Sturgeon

Exploration and Mining Geology, Vol. 16, Nos. 12, p.
83107, 2007
2007 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum.
All rights reserved. Printed in Canada.
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Structural Controls on Massive Sulfide Deposition and Hydrothermal Alteration in the

South Sturgeon Lake Caldera, Northwestern Ontario
A.H. Mumin1,, S.D. Scott2, A.K. Somarin1, and K.S. Oran3
(Received July 7, 2000; accepted January 30, 2007)
Abstract Synvolcanic structures played a fundamental role in the genesis, morphology, and siting of
volcanogenic massive sulfide ores and associated hydrothermal alteration in the Archean South Sturgeon
Lake caldera complex. The most voluminous and persistent hydrothermal venting and massive sulfide
deposition occurred along synvolcanic rifts and grabens associated with faults and tectonic fissures that
created permeable fracture zones deep enough to access the underlying hydrothermal reservoir. The type
of fracturing is highly variable and changes with the composition, competency, degree of consolidation,
and alteration of host rocks. Synvolcanic structures and fracture styles also vary according to the amount
and type of tectonic movement, including extension-related collapse, shearing and faulting perpendicular
to the principal direction of extension, and orthogonal faulting and shearing. Permeable conduits were
created by tension fracturing along fault zones, brittle deformation at the intersections of orthogonal
faults, and by extensional fractures in stockworks. In texturally uniform footwall rocks, the distribution of
alteration zones was controlled by the morphology of the structural conduit. In rocks with vertical and/or
lateral facies, permeability, and competency changes (e.g., Lyon Lake graben), there was an additional
stratigraphic control over fluid migration. Some crosscutting synvolcanic structures, alteration zones, and
intrusions appear as stratiform units at the present erosion surface due to regional deformation and the
present attitude of the volcanic stratigraphy.
Hydrothermal mineral assemblages (e.g., quartz, carbonates, chlorite, pyrite, chalcopyrite) infilling
structurally induced fractures provide good evidence of fluid migration pathways. However, mineralogy
can vary significantly according to the fluid characteristics, host rock geochemistry, and subsequent metamorphic history of the area.
Clearly, one of the best methods for locating volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits is to delineate the
attitudes of synvolcanic structures, and explore those that show evidence of associated high-temperature
hydrothermal mineral assemblages. Excellent exploration targets occur where synvolcanic structures with
hydrothermal alteration intersect paleo-seafloor horizons. 2007 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.
Key Words: Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits, Sturgeon Lake, hydrothermal alteration, structural
geology.
Sommaire Les structures synvolcaniques ont jou un rle important dans la gense, la morphologie et
la localisation des minerais de sulfures massifs volcanognes et de laltration hydrothermale qui leur est
associe dans la caldeira complexe archenne de South Sturgeon Lake. Les exhalaisons hydrothermales les
plus considrables et persistantes ainsi que laccumulation de sulfures massifs ont eu lieu le long de rifts et
de grabens synvolcaniques associs des failles et des fractures tectoniques qui ont gnr une zone fracture permable suffisamment profonde pour atteindre le rservoir hydrothermal sous-jacent. Ce type de
fracturation est trs variable et change en fonction de la composition, de la comptence, du degr de consolidation et daltration des roches htes. Les structures et les styles de fracturation synvolcanique varient
aussi en fonction de limportance et du type de mouvement tectonique, incluant leffondrement en contexte de distension, le cisaillement et les failles perpendiculaires la direction principale dextension ainsi
que les failles et cisaillement orthogonaux. Des conduits permables ont t crs par rupture de tension le
long de zones de faille, par dformation cassante lintersection de failles orthogonales et des fractures en
extension dans des stockworks. Quand les roches du mur sont texturalement homognes, la distribution des
zones daltration est contrle par la morphologie du conduit structural. L o les roches prsentent des
variations verticales et latrales de facis, de permabilit et de comptence (e.g. Graben de Lyon Lake),
on note que la stratigraphie exerce un degr de contrle additionnel sur la circulation des fluides. Certaines
structures synvolcaniques, zones daltration et intrusions scantes doivent leur aspect stratiforme le long
de la surface drosion actuelle la dformation rgionale et lattitude prsente de la stratigraphie.
Les assemblages de minraux hydrothermaux (e.g. quartz, carbonates, chlorite, pyrite, chalcopyrite) en
remplissage dans les fractures rsultant de lactivit structurale tmoignent bien de la trajectoire emprunte par les fluides. Leur minralogie peut toutefois varier considrablement selon les caractristiques du
fluide, la gochimie de la roche hte et lhistoire mtamorphique subsquente du secteur.
On peut constater que lune des meilleures mthodes pour trouver des gisements de sulfures massifs
volcanognes est clairement de dfinir lattitude des structures synvolcaniques, puis dexplorer celles qui
prsentent des assemblages de minraux hydrothermaux de haute temprature. Dexcellentes cibles dexploration peuvent tre trouves lintersection dhorizons correspondant la palo-surface du plancher
ocanique avec des structures synvolcaniques associes une altration hydrothermale. 2007 Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum. All rights reserved.
Department of Geology, Brandon University, Brandon, Manitoba, R7A 6A9.

