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One way students develop vocabulary is indirectly through reading, listening, and speaking.
A students background knowledge and prior experiences play a large role in vocabulary
development. As students build connections between known words and unknown words, they
develop a deeper understanding of their reading. Thus, the more experiences children have
with reading or being read to before they enter school, the more background knowledge they
have to support the understanding of their reading.
Marzano lists eight research-based guidelines for teachers implementing direct
vocabulary instruction in his books Building Background Knowledge and Building Academic
Vocabulary: Teachers Manual.
1. Effective vocabulary instruction does not rely on definitions alone. Words should be written in a
conversational manner rather than in the more formal dictionary format. If prior exposures to or
experiences with a word are lacking, teachers can build the background knowledge through field
trips, videos, guest speakers, stories, or current events.
2. Students must represent their knowledge of words in linguistic and/or nonlinguistic ways. Students
can draw a picture, create a symbol, or dramatize the word.
3. Effective vocabulary instruction involves the gradual shaping of word meanings through multiple
exposures. These include comparing and contrasting, classifying, and creating metaphors and
analogies.
4. Teaching word parts (prefixes, root words, suffixes) enhances student understanding of the word.
5. Different types of words require different types of instruction.
6. Students should discuss the terms they are learning through cooperative learning activities.
7. Students should play with words using challenging and engaging vocabulary games.
8. Instruction should focus on terms that have a high probability of enhancing academic success.
Level 1 words are concrete and easy to identify with little or no instruction. Level 2 words
appear in text so infrequently that the possibility of learning them in context is slim. Level 3
words are specific to a particular content area. Marzano recommends teaching words in
Level 3 (content-related words) rather than those that are seldom encountered during reading.
Students must use a word between six and fourteen times before they are capable of using it
independently (Billmeyer, 2001), so they need multiple opportunities to interact with words.
to read. He was able to succeed in spite of this major handicap because he was a man of intelligence, ability and
determination. But, make no mistake, it was a handicap that made life harder and less enjoyable.
swayed. There is a good possibility that this is one of the main reasons phonics was removed from the schools
about 100 years ago.
11. Finally, why is reading important? Reading is important because words - spoken and written - are the
building blocks of life. You are, right now, the result of words that you have heard or read AND believed about
yourself. What you become in the future will depend on the words you believe about yourself now. People,
families, relationships, and even nations are built from words. Think about it.
According to Jonathan Kozol in "Illiterate America," quoted in "The Teacher Who Couldn't Read,'" the three main
reasons people give for wanting to read are:
1. To read the Bible,
2. To read books and newspapers, and
3. To help their children.
3. If the margins are wide [and you own the book], don't be afraid to jot down notes on the side. If you don't own
the book, or if you are making extensive notes, then have a notebook handy to record your thoughts. It is always
better to record them right away rather than wait to later. Use just as much detail as you need to remind yourself
of your ideas.
4. When you need to remember something, a good reading strategy is to read out loud if you are in a place where
you can. Hearing what you are reading gets your mind going on another level, increases your involvement with
the material, and you will likely remember it better.
5. Be curious. Ask questions. Do you agree or disagree with the author? Is there information you would like to
know that wasn't included? Why did he say it in that way? The more you involve your mind, the more you will
remember.
6. Be sure to consider the context of what is being said. It is unfair to quote an author out of context. Failure to pay
attention to this reading strategy has caused a lot of harm and misunderstanding. Depending on the type of book
you are reading, it may also be important to consider the author's style and voice. Is he being serious or ironic?
The same sentence can have totally different meanings depending on context and voice! Pay attention.
7. Finally, don't be afraid to use glossaries and dictionaries for any words you don't know. Don't guess. The extra
time you invest will be rewarded by a richer understanding of your topic.
Comprehension strategies are conscious plans sets of steps that good readers use to make sense of
text. Comprehension strategy instruction helps students become purposeful, active readers who are in
control of their own reading comprehension. These seven strategies have research-based evidence for
improving text comprehension.
1. Monitoring comprehension
Students who are good at monitoring their comprehension know when they understand what they read
and when they do not. They have strategies to "fix" problems in their understanding as the problems
arise. Research shows that instruction, even in the early grades, can help students become better at
monitoring their comprehension.
Comprehension monitoring instruction teaches students to:
2. Metacognition
Metacognition can be defined as "thinking about thinking." Good readers use metacognitive strategies to
think about and have control over their reading. Before reading, they might clarify their purpose for
reading and preview the text. During reading, they might monitor their understanding, adjusting their
reading speed to fit the difficulty of the text and "fixing" any comprehension problems they have. After
reading, they check their understanding of what they read.
Students may use several comprehension monitoring strategies:
Look forward in the text for information that might help them to resolve the difficulty
"The text says, 'The groundwater may form a stream or pond or create a wetland. People can also
bring groundwater to the surface.' Hmm, I don't understand how people can do that Oh, the
next section is called 'Wells.' I'll read this section to see if it tells how they do it."
Regardless of the label, graphic organizers can help readers focus on concepts and how they are related
to other concepts. Graphic organizers help students read and understand textbooks and picture books.
Graphic organizers can:
Help students focus on text structure "differences between fiction and nonfiction" as they read
Provide students with tools they can use to examine and show relationships in a text
4. Answering questions
Questions can be effective because they:
Help students to review content and relate what they have learned to what they already know
The Question-Answer Relationship strategy (QAR) encourages students to learn how to answer
questions better. Students are asked to indicate whether the information they used to answer questions
about the text was textually explicit information (information that was directly stated in the text),
textually implicit information (information that was implied in the text), or information entirely from the
student's own background knowledge.
There are four different types of questions:
"Right There"
Questions found right in the text that ask students to find the one right answer located in one
place as a word or a sentence in the passage.
Example: Who is Frog's friend? Answer: Toad
5. Generating questions
By generating questions, students become aware of whether they can answer the questions and if they
understand what they are reading. Students learn to ask themselves questions that require them to
combine information from different segments of text. For example, students can be taught to ask main
idea questions that relate to important information in a text.
7. Summarizing
Summarizing requires students to determine what is important in what they are reading and to put it into
their own words. Instruction in summarizing helps students:
Direct explanation
The teacher explains to students why the strategy helps comprehension and when to apply the
strategy.
Modeling
The teacher models, or demonstrates, how to apply the strategy, usually by "thinking aloud"
while reading the text that the students are using.
Guided practice
The teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to apply the strategy.
Application
The teacher helps students practice the strategy until they can apply it independently.
Effective comprehension strategy instruction can be accomplished through cooperative learning, which
involves students working together as partners or in small groups on clearly defined tasks. Cooperative
learning instruction has been used successfully to teach comprehension strategies. Students work
together to understand texts, helping each other learn and apply comprehension strategies. Teachers help
students learn to work in groups. Teachers also provide modeling of the comprehension strategies.