summary and their symbols
and colour designations are shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Therblig-symbol and colour
THERBLIG Name

Symbol

Search
Select

S
SE

Colour
Designation
Black
Gray, Light

Grasp

Lake red

Reach
Move
Hold

RE
M
H

Olive green
Green
Gold ocher

Release
Position

RL
P

Carmine red
Blue

Preposition

PP

Sky Blue

Inspect
Assemble
Disassemble
Use

I
A
DA
U

Burnt Ocher
Violet, Heavy
Violet Light
Purple

Unavoidable delay

UD

Purple

Avoidable delay
Plan
Rest to over come
fatigue

AD
PL
R

Lemon Yellow
Brown
Orange

Picture Symbol

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123

7.10.1 Description of Fundamental Motions

The definitions of the various therbligs are given hereunder:
1. SEARCH. The Search motion starts when the eyes and/or hand start
to seek the object needed and ends just as the object is located. The
Gilbreths stated that in a search, "....the time and attention
required...varies with the number of dimensions in which the search
is performed." A one-dimensional search might be locating a piece of
paper on a desktop. A two dimensional search might be finding a
light switch on a wall and the three dimensional search would be
locating a hanging pull-chain for a light or fan. The Gilbreths also
recognized that contrasting colors, shapes or embossed symbols
could reduce the search function. This science has been expanded by
the modern study of Human Factors Engineering. However, the
classic example of the Gilbreths reducing Search was by arranging
tools and parts in a physical sequence of use through the Packet
Principle.
Example : Trying to find or pick a part from a pile. The original list
of Gilbreth motions contained the therblig find. Since it is a mental
reaction rather than a physical movement, it is seldom used in micro
motion analysis work.
2. SELECT. It occurs when one object is being picked from among
several.
Example : Locating a particular bolt from among several.
3. GRASP. It consists of taking hold on an object.
Example : Closing the fingers around a pencil.
4. HOLD. It refers to the retention of an object in a fixed location.
Example: Retaining a fountain pen barrel in one hand while
assembling the cap to it with the other.
5. TRANSPORT LOADED. It refers to moving an object from one place
to another.
Example : Carrying a desk pen from the holder to the paper.
6. POSITION. It consists of aligning or orienting an object preparatory
to fitting it into some location.
Example : Aligning a plug preparatory to inserting it into an electrical
outlet.
7. ASSEMBLE. It consists of combining one object with another.
Example : Assembling a nut on a bolt.
8. USE. It consists of causing a device for the purpose for which it is
intended.
Example : Tightening a bolt with a slide wrench.

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9.

10.

11.

12.
13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

DISASSEMBLE. It consists of separating two objects which were

combined.
Example : Removing a nut from a bolt.
INSPECT. It refers to examination of an object to determine some
quality such as size, shape or colour.
Example : Visual examination of finish of a desk.
PRE-POSITION. It consists of placing an object in a predetermined
manner and in the correct position for some subsequent motion.
Example : Lining up a desk pen for inserting into its holder.
RELEASE LOAD. It occurs when the hand lets go of an object.
Example: Letting go of a desk pen when it is placed in a holder.
TRANSPORT EMPTY. It refers to moving the empty hand while
reaching for something.
Example : Reaching for a desk pen.
REST . It occurs when a worker pauses to overcome the fatigue from
the previous work.
Example : An operator pauses to rest after having lifted several heavy
weights into a truck.
UNAVIODABLE DELAY. It refers to a delay by body member which
is beyond the control of the operator.
Example : Right hand pauses during the operation of assembling a job
while the left hand keeps aside a completed job.
AVOIDABLE DELAY. It refers to a delay by body member which is
within the control of the operator.
Example : An operator pauses or deviates from the normal motion
pattern.
PLAN. It refers to a delay in a motion pattern while the operator
decides how to proceed. It is therefore a mental process before taking
action.
Example : An operator fixing a tool on tool post pauses to decide
which part should be cut next.