Department of Geology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3B1.
3
Connor, Clark & Lunn, 925 West Georgia Street, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6L 3L2.
Corresponding Author: mumin@BrandonU.ca

2
84
Exploration and Mining Geology, Vol. 16, Nos. 12, p. 83107, 2007
Introduction
Modern seafloor studies show that volcanogenic massive
sulfide (VMS) deposits form in areas of active extension.
During rifting, subsidence, and thinning of the crust, hot
asthenospheric mantle rises to the base of the crust causing
bimodal mantle-derived mafic and crustal-derived felsic
volcanism. Waterrock reactions result in metal leaching
and formation of hydrothermal convection systems, which
may ultimately form VMS deposits (Franklin et al., 2005).
The majority of deposits are found along fault-bounded
axial rifts, or within seamount calderas adjacent to extensional structures along or near spreading ridges, submerged
island arcs, and back-arc basins (Scott, 1992; Fouquet,
1997; Gibson et al., 1999). Ancient deposits now preserved
on land include the type locality, the Hokuroku district of
Japan. Here, Miocene VMS deposits are preserved within a
volcanic complex along a failed rift of the Japanese island
arc, with individual deposits localized around the intersections of orthogonal faults (e.g., Scott, 1978, 1979; Cathles,
1983; Guber and Green, 1983; Cas, 1992). Identification
of similar structures around Archean deposits has been
more difficult due to the camouflaging effects of their later
deformation and metamorphism (Scott, 1979). Nevertheless, considerable progress has been made in recent years
in documenting the structural setting and controls for many
ancient deposits (Barrie and Hannington, 1999; Stix et al.,
2003), particularly in Australia (e.g., Cas, 1992; Large,
1992; Corbett, 2001; Sharpe and Gemmell, 2002) and in
the Canadian Abitibi Belt (e.g., Kerr and Gibson, 1993;
Larson and Hutchinson, 1993; Bleeker, 1999; Gibson et
al., 2000; Yang and Scott, 2003).
In the south Sturgeon Lake area of northwestern Ontario
(Fig. 1), six VMS deposits have been mined (F Group,
Mattabi, Lyon Lake, Creek Zone, Sub-Creek Zone, and
Sturgeon Lake) and several sub-economic sulfide lenses
remain unexploited (Table 1). The deposits are located
within an Archean volcanic caldera complex and occur at
several paleo-seafloor horizons (Groves et al., 1988; Morton et al., 1990, 1991, 1996; Mumin and Scott, 1991, 1994;
Hudak and Morton, 1999; Hudak et al., 2003).
This paper examines the evidence for synvolcanic structural controls on the site-specific location and morphology of these massive sulfide deposits and their associated
hydrothermal alteration. It also documents and discusses
Table 1. Mineral Deposits of the Sturgeon Lake Mining Camp*
Grade
Deposit
Zn
Cu
Pb
(wt.%) (wt.%) (wt.%)
Ag
(g/t)
F Group
9.51
0.64
0.64
60.4
Mattabi
8.28
0.74
0.85
104.0
Lyon Lake and SubCreek Zone
6.53
1.24
0.63
141.5
Creek Zone
8.80
1.66
0.76
141.5
Sturgeon Lake
9.17
2.55
1.21
164.2
* After Franklin (1995).
some of the stratigraphic, deformational, and alteration

features that distinguish ore-related from late structures,
and how these structures may be identified in an ancient
deformed and metamorphosed terrain.
Regional Geology
The South Sturgeon Lake volcanic pile is a northwardyounging 10 km-thick homoclinal sequence of Archean
felsic through mafic volcanic rocks, with intercalated volcaniclastic and chemical sediments. The volcanic pile is
capped by a 300 to 1500 m-thick sequence of sedimentary rocks dominated by graywacke, argillite, and conglomerate, with magnetic iron formation (Fig. 1). Early
investigators divided the rocks into four mafic to felsic
cycles (Trowell, 1974, 1983; Franklin et al., 1977; Hinzer,
1981), with several laterally extensive, graphitic pyritepyrrhotite-bearing horizons in each cycle (Shegelski,
1978). Morton et al. (1990, 1991, 1996) and Hudak and
Morton (1999) have demonstrated that the lower two volcanic cycles comprise progressive subaerial to subaqueous
caldera fill. They subdivided the caldera fill into: (1) a precaldera sequence dominated by amygdaloidal to massive
basalt flows with scoria and tuff cone deposits; (2) an early
caldera sequence comprised of felsic pyroclastic rocks,
megabreccia, mesobreccia, and debris flow deposits, with
lesser amounts of dacite and andesite; and (3) a late caldera
sequence comprised of felsic pyroclastic rocks, rhyodacite,
dacite, and andesite flows, and volcaniclastic sedimentary
rocks. Known economic mineralization occurs in the upper
felsic portions of the early caldera sequence (Mattabi and F
Group deposits), and the late caldera sequence (Lyon Lake
deposits). Caldera rocks were dated at 2735.5 1.5Ma, and
overlying post-caldera rocks at 2717.9 +2.7/-1.5 Ma (U-Pb
zircon; Davis and Trowell, 1982; Davis et al., 1985).
In addition to some late faults, much of the stratigraphy
has been offset by synvolcanic faulting with abundant horst
and graben structures across the caldera complex (Mumin,
1988; Mumin and Scott, 1991, 1994; Morton et al., 1996,
1999). Subsequent deformation folded the Sturgeon Lake
volcanic pile about an eastwest hinge with a superimposed
broad warping about a northsouth axis (Trowell, 1970;
Franklin et al., 1977). Most of the volcanic pile has been
subjected to greenschist facies metamorphism; however,
amphibolite facies rocks occur in the eastern and southern
margins (Franklin et al., 1977; Trowell, 1983; Groves et al., 1988; Mumin,
1988; Mumin and Scott, 1991, 1994;
Mumin et al., 1991). Detailed accounts
Au
Metric
of the regional geology and volcanol(g/t)
Tonnes
ogy are given by Trowell (1974, 1983),
Franklin et al. (1977), Friske (1983),
340 000
Hinzer (1981), Severin (1982), Groves
11 400 000
(1984), Morton et al. (1985, 1990,
0.5
3 945 000
1991, 1996, 1999), and Hudak and
0.5
908 000
Morton (1999).
Sulfide mineralization is associated
0.5
2 070 000
with episodic eruption of felsic quartzcrystal ash-flow tuffs (Harvey and Hin-
Structural Controls on Massive Sulfide Deposition and Hyrdothermal Alteration in the South Sturgeon Lake Caldera A.H. Mumin et al.
85
Fig. 1. Volcanic stratigraphy of the Archean South Sturgeon Lake volcanic pile (after Franklin et al., 1975; Morton et al., 1996, 1999). The Sturgeon Lake
caldera-fill complex extends stratigraphically upwards (north) from the base of the mesobreccia, debris, and pyroclastic deposits. The eastern, western,
and upper limits of the caldera complex are not defined.
zer, 1981; Severin, 1982; Morton et al., 1991). The massive sulfide deposits are typical Archean Zn-Cu-Ag-rich
volcanogenic massive sulfide lenses, with anomalously
high lead values of about 1 wt.%, and minor gold. They
are compositionally zoned with a Cu-rich footwall near the
region of hydrothermal discharge, and a sphalerite-pyriterich upper and distal portion. Individual ore deposits may
be single lenses up to 70 m thick or multiple stacked lenses
with intercalated host rock (cf. Sangster and Scott, 1976;
Franklin et al., 1981; Large, 1992; Franklin, 1995; Poulsen
and Hannington, 1995).
F Group Deposit
The most westerly zone of economic mineralization in
the South Sturgeon Lake volcanic pile is the F Group deposit, located 5 km west of the Mattabi deposit (Fig. 1).
The F Group district is underlain by up to 750 m of mafic,
carbonated, and chloritic heterolithic meso- and megabreccias intercalated with pyroclastic and debris-flow deposits
(Groves et al., 1988; Morton et al., 1991, 1999; Fig. 2).
The breccias form most of the footwall rocks beneath the
F Group deposit (Fig. 3) and comprise quartz, chlorite,

