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Confluencia.
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During the climactic penultimate chapter ofDaniel Venegas's 1928 novel, Las aventuras de
don Chipote o Cuando lospericos mamen, the Chipote family confronts a strong inscription
of the distinction between creating an entertaining fiction and addressing difficult realities.
Do?a Chipote, with her children in tow, has come after her husband, the title character,
from ruralMexico and finally arrives in Los Angeles. Tired of searching, she and the family
a five
enter the very theater inwhich Don Chipote steps on stage in the
hopes ofwinning
to his family's
dollar prize and the affection of his desired "pelona" (145). Oblivious
presence, Don Chipote begins crooning. When his wife recognizes him, she goes on stage
and attacks him. At first the audience reacts with pleasure: "a grito pelado, ped?a que les
dieran el premio a los que tan bien estaban representando la comedia de marido y mujer"
(146). Yet when the children come into view and it becomes obvious that this is no act,
the reaction changes radically: "[cuando los hijos] se le prendieron por todos lados al
se
amor a sus
su
se
Chipote padre y ?ste, por
hijos,
dej? agarrar de
Chipota, entonces
pidi?
a
sense
A
los
la
of
mandaran
c?rcel"
realism
this
suits
audience
but
fine,
(146).
que
just
come to see live
not
to
thus
call
for
intervention.
Sensitive
did
the
they
they
disputes;
the
has
the
theater
notified
who
the
authorities,
management already
public,
classify
family
asMexican and deport them as
illegal immigrants.1
Since Venegas's novel itself crossed the border and was republished in 1984, critics
have consistently commented on the author's identity and on questions of distinguishing
fictions and concrete experience. Nicol?s Kanellos characterizes it as "la primera novela
chicana" because he views the author as identifyingwith the "obrero ducano" and because
the narrator adopts Chicano language and rhetorical style ("Introducci?n" 8-9). Kanellos
"Textual" 50;
115
novel
146). By contrast, Ana Perches holds that the text "is a Mexican
in the United States dealing with a chicano theme (not Chicano)"
(29).2 She
thatVenegas criticizes "ch?canos" for betraying their own cultural heritage and
Baeza Ventura
published
maintains
that the language of the novel differs from that used by Chicano writers (27-28). These
conclusions, though distinct, take the relation between the author and thework as being
inscribed in straightforward fashion, among stable identity options.
In affirming such a direct relationship to lived experience, this body of criticism has
left unexamined metafictional aspects of the work that complicate that linkage. Rather
than an easily discernible portrait from a single, homogenous perspective, I argue that the
novel reveals a complexity that communicates a cultural tension of itsperiod, and that this
to define what isMexican
and what is
complexity arises around the boundaries used
in thework.
Chicano
aware of this
dynamic, the narrator self
suffering the audiences rejection. Reflexively
to
connect
text even as he criticizes a
tries
his
the
with
readers
consciously
throughout
number of popular fictions.3 Las aventuras itself is a theatrical presentation, and in it, the
to his artifice, while also insistently
narrator
frequently calls attention
directing the
As
Cervantes' Don
the work
Unlike
previous
aventuras
Las
of linguistic registers, and his metafictional play make it difficult to tie the
manipulation
text to any fixed
text.
standpoint. These features reflect and embody the complexity of the
these moves, the narrator negotiates among the conflicting and unstable
in a group thatwas in the difficult process of defining itselfduring a
manifest
allegiances
of
cultural
change.
period
significant
In making
job with the railroad. After working under exploitative conditions and being treated
on the tracks, he
poorly
injures himself and is sent to Los Angeles along with Sufrelambre
116
CONFLUENCIA,
FALL 2007
and Policarpo. There he recuperates, gets a job as a dishwasher, and becomes romantically
involved with an Anglo flapper. He falls not only for thepelona, but also for the intrigues
of shysters and faith healers. While he tries to orient himself in this new and unfamiliar
the novel takes up a second narrative thread that reveals how Do?a Chipote sells
everything and treks north to find her husband after his long silence. After the climactic
confrontation in the theater, the story comes full circle and closes with the protagonist
over his fate almost exactly as in the
ruminating
beginning, his apparent lesson (the subtitle
se har?n ricos en
of the book) capitalized for the reading audience: "que los mexicanos
world,
(155).