7.10.2 Classification of Therblig1

The 17 basic divisions can be classified as either effective or ineffective
therbligs. Effective therbligs are those that directly advance the progress of
the work. Infective therbligs do not advance the progress of the work and
should be eliminated by applying the principles of operation analysis and
motion study.
A further classification breaks the therbligs into physical, semi mental
or mental, objective, and delay groups. Ideally, a work center should
comprise only physical and objective therbligs.
1

Niebel B.W., Motion and Time Study, Richard D Irwin, Illinois

METHODS STUDY FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

125

A. Effective.
1. Physical basic divisions.
(a) Reach
(b) Move
(c) Grasp
(d) Release
(e) Pre-position
2. Objective basic division
(a) Use
(b) Assemble
(c) Disassemble
B. Ineffective.
1. Mental or semi mental basic divisions
(a) Search
(b) Select
(c) Position
(d) Inspect
(e) Plan
2. Delay
(a) Unavoidable delay
(b) Avoidable delay
(c) Rest to overcome fatigue
(d) Hold
7.11
PRINCIPLES OF MOTION ECONOMY
Through the pioneering work of Gilbreth and other investigators, notably
Ralph M. Barnes, certain rules for motion economy have been developed.
These principles apply to visual motion study as well as to the
micromotion study and broken into three basic sub divisions:
(A) The use of the human body,
(B) The arrangement and conditions of the workplace, and
(C) The design of the tools and equipment.
The inefficiencies in the methods may be detected by careful
observation of the workplace and the operations. These basic principles
under their respective divisions are as follows 2 :

Barnes R.M., Motion and Time Study, Wiley & Sons, New York

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A.

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

The use of the human body.

1. Both hands should begin and end their motions at the same time
and should not be idle at the same instant, except during rest
periods.
2. The motions made by the hands should be made symmetrically
and simultaneously away from and toward the center of the body.
3. Momentum should be employed to assist the worker wherever
possible and it should be reduced to a minimum if it must be
overcome by muscular effort.
4. Continuous curved motions are preferable to straight-line
motions involving sudden and sharp changes in direction.
5. The least number of basic divisions should be used, and these
should be confined to the lowest practicable classifications. These
classifications, summarised in ascending order of the time and
fatigue expended in their performance, are :
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Finger motions
Finger and wrist motion
Finger, wrist, and lower arm motions.
Finger, wrist, lower arm, and upper arm motions.
Finger, wrist, lower arm, upper arm, body motions.

6.

Work that can be done by the feet should be arranged so that it is

done simultaneously with work being done by the hands. It
should recognize, however, that it is difficult to move the hand
and foot simultaneously.
7. The middle finger and the thumb are the strongest working
fingers. The index finger, fourth finger, and little finger are not
capable of handling heavy loads over extended periods.
8. The feet are not capable of efficiently operating pedals when the
operator is in a standing position.
9. Twisting motions should be performed with the elbows bent.
10. To grip tools, the segments of the fingers closest to the palm of
the hand should be used.

B.

The arrangement and conditions of the workplace.

1.

Fixed locations should be provided for all tools and materials so

as to permit the best sequence and to eliminate or reduce the
therbligs; search and select.

METHODS STUDY FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

2.

3.
4.

5.
6.
7.

C.

127

Gravity bins and drop delivery should be used to reduce reach

and move times; also, wherever possible, ejectors to remove
finished parts automatically should be provided.
All materials and tools should be located within the normal
working area in both the vertical and the horizontal planes.
A Comfortable chair should be provided for the operator and the
height so arranged that the work can be efficiently performed by
the operator alternately standing and sitting.
Proper illumination, ventilation, and temperature should be
provided.
The visual requirements of the workplace should be considered
so that eye fixation demands are minimized.
Rhythm is essential to the smooth and automatic performance of
an operation, and the work should be arranged to permit an easy
and natural rhythm wherever possible.

The design of tools and equipment.

1.

2.

3.
4.

Multiple cuts should be taken whenever possible by combining

two or more tools in one, or by arranging simultaneous cuts from
feeding devices, if available (cross slide and hexagonal turret).
All levers, handles, wheels, and other control devices should be
readily accessible to the operator and should be designed so as to
give the best possible mechanical advantage and to utilize the
strongest available muscle group.
Parts should be held in position by fixtures.
The possibility of using powered or semiautomatic tools, such as
power nut and screwdrivers and speed wrenches, should always
be investigated.

7.12
MICROMOTION STUDY
The micromotion study is used to make a detailed motion study employing
either videotapes or motion pictures operating at a constant and known
speed. Here each space occupied by a single picture, known as a frame, is
projected and studied independently, and then collectively with successive
frames :
Micromotion study may now be used for the following purposes :
1.
2.
3.

As an aid in studying the interrelationships among the members of a

work group.
As an aid in studying the relationship between an operator and his
machine.
As an aid in obtaining motion time data for time standards.

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As a permanent record of the methods and time of activities of the

operator and the machine.