calcite, dolomite, plagioclase, biotite, epidote, apatite,
sphene, ilmenite, magnetite, and pyrite. Bedded, felsic,
quartz-phyric pyroclastic flow and ash deposits overlie the
breccia and debris deposits, and host the massive sulfides
at a horizon approximately 90 to 150 m stratigraphically
below the Mattabi ore horizon. The overlying Mattabi succession is composed of similar quartz-phyric pyroclastic
flow deposits (Morton et al., 1990, 1999; Hudak and Morton, 1999).
Regional deformation of the volcanic pile has resulted
in eastwest-striking stratigraphy in the F Group area, with
an average dip near the deposit of about 50N. However,
variable dips are common in the vicinity of mineralization
and have been observed to reverse to a southerly direction
in the immediate hanging wall and footwall of the F Group
mineralized zone, particularly on the Darkwater property
(Fig. 2). This localized reversal is due to the influence of
primary synvolcanic structures, as well as perturbations
caused by the regional deformation. Rocks in the F Group
deposit are also characterized by an eastwest foliation that
dips approximately 80N. One of the north- to northeast-
86
Fig. 2. Surface geology of the F Group and Darkwater properties showing footwall alteration and important syn-volcanic structures associated with
mineralization. The original nature of the structural features is distorted by deformation and tilting of the volcanic pile. a = surface strike of east-dipping
faults, b = surface strike of west-dipping faults. See Figure 5A for orientation of set a and b faults within the F Group pit.
trending faults (b in Fig. 2) has segmented and moderately

displaced the western part of the mineralized horizon to
the north.
Economic mineralization of the F Group deposit is
concentrated in a linear wedge of massive sulfides nestled
against a synvolcanic fault scarp (Fig. 4). Metals are systematically zoned within the deposit. Both stratabound and
crosscutting stringers with chalcopyrite and pyrite mineralization occur in the footwall below the paleo-seafloor,
and the base of the massive sulfide lens is copper enriched.
Stratigraphically upward and laterally away from the chalcopyrite-rich zones, massive sulfides grade into sphaleritesilver-rich ore with a central portion enriched in galena.
High-grade mineralization (minimum 10 wt.% Zn over 2 m
or equivalent) extends eastward for at least 300 m beyond
the F Group pit (Fig. 2). In the distal portion, the sulfides
are contained within three separate stacked lenses, each
averaging 5 m in thickness. In both the hanging wall and
laterally distal portions, economic mineralization grades
into massive and finally disseminated pyrite.
Fig. 3. Photograph of footwall mafic mesobreccia deposit from ~300 m

stratigraphically below the F Group pit. Pencil is ~14 cm long.
87
minor amounts of tourmaline along