Critics posit particular associations between author, protagonist, and readers based on the
to the lesson they see Don
Chipote learning.Most have tended
significance they attribute
a
as
to
(93), and
emphasize
Urquijo Ruiz (64), Mel?ndez
singular morality. Some, such
("Las aventuras' 361), cite the final line as the principal point made.5 Perches
concurs that the text conveys this lesson, but she
distinguishes this univocal point of view
in
of
from that working-class Ch?canos,
part because, for her, the novel criticizesMexican
emigrants for betraying their culture (28). Manuel Mart?n-Rod?guez, however, holds that
Kanellos
is involved in producing and receiving themessage of the novel, he also focuses principally
linking the author's perspective with that of his intended reading audience. These
interpretations of the border crossing in Las aventuras do not address in depth the
on
of the complexity
The text undermines any easy alignment of author, protagonist, and reading public
manner of
as the narrator
a rule,
frequently changes his
addressing the reading public. As
"the position of the author of a novel vis-?-vis the life portrayed in thework is in general
(Bakhtin "Forms," 160), and the narrator's and
highly complex and problematical"
readers' roles in generating meaning in the text further complicate the picture ("Forms"
In Las aventuras, the narrative agent makes his presence nearly ubiquitous, for,
256-57).
as Elena Urrutia notes: "con cualquier pretexto se introduce en el relato" (36). Yet the angle
fromwhich the narrative voice speaks is always changing, as his grammar and description
alter his relationship to the public. To refer to his readers, the narrator uses every one of
the available pronouns for direct address: t?, vosotros, usted, ustedes, and nosotros (54; 29;
97; 42; 18). In nearly Brechtian fashion, these changes disturb the adoption of any single
uniform point of view. After describing Don Chipote headed forwork on the tracks, the
narrator queries, "Ahora, lectores, aqu? tienen a don Chipote
camino de California.
referent, the text interrupts a scene, reminds readers of their own activity in generating the
VOLUME
23,
NUMBER
117
fiction, then more intimately invites the reader to compare his/her own experience with
the protagonist's. Such shiftsdisrupt a static
positioning of author, narrator, and readership
and call into question the relation between reader, text, and experience.
Significantly, the characteristics of the pronoun referents also change, as the narrator
includes and excludes different readers' identities. In some instances, the narrative voice
commandingly includes the reader as part of "we": "[d]ejemos a don Chipote y familia
durmiendo" (18). At other times he uses "nosotros" to refer only to himself as thewriter:
"no queremos meternos en honduras y
esta labor a
dejamos
plum?feros m?s aguzados ym?s
narrator
nosotros"
Later
the
straddles the line and uses a less clear "we,"
(23).
picudos que
so that as he affirms that "Estos
negreros...viven de la desgracia del mexicano_[e]omo
lamayor?a de nosotros cruzamos la frontera sin cinco y s?lo con
esperanzas," he identifies
himself as Mexican,
but may or may not include the reader in that
description (47). In
other instances, "nosotros" includes the reader, if only
indirectly: "Los que la dibujamos
por los famosos Estados Unidos sabemos lo que quiere decir el no haber amartillado y estar
armarse con
es que ya
bruja y de pronto
algunas jolas. As?
pueden figurarse el gusto que
sentir?an estos pobres parnas..."
narrator
Here
the
does group together reader's and
(92).
protagonist's experiences to emphasize the possibility of understanding and sympathizing
with the problems of being an immigrant.
Thus, the narrator continues shifting positions and terms. Later in the text, the
narrator separates the reader
again, while solidifying his own association with themigrant
en
cuenta que los camellos nunca tenemos cuartilla alzada y se ver?
workers: "T?mese
que
sab?a nada de ingles y s?lo sab?a pedir lo que la mayor?a de los ch?canos
(138). Yet the term "Chicano" does not settle the critic's identity concerns,
since itdoes not have the same meaning as itdoes today, but rather refers toMexicans who
had come to work temporarily in the United States (Villanueva 393-94).