Micromotion study provides a valuable technique for making minute

analysis, of these operations that are short in cycle and highly repetitive or
largely manual in character, contain rapid movements, and involve high
production over a long period of time. Thus it is very useful in analyzing
operation such as assembling small parts, and similar activities. But it has
the disadvantages that it is expensive, time consuming, and frequently
meets with union resistance.
7.12.1 Micro-motion Equipment
The following equipment is recommended where a fairly extensive
programme is to be carried on :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Motion picture cameras

Metal striped with tilting and panoramic head
Exposure meter
Three or four lamps with reflectors
Two tripods for lamps
Micro chronometer
Motion picture projector
Portable screen

Motion picture cameras are equipped with spring drive, or with

electric motor drive and there are others with both of these drives. The 16mm camera is more widely used for micro motion study. At the normal
speed of 16 exposures per second a 30-m (100ft) roll of film will last
approximately 4 minutes. The most common speed for electric motor
driven camera is 1000 frames per minute.
Microchronometer is a clock driven by small synchronous motor. It
has 100 divisions on the dial. The large hand makes 20 revolutions per
minute and the small hand 2 revolutions per minute. Therefore, time is
indicated directly 1/2000 of a minute by the large hand. This time interval
of 1/2000 of a minute was called wink by Gilbreth.
Motion picture projector is indispensable for analyzing film because
the film must be studied frame by frame in minute detail. It is available in
16-mm and 8-mm models and is equipped with digital electronic reset able
frame counter that adds and subtracts. It may be operated at from 800 to
1800 frames per minute with an indicator showing the speed in frames per
minute
.Exposure meter is used during film making to indicate variables so
that the image correctly reproduces the subject in true-to-life tones and

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129

colors. Since film exposure is controlled by the cameras shutter and

aperture settings, it is essential to know what those settings should be in
order to take a picture that is properly exposed. A photographer must
measure the amount of light to know how much of it should be allowed to
strike the film

Figure 7.7 Simo chart

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7.12.2 Film Analysis

Before analyzing the film or tape, it is customary for the analyst to run the
films through the projector several times in order to determine the cycle
that represents the best performance. The shortest cycle is usually the best
one to study.
Once the cycle that is to be studied has been determined, the analyst
can begin the frame by frame analysis. Although the study can be made at
any point in the cycle, it is customary to start the analysis at the beginning
of a cycle. Sometimes it is best to begin the analysis at a point where both
the right and left hands begin or end their therbligs together.
In reviewing the film in tape, the analyst carefully observes the motion
class being used while performing the basic division and records this
information on his data sheet or film analysis sheet. The motions of the
left hand of the operator are usually analysed first. Motion pictures and
videos viewed in slow-motion and stop-motion, while they would seem to
be a wealth of information in the study of motion, are often frustrating.
Material not created specifically for motion study is often flawed with the
distortion of telephoto photography, framing that crops out lower limbs, or
the confusion caused by such natural obstructions as normal in
manufacturing shops.
7.13
SIMO CHART
The simultaneous motion cycle or simo chart is used to record
simultaneously on a common time scale the activities of two hands, or
other parts of the workers body during the performance of a single cycle of
the operation being investigated. This chart may be constructed from data
collected with a stopwatch, from analysis of a motion film of the
operations, or from pre-determined motion time data (PMT).
The simo chart is the micromotion form of the man type flow process
chart. It is commonly used on fairly short cycle operations when the
machine process time is relatively short and the worker is operating only
on machines. Since it is often performed with extreme rapidity, it is
generally compiled from film analysis. A simo chart is illustrated in fig.
7.7. The therblig description, symbol, colour, and relative position in the
cycle all appear on the chart. The time required for each motion is drawn
to scale in the vertical column and coloured to represent the particular
motion. Every attempt should be made to find a better way of doing the
work, to eliminate those therbligs that are non-productive (hold, avoidable
delay, unavoidable delay, plan, rest, select, search), as well as to shorten
those that are productive. Thus the simo chart aids one in grouping a
picture of the complete cycle in all its details, and assists in working out
better combinations of the most desirable motions. It is often found that

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131

the sequence of motions in one kind of work may be used in other kinds
and a simo chart suggests in doing that work.