vein margins (Fig. 7D), and many
have narrow to coalescing selvages
of cryptocrystalline quartz alteration
(Fig. 5C). Host rocks are generally
leached of some alkali metals, silicified, and subsequently metamorphosed to quartz-sericite-pyrophylliteandalusite-chloritoid-rich rocks.
Footwall rocks near the center of
the F Group pit contain en echelon tension gashes filled with typical footwall
stockwork mineralization including
quartz, Fe-carbonates, pyrophyllite,
and kyanite. The gashes are related to
shearing of the east-dipping faults, and
occur in rocks that were leached and
silicified.
Rocks that outcrop approximately
300 m southwest of the center of the
F Group pit (Copper Mountain, Fig. 2)
are severely altered and fractured with
abundant shear- and alteration-related
tension veins and gashes (Fig. 8A).
The attitude of fractures is variable due
to the interaction of orthogonal synvolcanic faulting, and the regional east
west foliation. The average strikes of
two distinct fracture sets are 040 and
Fig. 4. Simplified section through the F Group structure, rotated approximately 45 to its ori355 (Fig. 9), a and b, respectively. A
ginal attitude at the time of ore deposition. The deposit formed within a small graben, and has
third fracture set, c, is conformable to
both crosscutting and stratabound hydrothermal alteration. Massive sulfide ore is hosted within
the regional foliation, with an average
Mattabi succession felsic pyroclastic rocks, which are separated from footwall pyroclastic flows,
trend of 080. Set b fractures correlate
breccia, and debris by the thick line.
with the projected surface trace of the
west-dipping faults, set a is the surface
Footwall Structures and Hydrothermal Alteration
trace of the east-dipping F Group faults, and set c fractures
Extensive normal and strike-slip orthogonal faulting and
are parallel to the regional foliation associated with late
brecciation occur in footwall rocks of the F Group deposit.
deformation and metamorphism of the volcanic pile.
A near-horizontal set of normal faults (a in Fig. 5A) form
Most tension veins (set a) strike 030 to 050, and are
a 15E-dipping set of fractures in the south wall of the pit,
in the plane of the east-dipping synvolcanic faults. They
the same attitude as the plunge of the massive sulfide lensare typically 1 to 3 cm in width (locally up to 20 cm) and
es. These east-dipping fractures are disrupted and offset by
have lengths of several meters. Tension gashes formed as
a north- to northeast-trending orthogonal set of strike-slip
a result of faulting parallel to set a veins, have an average
faults (b in Fig. 5A) that dip ~40 to the west. Associated
strike of ~135 and intersect the veins at angles of 60 to
with this orthogonal fault system are zones of brecciation
80. They range from 0.5 cm to 20 cm in width and up to
that occur around their intersections, and in linear arrays
30cm in length. Both types of tension fractures are relafollowing the fault planes. The formation of these types of
tively undeformed (although locally sigmoidal), suggestlinear breccias is believed to result from repeated, alternating minimal amounts of shearing during deformation that
ing, small-scale movements along two intersecting faults,
was synchronous with hydrothermal alteration. Rocks of
as illustrated schematically in Figure 6. The fractures in
the Copper Mountain outcrop are part of the structural conthe F-Group footwall are filled with brecciated and altered
duit that focused fluid discharge for the F Group deposit.
host-rock fragments and variable hydrothermal mineralogy
The tension fractures occur within a broad zone (up
dominated by chlorite, Fe-rich carbonate, sericite, pyroto 1500 m wide) of hydrothermal alteration (Fig. 2). The
phyllite, and quartz. Locally, the brecciated rocks are minmost intensely altered rocks in the center of the zone are
eralized with chalcopyrite and pyrite (locally exceeding
severely leached of Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Mn, but are sig90% in some individual fractures), Fe-rich carbonate, and
nificantly enriched in SiO2 and K, typical of some types
Mg-rich chlorite (Figs. 5 and 7). Parallel, closely spaced
of VMS feeder zones (Sangster and Scott, 1976; Franklin
fractures and tension gashes filled with Fe-rich carbonate
et al., 1981; Franklin, 1995; Gibson et al., 1999). Due to
and chlorite sulfide are common. Some fractures have
leaching of most alkalis and base metals, and the relative
88
Fig. 5. A. Footwall of the F Group pit (looking south) showing the fracture brecciation caused by intersecting orthogonal faults, shearing, and associated
tension veins and gashes. The regional eastward plunge of linear structures associated with extension is visible as fault set a dipping 45W. They are
disrupted by west-plunging faults b dipping 15E. B. Close-up of a fracture breccia in the F Group footwall. Most of the fractures in this photograph are
filled with Fe-Mg-rich carbonate, chlorite, quartz, pyrophyllite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite. Field of view is 3 m. C. Brittle fracturing of silicified felsic tuffs
provided pathways for fluid discharge at the F Group deposit. The fractures are filled with chlorite, Fe-Mg-rich carbonates, quartz accessory minerals
including pyrite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, chloritoid, and tourmaline. Field of view is 30 cm. D. Cryptocrystalline quartz spheres with cores of Fe-Mgrich carbonate and chlorite accessory minerals including pyrite, pyrophyllite, or chloritoid in an altered felsic tuff with abundant sericite, pyrophyllite,
quartz, and chloritoid. This unique feature of the F Group deposit is the result of orthogonal shearing synchronous with hydrothermal fluid alteration. Two
sets of orthogonal fractures (orientation indicated by dashed lines) are visible in the photo.
immobility of Al2O3, the most intensely altered rocks are

residually enriched in aluminum. The mineral assemblage
consists of, in order of abundance, quartz, sericite, pyrophyllite, and andalusite, with accessory apatite, epidote,
and zoisite (Fig.8C,D). Tension gashes normally contain
quartz and 0% to 85% pyrophyllite as selvages along the
fracture veins or as radiating crystals in cavities. Euhedral
quartz may also line these cavities. Tension veins are filled
with quartz kyanite and pyrophyllite. Locally, some veins
contain as much as 90% light blue kyanite (Fig. 8A,B).
Prismatic crystals and mats of sillimanite that penetrate
and/or replace quartz are also present in some quartz-pyrophyllite veins (Fig. 8F). The presence of the four aluminum
silicates, andalusite (in host rocks), pyrophyllite (in tension
gashes and veins), kyanite (in some tension veins), and
sillimanite (in the occasional quartz-pyrophyllite vein),
remains an interesting but unresolved enigma. It appears
that andalusite formed in country rocks within its normal
low-pressure stability field (Holdaway, 1971), whereas