In fact, the
narrator uses "Mexican" and "Chicano"
"...ten?a
cambiar
la fierrada
que
interchangeably:
chicana por d?lares, pues que en la estaci?n no quer?an moneda mexicana" (139). To insist
on
between
these two adjectives
today
distinguishing
imposes an anachronistic
differentiation both on the terms themselves and on the text. The narrator does not
sabemos..."
distinguish between them, but draws readers in to sympathize with the protagonists as he
alludes to common experiences of exploitation and uses both terms
interchangeably. At the
same time, the narrator's
stances
changing referents and
highlight his active role and
undermine static identifications.
118
CONFLUENCIA,
FALL 2007
The Language
Identity
or
Democracy?
narrator navigates through an array of linguistic registers, intertexts, and tones, and
this strategy emphasizes mobility and complexity. Colloquial
language full of popular
and
sayings, slang,
journalistic prose and satirically florid
bilingualisms accompanies
more formal
to the
in
literary descriptions
Spanish. Significant segments dedicated
The
contemporary theater scene in Los Angeles and to popular corridos appear alongside the
references. Broad, often scatological comedy dominates, but
obvious Don Quixote
of testimonially-phrased
narrations
serious
scattered moments
effectively make
an
ease
with moving between a
counterpoints. This cultural and linguistic variety conveys
terms.
in exclusionary
of the
Bakhtins
conception
Using
Baeza
Ventura
Gabriela
Eriinda
and
Alfred
("El
aspecto"),
Gonz?les-Berry
carnivalesque,
see
use
Patricia
and
Cabrera
of
the
Rodr?guez ("Las aventuras"),
("Dialogismo")
working
class vernacular, bilingualism, and allusions to popular genres as democratizing in nature.
Kanellos
14), Mel?ndez
(89), and Tom?s Ybarra-Frausto
("Introducci?n"
(157), refer to
identities
described
of the same traits to argue the text establishes a Chicano narrative style. Perches,
however, argues that the language inLas aventuras differs fromChicano speech because the
novel marks its English words in italics, whereas "the use of English in contemporary
many
take into account when the novel appeared, "natural" literary code-switching had no place
within canonically published writing. The novel includes a great deal of informal language
at a time when to do so was only marginally acceptable. As Kanellos points out, Venegas
had already suffered a critical rejection of one of his works because of a flexibility of
account read "el jurado cr?tico condena acremente la libertad del
printed
in "Daniel Venegas" 271). Given that code-switching had not
Navarro
lenguaje" (Gabriel
as
a
been accepted
standard literarypractice, and that its representation, therefore, had not
language;
VOLUME
23,
NUMBER
119
recounting situations stemming from his "firsthand" experiences. Unlike the gullible Don
cons or ruses he has observed. Further, while the
Chipote, the narrator does not fall for the
or resists
authority principally through evasion, the
protagonist often follows orders
own boss' abuses:
nos
narrator directly rebels
his
"Despu?s de esto elmayordomo
against
sus
a rega?ar de una manera tan soez que, no
m?s
le
insultos
empez?
pudiendo soportar
con
me
un
contest?
el
volar!
hasta
dio
otro, y ?a
contest?,
tiempo
golpe que
perdiendo
narrator as less submissive and
These
the
(63-64).
separate
effectively
episodes
trabajado"
a
counters
smarter than the protagonists, as he avoids
being the butt of jokes. Such distance
the democratizing base of Bakhtin's idea of the carnival: "Carnival is a pageant without
American
acceptable
to a educated
elite.8 The
distinct combination
a
separation from the protagonist's ignorance and gullibility and for consistent connection
to be made with the workers'
mix
this
of
plight. Thus,
linguistic registers, scatological
testimonial
unsettles
and
easy
any
comedy,
critique
pigeonholing of his position.
Land
CONFLUENCIA,
FALL 2007
de caballer?a and, in effect, sallies forth to put them to the test (Murillo 13; Haley 163).