7.14
MEMOMOTION STUDY
Memomotion study developed by Marvin Mundel is also a motion study
technique that gives more detail than visual motion study and less than
micromotion study, and has application under certain conditions.
This is, in fact, a special form of micromotion study in which the
motion pictures are taken at slow speeds. Sixty frames per minute or one
hundred frames per minute are most common.
Memomotion study has been used frequently to study the flow and
handling of materials, crew activities, multi-man-and-machine
relationships, stock room activities, department store clerks, and variety of
other jobs. It is particularly valuable on long cycle jobs or jobs involving
interrelationship.
Another important use of memomotion camera is in preparing work
sampling study. By using memomotion equipment, unbiased work
sampling studies may be made. To the typical memomotion camera is
attached a timer that permits taking random observations observing the
eight-hour day.
The major advantage of slow-speed picture over those made at
normal speed is the great savings in film cost and in the time required for
film analysis. With the film exposed at 60 frames per minute instead of
960, film cost is only about 6 percent as great.
7.15
IMPOVEMENT OF PATH OF MOVEMENT
Process charting helps to show the sequence of activities or events in
situation, and it does not show the path (s) of movement that men,
materials, and tools have to follow when a job is being done. In the paths
of movement there are often undesirable features such as backtracking,
traffic congestion, and unnecessary long movements which are the causes
of many forms of expense. If these expenses are to be optimized Some
recording techniques are essential. These techniques such as flow diagram
string diagram, cyclegraph, and chronocyclegraph are particularly useful
when problems of plant layout and design are considered. They can also
be used effective to demonstrate proposed improvements both to
management and workers.
7.15.1 Flow Diagrams
The flow diagram is the simplest of all the devices in this class of
technique. It is a drawing, substantially to scale, of the working area,
showing the location of the various activities identified by their numbered

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symbols, and is associated with a particular flow process chart, either man
or material or
equipment type.
The routes
followed
in
transport
are
shown
by
joining
the
symbols
in
sequence by a
line
which
represents
as
nearly
as
possible
the
paths
of
movement
of
the
subject
concerned.
Numbers
transport
symbols which
form part of the
flow line show
direction
of
movement.
When there are
Figure 7.8 Flow diagram
more than one
component
going through the plant simultaneously, each one should be coloured
differently to distinguish between their individual path of flow. The
essential difference between the flow diagram and flow process chart lies
in the fact that the distance moved in between the operations can be
measured and direction ascertained easily in a flow diagram. A typical
example of flow it illustrated in fig. 7.8 .
7.15.2 String Diagrams
The string diagram is a special form of flow diagram in which a string or
thread is used in place lines to measure distance. Like the flow diagram, it
is most often used to supplement a flow process chart the two together
giving the clearest picture of what is actually being done.
Most string diagrams consist of a scale plan mounted on a soft board,
with pins stuck in the relevant work stations. The path of movement of
workers, materials or equipment during a specified sequence of events is

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133

represented by continuous coloured thread stretched between the pins.

Other pins guide the thread over the path it has to take. Threads of
different colours can represent the various factors of production being
moved.
7.15.3 Cyclegraphs
A Cyclegraph is a record of path of movement, usually traced by a
continuous source of light on a photograph. It is produced by attaching a
small pea bulb to the workers wrists or whatever member it is desired to
observe and making a time exposure on a small lens stop while a single
cycle or portion of a cycle is performed. The camera shutter is then closed
after which a normal instantaneous exposure is made on the same film.
The technique was originated by Gilbreth to enable comparatively
short-motion pattern or movements (that is too fast for the eye to follow)
to be recorded on a photograph of the workplace itself.
One of the defects of the cyclegraph is that it does not indicate speed
or direction of movements. To remedy, Gilbreth arranged to flash at a
convenient rate per second by a flash bulb instead of a pea bulb.
7.15.4 Chronocyclegraphs
The chronocyclegraph is a special form of cyclegraph in which the light
source is suitably interrupted so that the path appears as a series of pearshaped dots. The pointed end of the dots indicates the direction of
movement and space between them indicates the speed of movement. This
is achieved in the following way :
1. The interruption of the light source is arranged to take place at
carefully controlled regular intervals, usually 10,20, or 30 times per
second.
2. The method of interruption is such that when the light is being
recorded on the film, the movement of the subject results in a pearshaped dot being produced, distinctly tapering off at one end.
When the frequency of the interruptions is known, the speed and
direction of movement at any point along the path can be easily calculated
from the number and shape of dots recorded.
In comparison with other techniques or methods outlined in this
chapter, the cyclegraph and chronocylegraph are of limited applications,
but there are occasions on which photographic traces of this sort can be
useful.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT

What is methods study ? Why is it a prerequisite to work measurement?

Write briefly the contribution of Taylor and Gilbreth in standardizing the
methods.
Briefly describe the field of application of methods design.
List the basic philosophies of methods analysis.
List the tools and techniques of methods improvement.
What are the various symbols of process chart? Write and explain briefly.
Write short notes on
(a) Flow process chart, (b) Flow diagram, (c) Operations process chart and,
(d) Simo chart.
State and explain principles of motion economy as related to the use of the
human body. How these are used in job design.
(a) What sort of analytical tool might be used to show working relationship
between a worker and machine he is using. What information is necessary for
the development of such a tool ? (b) Under what conditions would micro
motion analysis be justified?.