pyrophyllite is a likely consequence of hydrous alteration
of the siliceous and aluminous rocks. However, kyanite
and sillimanite appear quite out of place with respect to
their normal pressure-temperature stability range (Holdaway, 1971). Peripheral to the central zone, hydrothermal
alteration of the footwall debris and pyroclastic breccia
(megabreccia and mesobreccia of Morton et al., 1999) is
characterized by whole-rock Na and Ca depletion with Fe
plus Mg enrichment. Mg-rich chlorite, sericite, and Fecarbonate dominate the mineral assemblage of this outer
zone (Fig. 2). Tension fractures are filled with abundant
Fe-carbonate (siderite-ankerite), pyrophyllite in radiating
rosettes, quartz, Mg-rich chlorite, and traces of chalcopyrite and/or pyrite. Fibrous Mg-rich chlorite forms combtextured selvages along some fractures (Fig. 8E). Chlorite
commonly has deformation and kink-banding that locally
occurs oblique or parallel to vein walls, indicating minor
89
from the altered and silicified pumice

fragments described by other investigators (Hudak, 1989; Walker, 1993)
and is one of the unique features of
FGroup rocks that preserve evidence
of orthogonal shearing that was synchronous with hydrothermal alteration.
Regional Setting of the F Group and
Jackpot Structures
Approximately 200 diamond-drill
holes from the F Group and adjoining
properties were replotted on 30m and
120m-spaced sections over a strike
length of about 2 km and to a maximum depth of about 900 m. Three
Fig. 6. Plan view of development of fracture breccias as a result of repeated, alternating, smalltypes of stratigraphic offsets were used
scale orthogonal faulting. Arrows indicate direction of repeated movement of the mobile block.
to delineate synvolcanic structures:
(1) drape folds over paleo-topographic
late or synchronous shearing. In the distal portions of the
surfaces (Fig. 11A); (2) faulted offsets (Fig. 11B); and
outer zone, the frequency of gashes and veins decreases.
(3) a combination of the two caused by reactivation of
Here, the fractures are mainly filled by quartz with sporthe same structure (Fig. 11C). In the latter type, the lower
adic pyrophyllite and Fe-carbonate, and wall-rock alterastratigraphic contact and paleo-seafloor horizons are offset
tion is dominated by Mg-rich chlorite plus lesser amounts
by reactivated faulting, and the upper part of the structure
of sericite and (Fe, Mg)-carbonates.
is overlain by drape folded rocks. Drape folds over paleotopography could be distinguished from faulted offsets and
Hanging-Wall Structures and Hydrothermal Alteration
regional deformation by the following criteria: the footwall
Structural deformation extends stratigraphically upcontact of a drape-folded unit conforms to paleo-topogwards into hanging-wall rocks of the F Group deposit,
raphy such as a seafloor fault scarp or rift; however, the
although it did not significantly affect the massive sulfide
upper contact of the same unit tends toward a subparallenses. Multiple fracturing and shearing is evident on the
lel alignment with the regional paleo-surface, essentially
east side of the deposit. Preserved in the east wall of the
seeking a paleo-horizontal layering due to gravitational
pit (Fig. 10A) and stratigraphically above the chalcopyritesettling (Fig. 11A,C).
filled fracture breccia zone are areas with closely spaced
The principal ore-controlling structures, called the
(310 cm apart) parallel fracture veins in leached and siliFGroup structure and the Jackpot structure (Fig. 12), were
cified hanging-wall felsic rocks. Vein mineralogy is similar
traced for considerable distances down plunge below surto that in footwall fractures (Fig. 5C) and comprises (Fe,
face as systematic offsets in stratigraphy, including: (1) the
Mg)-carbonates and chlorite with minor pyrite chalcoupper and lower contacts of massive sulfide lenses with
pyrite, and bleached wall rock of cryptocrystalline quartz.
host rocks; and (2) the contacts of distinct geological units
The veins in parts of these banded zones are boudinaged
that could be traced with confidence, either locally or regionally. (The Jackpot structure was previously called the
and/or fragmented by orthogonal shearing. In places, this
Darkwater structure by Mumin, 1986, 1988, and Mumin
produced numerous centimeter-sized cryptocrystalline
and Scott, 1991, 1994, but is changed here to Jackpot to
quartz spheres with cores of Fe-carbonate, chlorite, pyrite
avoid confusion with a different structure called Darkwater
chalcopyrite, sericite, chloritoid, and pyrophyllite, within
by Morton et al., 1996, 1999.)
a matrix of fine-grained quartz, pyrophyllite, sericite, andaThe correlation of stratigraphic offsets associated with
lusite, and chloritoid (Figs. 5D and 10B). This phenomenon
the F Group deposit indicates that the ore lies nestled
is also observed on the weathered surface of some rocks.