Popular narratives similarly enchant Don Chipote as he heads out to fulfill the promises
of easy money his friend Pitacio has painted for him. These fictions spur the protagonist s
journey and provide the impetus for the plot of the novel. The narrator underlines that
such stories have can powerful negative effects on an entire nation. "[M]?s que por las
condiciones en que la revoluci?n ha puesto al pa?s," he affirms, peoples belief in
those stories forms the cause "por lo que cada d?a se despuebla m?s ym?s" (23). Thus, the
as a means
text lambastes the
immigrants
exploitative working conditions facingMexican
malas
half ofVenegass book Don Chipote confronts the fabrications newcomers face in the big
city. In Los Angeles, the protagonist meets a lawyerwho convinces him to go forward with
a work
affections, he consults with a curandero, who charges an exorbitant fee, but only deceives
him with nonsensical incantations (119). Though
the gullible hero uncritically accepts
each of these stories as true, the narrator sees through all the falsehoods and points them
comes to the fore in the
clearly to the reader. This metacriticism of fictions
out
a
Chipote at the theater.The framework of staged
a
are
performance is interrupted in such way that artifice and reality
brought into question.
The climactic scene I described at the beginning of this article echoes Don Quixotes
confrontation between Don
and Do?a
intercession in the puppet plays ofMaese Pedro, which itself has been interpreted as a
text (El
mise-en-scene
that reflects back upon the narrative positioning in Cervantess
Saffar "Distance"; Haley). Venegass novel raises questions about such positioning earlier,
a show soon after
enters
Chipote first happens upon
leaving the hospital. He
the darkened house curious but fearful. Yet just as stories told in the darkness entertain
when Don
Sancho Panza and the Spanish knight errant in theCervantes classic (Vol. I 241?244; Vol.
II 350-51),
the fictional narratives and the comfort of others calm Don Chipote. The
narrator, however, maintains a critical eye toward the theatrical performance that follows
the movie: "nuestros artistas sostuvieron un di?logo callejero, que a la fecha en que lo
pon?an por novedad, ya lo sab?an hasta los ni?os de pecho" (111). The narrator affirms,
further, that as itdid for the shyster, the flapper, and the curandero, self-interestmotivates
the trite, nostalgic show: "la palomilla de c?micos que la vacila en los Estamos Sumidos,
sabe que la chicanada se pone de puntas cuando le ponen por enfrente algo que le recuerde
como es natural, esta
se la
su santa
flaqueza
explotan por todos lados" (111).
nopalera y,
as a
narrator
himself
the
this
criticism,
implicates
Despite
participant in this fictionalizing:
"Mis lectores me perdonar?n que me haya dado esta sacada, para darles a conocer entre
azul y buenas noches el ambiente teatral de la ciudad de Los ?ngeles; pero si lo hice fue
para darles oportunidad a los c?micos que se quedaran bailando el jarabe, que lo acabaran
y a la vez que se quitara la polvareda que las patadas sacaban de las rendijas del tablado"
VOLUME
23,
NUMBER
121
the narrator both places himself at the level of the story (he
the others dance as a service for the performers) and apart from that story (as
he critiques the performance and directs himself to the audience), taking up the role of
emcee for the show.9
of others
The same critique the narrator directs toward the narrative manipulations
own textual discourse. Ostensibly intended to reveal the
points to the construction of his
(111). With
speaks while
this declaration,
to
immigrant worker in theU. S. and
signal the fictive base of instant
plight of theMexican
a
success stories, the novel
in
that
offers no better an option for
and
ends
setting
begins
Don
recall
withDon Chipote workinghis fieldsbehindhis yokedoxen.The imagesstrongly
the criticized nostalgia of the "santa nopalera': "El sol se ocultaba en el ocaso y las nubes
(155).
pon?anse coloradotas al recibir la postrera caricia de la cobija de los pobres..."
Further, the distinctly literary register of these passages causes the conceit to stand out. As
y sobre todo, nosotros, no queremos meternos en honduras" (23). Even as it counters the
lies told by those returning fromworking in theU.S., the text constructs itsown obviously
fictive image of home, sweet home.