against one wall of a 125 m-wide graben (Figs. 4 and 12).
Disaggregated hydrothermal veins are visible as rounded
The central down-dropped portion of the graben and fracand lensoid domains made visible by the brown weathering
turing associated with the south boundary faults of the graof a small amount of Fe-sulfide, chlorite, and/or carbonben is photographed in Figure 10A. The structure is 25 to
ate (Fig. 10C). The breakup and rounding of hydrothermal
50 m deep and partially filled by quartz-phyric felsic pyroveins is preserved in every stage of formation, from paralclastic rocks. The remainder of the graben is filled with
lel veins with incipient orthogonal shearing, disaggregamassive and disseminated sulfides, bedded quartz-phyric
tion, and/or boudinage (Fig. 7A), to near-spherical clasts of
pyroclastic flow and ash deposits, and in particular, their
hydrothermal minerals encased in cryptocrystalline quartz
hydrothermally altered variants. Parts of the boundary
(Fig. 5D). Occasional snowball textures are observed, as is
faults to this graben are the east-dipping faults observed
often seen with metamorphic porphyroblasts that grew durin the footwall of the pit (Fig. 5A). The entire structure
ing deformation strain. This phenomenon is quite distinct
90
Fig. 7. Fracture mineral assemblages from the footwall of the F Group deposit. A. Multiple close-spaced parallel fractures intersect
in an orthogonal pattern at ~85 to each other. The fractures are filled with Fe-Mg-rich chlorite and carbonate accessory amounts of
sulfides, chloritoid, and pyrophyllite. The host rock is silicified felsic pyroclastic tuff from the graben boundary fracture zone (see Fig.
10A) adjacent to the F Group deposit. This type of fracturing and alteration is a precursor to formation of the cryptocrystalline quartz
spheres shown in Figure 5D. B. Fe-Mg rich chlorite-carbonate-sulfide-quartz vein from the F Group footwall fracture zone; field of
view is 3.6 cm. C. Close-up of B; field of view is 9 mm. D. Photomicrograph taken in cross-polarized transmitted light showing the
vein margin of B: Fe-Mg-rich carbonate, quartz, and sulfides abut the cryptocrystalline quartz matrix of silicified felsic pyroclastic tuff;
tourmaline (shown here within quartz) is commonly found along vein selvages, and is sometimes abundantly intergrown with stringer
sulfides; field of view is 1.7 mm. E. Photomicrograph taken in plane-polarized transmitted light showing the carbonate, chlorite, and
quartz gangue in footwall mineralization at F Group; field of view is 1.7 mm. F. Photomicrograph taken in plane-polarized reflected
light of chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrite, and sphalerite stringer mineralization within chlorite-carbonate-quartz fracture veins, F
Group footwall; field of view is 1.7 mm. Abbreviations: Asp = arsenopyrite, Carb = carbonate, Chl = chlorite, Cpy = chalcopyrite, Py
= pyrite, Qtz = quartz, Sph = sphalerite, Sulf = sulfides, Tm = tourmaline.
91
Fig. 8. Aluminum silicate-rich mineral assemblages in fractures from the footwall of the F Group deposit. A. Photograph of the Copper Mountain
outcrop in the F Group footwall hydrothermal alteration. Mafic mesobreccia deposits of this outcrop are thoroughly leached and silicified producing
a quartz-sericite-andalusite-rich host rock. Tension fractures and gashes are variably filled with quartz, pyrophyllite, and kyanite. Some white patches
(e.g., under the lens cap) are chatter marks from heavy machinery. B. Photomicrograph taken in plane-polarized transmitted light showing kyanite
blades in pyrophyllite from the footwall fracture zone, F Group pit; black opaque minerals are sulfides; field of view is 1.7 mm. C. Photomicrograph
taken in cross-polarized transmitted light showing andalusite porphyroblasts in the quartz-pyrophyllite matrix of altered felsic pyroclastic rocks hosting the F Group mineralization; field of view is 1.7 mm. D. Photomicrograph taken in cross-polarized transmitted light showing chloritoid and andalusite in a matrix of very fine-grained felted pyrophyllite; fracture vein fill from the F Group footwall; field of view is 1.7 mm. E. Photomicrograph
taken in cross-polarized transmitted light showing comb-textured chlorite growing perpendicular to vein walls, intergrown with pyrophyllite. Transition zone between the quartz-sericite-aluminum silicate hydrothermal core to peripheral Fe-Mg-rich chlorite-carbonate alteration (Oran, 1987); field
of view is 2.2 mm. F. Photomicrograph taken in cross-polarized transmitted light showing very fine-grained felted needles of sillimanite intergrown
with quartz and pyrophyllite. Fracture vein fill from the F Group footwall (Oran, 1987); field of view is 2.3 mm. Abbreviations: And = andalusite,
Chl = chlorite, Chld = chloritoid, Ky = kyanite, Pyroph = pyrophyllite, Qtz = quartz, Sil = sillimanite.
92
much more extensive than at F Group

(Franklin et al., 1975, 1977; Groves,
1984; Morton et al., 1985, 1990, 1991,
1996; Morton and Franklin, 1987;
Groves et al., 1988; Walker, 1993;
Franklin, 1995; Hudak and Morton,
1999). A detailed structural analysis
has not been carried out within the
Mattabi ore deposit, and we recognize
that minimal structural information is
available due to the limited access and
present exposure of mine workings.
However, examination of some features that are known in Mattabi country
rocks demonstrate the regional influence of the same tectonic stresses that
affected the F Group area (cf. Morton
et al., 1999).
Fracture breccias (described below)
are preserved in silicified rocks of the
Mattabi deposit. Fractures containing
quartz, chlorite, Fe-carbonate, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and locally minor
Fig. 9. Fracture orientation and mineral assemblages from the Copper Mountain outcrop, F
sphalerite are common, and were comGroup footwall alteration zone (after Oran, 1987). General orientation of the two main fracture
monly found in subconcordant footsets (a and b), and the metamorphic foliation (c) are indicated. Map location shown on Fig. 2.
wall copper-rich horizons (comparable
to FGroup). In some areas, parallel
plunges approximately 15 to the east.
fracture veins in silicified felsic footwall rocks contain FeThe parallel Jackpot synvolcanic fault was delineated
carbonate and chlorite with minor sulfides, very similar to
at approximately 350 m downdip from the center of the
those at F Group.
F Group graben (Fig. 12). This structure forms a signifiOne of the structural features still visible in the Mattabi
cant paleo-fault scarp and hosts persistent hydrothermal
footwall is a west-dipping (~60) fracture zone with abunalteration and sulfide mineralization. It has been traced for
dant en echelon tension gashes flanking both sides of the
2.5 km down plunge to the east, beyond which there is no
fracture zone (Fig. 13). The tension gashes are up to 5 cm
information. The lower stratigraphic contact that defines
wide and 0.5 m to 3 m long. They are relatively undeformed
displacement along the Jackpot structure has been offset by
and sub-perpendicular to the plane of shearing. The gashes
45 to 60 m. However, above the hanging-wall dacitic rocks,
are primarily filled with quartz and coarsely crystalline Festratigraphic offsets are minimal. The systematic structural
carbonate indicative of open-space filling. Many of these
offsets correlated between drill sections make it possible to
gashes contain minor amounts of disseminated chalcopyrillustrate schematically the relationships among structure,
ite; however, it can be abundant locally. The brittle shear
hydrothermal alteration, and sulfide deposition. In Figure
zone is composed of fragmented blocks of host rock with
12, we project the stratigraphic location of known mineralweathered copper minerals within and around fractures.
ization from 1800 m along the plunge of the Jackpot StrucThe steep westward plunge of this shear zone is consistent
ture onto one section, and also rotate the section by ~45 on
with a documented westward plunge of massive sulfide ore
a horizontal axis to show its original, approximately flatin the Mattabi mine (Mattabi mine sections and level plans;
lying orientation. The current erosional surface is indicated
pers. commun., S. Kerr, Senior Geologist).
for reference. Sulfide mineralization similar to the FGroup
East- and southeast-dipping faults are also present in the
deposit occurs as stacked lenses over a stratigraphic interMattabi footwall, although they have not been thoroughly
val of at least 240 m, and straddles both sides of the fault
investigated (no access). They appear to correlate with
scarp. To date, only sub-economic bodies consisting of
east-plunging trends that have been documented for some
either narrow high-grade Zn or Zn-Cu-Ag sulfide lenses
ore lenses (Mattabi mine sections and level plans) and are
(up to 25 wt.% Zn), or wide low-grade pyrite-dominated
inferred to be northeast-trending faults (Fig. 1).
sulfide lenses have been found along this structure.
Stratigraphically below the Mattabi deposit, northeasttrending alteration zones are documented at surface by
Mattabi Deposit
Morton et al. (1990, 1991), and at depth by Walker (1993).
They are associated with aluminum silicate and/or Fe-rich
Mattabi is the largest deposit discovered to date in the
alteration of host rocks, and contain fractures with hydrosouth Sturgeon Lake area (Table 1). Alteration mineral asthermal mineral assemblages similar to those at F Group.
semblages and mineralization at Mattabi are similar but
Morton et al. (1990) concluded that these alteration zones
93
Fig. 10. A. East wall of the F Group pit (looking east) showing the south boundary fracture zone of the F Group graben structure. The interior downdropped block of the graben and direction of movement is indicated by the arrow. The orientation of the boundary fractures gives the false impression of
reverse faulting, which is a consequence of the north tilted deformation of the volcanic pile. Field of view ~40 m. B. Close-up showing development of
a cryptocrystalline quartz sphere (ovoid in this photo) with a darker core containing carbonate, chlorite, sulfide, sericite, and chloritoid. The sheared and
altered host rock is comprised of quartz-sericite-pyrophyllite-chloritoid-altered felsic pyroclastic tuff. C. Rounded boudins from F-Group pit. The larger
spheres appear darker due to weathering of Fe-rich minerals, and encase smaller spheres of cryptocrystalline (Crypto) quartz. The matrix is sheared and
siliceous felsic pyroclastic tuff. Abbreviations as in caption to Figures 7 and 8, plus: ser = sericite.
represent synvolcanic conduits for hydrothermal fluids that