Thus, Las aventuras follows Don Quixote in using fictions to critique fictions.While
to recognize
text comments on chivalric romances?
emphasizing the need
their status as fictions, even while creating one (Haley 164)-, Venegas's novel criticizes the
stories of unqualified success recounted by the returning workers through Don Chipotes
Cervantes's
Pitacio
told Don
ymanifestaban que iban en la bruja, dejar?an de hacerles fiestas y ayudarles" (153). From
the climactic scene in the theater, the Chipotes learned that an audience desires a certain
amount of fiction, and they enact their own performance for their fellow
townspeople. Of
on
success
as
comes
in theU.S., the Chipote
the curtain
down
the stories of easy
course,
as artificially constructed
family finds itselfback in the just
setting of theMexican pastoral
frame. The text effectively undercuts the fictions on both sides of the border even as it
explains the desires and motivations that drive those creations.
a
to those fictional constructs, and as
to the dominant
counterpoint
remedy
text
tone and
accounts
narrator
in
the
the
the
claims to
work,
dispenses
language
two
first-hand. These
episodes
generally share
experienced
distinguishing
As
comedie
have
a shift in
to the use of
first-person pronouns: they introduce
to
to
tense.
from
narration
For
from
and
past
present
emphasis
description,
example, after
characteristics in addition
122
CONFLUENCIA,
FALL 2007
noting that the protagonist and his friends get in line for a job, the text generalizes about
their difficulties to speak of others experiences:
Para los habitantes de El Paso es cosa corriente ver a cualquier hora del d?a las
.se
peregrinaciones de paisanos que..
dirigen o, m?s bien dicho, les dirigen a la
estaci?n de uni?n de los ferrocarriles. Para los que hemos pasado por estos
trances, es tristey doloroso ser el punto de vista de los transe?ntes que, muchas
veces hasta burlas tienen para los que,
a
obligados por la necesidad, recurren las
oficinas de reenganche (51).
the comically narrated events remain in the past, the text places a number of these
serious passages in the readers present, using static verbs of having and being to
convey ideas of certainty and stability (23, 45, 48, 63, 71, 104-05, 111,119). The more
formal expression and the seriousness in the episodes presented as testimonials lend added
While
more
weight
passages (28, 32, 37, 39, 53, 83-84, 89, 97), forfolksayings(40, 83), and for
descriptive
some "common
sense" generalizations?"Todos
saben que los m?s flojos son los m?s
same
sense of verisimilitude by
that
supports
(21)?reiteratively
affirming the
continued existence of accepted knowledge. Moreover, by frequently foregrounding the
comedy and not letting solemn topics take over, the text encourages its readers to consider
habladores"
themore uncomfortable
was
as
presented distinctly
first-person, eyewitness narratives.11 Carefully controlling the
relational distance between reader, protagonist, and narrator, and agilely moving from the
comic to the serious allow the text to present an engaging fiction, a metafictional critique,
and a sharp protest for the readers' contemplation.
The dynamics arising from the theatrical climax and themetafictional elements of
the novel also afford a reflection on the critics' readings of the text itself.As Louis Gerard
Mendoza
7). The theater audience rejected the Chipote family drama when it became too real, but
rather than reject the elements of reality he sees in thework, Kanellos embraces them and
minimizes the importance of the "fictive" constructions. In depicting the perspective on
model
of opposing
VOLUME
23,
NUMBER
critique, the
123
text contrasts those claims with popular fictions and uses comedy and colloquial language
to make the difficult situation palatable to an audience that might otherwise not be
Mexican
conflicting allegiances S?nchez argues that many faced in the process of "becoming
Mexican American" in the 1920s.
In reflecting the pressures of a societal moment of change, amoment when identities
were in flux, the narrators trajectory of
changing identifications and perspectives
challenges the stable identity labels and concomitant narratives critics have been inclined
to
aventuras de Don
place upon thework. The distinct metafictional combination in Las
a
in
involved
reflects
the
that
era,
conflicting allegiances
allowing both for
Chipote
s
a consistent connection
from
and
for
the
and
separation
ignorance
protagonist
gullibility
protest that the novel announces in one particularly interpreted place or another, I hold
that thework self-consciously "stages" its own protest, pointing to a set of realities even as
it dances about, finelywrapped in fiction.
Notes
Iwill
hereinafter,
2Perches distinguishes
(the term
Ch?canos
3Because
atenemos
between
"ch?canos"
in the 1960s
"emerging
of his self-identification
a las
viejas"
and
"el que
o Cuando
lospericos mamen
as Las aventuras.
as male:
"los hombres
nos
(61; 63).
to the
and/or Balduins work to characterize Las aventuras. Critics have noted
Quijote
4Many have referred
names ("California Dreamin";
the parallelisms with theQuijote
Kanellos
"Introducci?n; Mart?n
regarding
structural correspondences
and Rodriguez),
and
"Textual"; Urquijo
Ruiz),
(Gonzales-Berry
Rodr?guez
concerns
carnivalesque
aspects
and/or
(Childers).
the dialogism
Analyses
of the novel
referring
to Bakhtin's work
(Baeza Ventura;
Cabrera;
have underlined
Gonzales-Berry
the
and
Rodriguez).
s
language edition of the novel, Ethriam Cash Brammer, extends Kanellos
seven of the novel, Don
In
of
this
line.
the
of
and
interpretation
importance
chapter
sing
Chipote
Policarpo
a corrido inwhich
to have seen many odd
to Kanellos,
"se entiende que
they claim
things, and, according
nunca han visto un
the Spanish language version of the
("Las aventuras" 361). Though
perico mamar"
5The translator of the English
itself does not contain this line, Brammar s translation of the novel adds the idea, as the protagonist
never seen a
to the corrido connects the
(64). This alteration made
sings, "But I've
parakeet breast-feed"
as the moral of the
and
title, middle,
story.
ending of the work, and reinforces that particular idea
corrido
124 CONFLUENCIA,
FALL 2007
In characterizing
for cultural betrayal, Perches maintains Venegas s novel isMexican.
the novel as Chicana,
he sees Venegas
shows a similarly linguistically and culturally exclusionary idea. Though
expressing
the ideology of preserving Mexican
culture elsewhere, he contrasts that idea with the expression in Las
Kanellos
aventuras:
Life inSearchofReaders.
7The text also distances
Chipote
and Policarpo,
as it
repeatedly
and consequentdependencyon others (30; 39; 63; 72; 92; 138; 144).
illiteracy
the pair s
emphasizes
awareness of the
perceived conflict between popular topics and intellectuals'
8Venegas expressed
on
notes that
the combination
of the two as a duty. Kanellos
orientation, characterizing
alongside reports
con
su
affirms:
"Los
deben
al
frente
de
las
dem?s
sociedades
ponerse
agrupaci?n
boxing, Venegas
periodistas
como
un
guiadores hacia
porvenir de afectiva solidaridad y verdadero patriotismo para todos los
little is known about his work indicates Venegas
chose to take up
(cited in "Daniel" 272). What
as
even
censure from critics for
boxing, migrant work, and jazz,
topical themes such
though he also risked
the "liberties" he took with language (as noted above). In his book Becoming Mexican
American
(particularly
mexicanas,
exiliados"
in Chapter
5, pages 108-25), George J. S?nchez offers an insightful analysis of similar conflicting values
American
enacted by the Los Angeles Mexican
of that time.
population
conductor
claramente
en el teatro de variedades,
did?ctica;
o del c?mico
o si la
ese
es una estilizaci?n del
pachuco
figura de
de la lengua" (178). She also characterizes
the novel
as
in
I agree with some of her assertions (for
the
describing
example,
work as signaling societal change and noting the importance of theatricality in the text), I argue that her
a
of the narrator as a "pachuco
characterization
incipiente" presents
similarly restrictive, though unclear,
toValdez's film character and the
identity label (171). Cursory references
stereotypical portrayals
"una obra de transici?n"
(177). While
which
speaks both
a number
shifting of position reveals
of the work and of the context from which
to the
complexity
of contending
it arose.
loyalties,
success
enjoys relative
Chipote
in the U.S.
focuses on the difficulties ofmigrants
the text affirms that he "pesc? camello como
bien cebado y con algunos d?lares en el bolsillo"
(118).
community.
mention
of the truth claims as rhetorical strategies informs my argument here (xxix). In
Noriega's
see as part of an
to attend to the
this respect, Iwould
my
argument with what I
emerging tendency
align
Louis Mendoza,
rhetorical strategies involved in Chicano/a writings, as observed in studies by Noriega,
nChon
Leticia M.
Garza-Falc?n,
VOLUME
23,
NUMBER
125
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