fed the Mattabi deposit. West- and east-dipping structures
at Mattabi, associated fractures and mineral assemblages,
and northeast trending alteration and fracture zones are
similar to the F Group area and are thought to be related to
the same synvolcanic stresses.
Lyon Lake Deposits

The Lyon Lake deposits (Figs. 14 and 15) have been
classified as Mattabi-type Archean Cu-Zn volcanogenic
massive sulfide deposits by Morton and Franklin (1987)
and Franklin (1995). However, they vary considerably in

their geological setting and alteration mineralogy from
the nearby Mattabi and F Group deposits. The Lyon Lake
deposits occur about 1000 m stratigraphically above the
Mattabi-F Group horizon near the top of the late caldera
sequence (Morton et al., 1996, 1999). Their immediate
host rocks are predominantly dacitic to rhyolitic pyroclastic flows and tuffs. The deposits lie stratigraphically above
the currently-recognized eastern extremity of the Beidelman Bay intrusion, the synvolcanic heat source believed to
have driven hydrothermal activity at Sturgeon Lake (Fig.1;
Franklin et al., 1977; Campbell et al., 1981; Davis et al.,
94
deposit (Mumin, 1988; Mumin et al.,

1991). The area also coincides with a
regional change in strike of the volcanic rocks from eastwest at Mattabi to
a southeasterly direction east of Lyon
Lake.
A total of 6.9 Mt of Zn-Cu-Ag-rich
massive sulfide ore with minor Pb
and Au values is distributed amongst
four main deposits (Lyon Lake, Creek
Zone, Sturgeon Lake, and Sub-Creek)
and several smaller lenses in the Lyon
Lake area (Figs. 14 and 15; Table 1).
The deposits range in size from small
lenses of 20 000 t to the 2.1 Mt Sturgeon Lake deposit. They differ from
most other Archean deposits only in
that they are relatively rich in lead,
averaging about 1.0 wt.% Pb. The ore
occurs as a single massive sulfide lens
filling a small graben (Sturgeon Lake
deposit; Fig. 16), a series of stacked
lenses separated by barren waste rock
(Lyon Lake and Sub-Creek Zone deposits), or a combination of the above
where a single massive lens splits into
several stacked lenses (Lyon Lake
AZone; Fig. 17). Both the Lyon Lake
and Sub-Creek deposits are the aggregate result of coalescence of individual sulfide lenses. Sulfide mineral
zoning of the deposits is both vertical
and lateral. The ores are chalcopyritepyrrhotite-rich at their base near
areas of hydrothermal discharge, and
sphalerite-pyrite-rich in the more distal
portions (Figs. 16 and 17).
Geophysical conductors, a thick
sequence (~250m) of mixed volcanic
(rhyolite, dacite, andesite, and basalt),
volcaniclastic, and chemical sedimentary rocks (silicate- and oxide-facies
iron formation), and extensive fracturing define a graben structure beneath
and hosting the Lyon Lake, Creek
Zone, and Sub-Creek Zone deposits
Fig. 11. Three principal types of stratigraphic offsets can be used to distinguish syn-volcanic
(Fig. 14; Mumin, 1988; Mumin and
from late structures in a typical VMS setting: A. Drape folds; the lowermost units follow paleoScott, 1991,1994; Morton et al., 1999).
seafloor topography whereas upper contacts tend toward subparallel alignment with the regional
In contrast, the Sturgeon Lake deposit
topography and paleo-horizontal layering; B. Simple offsets indicate post-depositional faulting,
but only at the horizon that is offset, and may provide conduits for hydrothermal fluid discharge
is hosted by quartz feldspar-phyric
at a stratigraphically higher horizon; C. Drape-folds over faulted stratigraphy are excellent indipyroclastic deposits that overlie mafic
cators of syn-volcanic faults that may have provided hydrothermal conduits. Sulfide lenses can
intrusions (Figs. 14 and 16). It has
appear as both offset and conformable to the paleo-seafloor horizon.
been suggested by some investigators
(Hudak and Morton, 1999; Morton et
1985; Franklin, 1995). Greenschist facies metamorphism
al., 1999) that these mafic intrusions are post-caldera, and
persists from F Group and Mattabi to just west of the Lyon
therefore post-date mineralization. However, we find strucLake deposits. Here, an increase in metamorphic grade octural and alteration features (described below) that suggest
curs from lower-greenschist facies west of the Lyon Lake
a pre- or syn-mineralization presence, and believe they are
deposit to lower-amphibolite facies east of the Creek Zone
part of a complex of intermediate to mafic intrusions that
95
Fig. 12. Simplified cross section through the F Group and Jackpot graben structures, rotated 45 about a horizontal axis, to approximate their original
attitude at the time of ore deposition. Mineralization and alteration from a 1.8 km strike length along the structure (i.e., perpendicular to the section)
have been projected onto this section to illustrate the relationships among structure, hydrothermal alteration, and massive sulfide deposition. Footwall
alteration is not shown on this section. The south wall of the F Group structure graben is shown in photograph Figure 5A, and the south graben boundary
faults in photograph Figure 10A.
both pre- and post-date the evolution of the Lyon Lake deposits and immediate host rocks.
Hydrothermal alteration associated with the Lyon Lake,
Creek Zone, and Sub-Creek Zone deposits is characterized by Fe-enrichment, most evident as Fe-rich chlorite,
carbonates, grunerite, biotite, pyrrhotite, and magnetite in
both stratabound and crosscutting zones within the footwall
(Mumin, 1988; Mumin and Scott, 1994). However, at the
Sturgeon Lake deposit, hydrothermal alteration includes a
more typical pipe-like feeder with a footwall chalcopyrite stringer zone. Here, the felsic volcanic host rocks are
leached and silicified, with (Fe-Mg)-rich and aluminous
alteration mineral assemblages (Severin, 1982; Mumin,
1988; Jongewaard, 1989; Mumin et al., 1991; Mumin and
Scott, 1994; Hudak, 1996).
Some investigators have suggested that the Lyon Lake,
Creek Zone, and Sub-Creek Zone deposits are structurally
displaced from their footwall feeder and alteration zones,
and are contained within a displaced thrust sheet (Koopman, 1993; Hudak, 1996; Morton et al., 1999). Their evidence is based on the presence of sheared rocks in both
the footwall and hanging wall of the deposits, as well as

the lack of alteration comparable to the Mattabi, F Group,
or Sturgeon Lake deposits. We recognize the presence of
sheared rocks at the contact of the Lyon Lake andesite with
mine sequence pyroclastic rocks, but the shearing occurs
sporadically in pockets of variable thickness across the
mine area, and commonly consist of heterolithic breccia
(Fig. 17). For these reasons, and the lack of evidence for
any displaced or terminated footwall alteration or mineralized zones, we suggest that the contact breccias may be
a paleo-regolith of mixed debris, talus, and flow breccia
accumulated at the base of the Lyon Lake andesite flows.
This contact is a zone of competency contrast and probable weakness, and will likely have accommodated some
shearing during regional deformation of the Sturgeon Lake
volcanic pile.
The basal shear of the proposed thrust sheet also occurs as sporadically distributed stratiform zones of variable thickness in footwall rocks of the Lyon Lake deposits.
These stratiform zones are intensely altered pyroclastic tuff
and breccia deposits (mostly altered rhyolite agglomerates
96
Fig. 13. A. Aerial photograph looking southwest toward the footwall of the Mattabi pit, location of the fracture zone in B is indicated by the white square.
B. Parallel tension gashes visible in the footwall of the Mattabi pit are similar to those found in the footwall of the F-Group deposit. These tension fractures are filled with Fe-carbonate (partially weathered out), minor pyrite and chalcopyrite, and rare kyanite. These gashes are orthogonal to, and were
caused by, the steeply west-dipping shear visible as a small scarp in the upper right side of the photograph. Field of view is ~10 m.
in mine terminology; Fig. 17) with abundant Fe-rich chlorite, carbonates, amphibole, biotite, pyrrhotite, magnetite,
and quartz, which is the dominant hydrothermal alteration assemblage associated with the Lyon Lake, Creek,
and Sub-Creek deposits (Mumin 1984, 1988; Mumin et
al., 1986, 1991, Mumin and Scott, 1994). Due to their
high degree of alteration and relative weakness, shearing
of these rocks is expected as a normal consequence of the
regional deformation at Sturgeon Lake. However, due to
lack of evidence for any significant displacement of any
unit along this horizon, we interpret them to be intermittent
stratabound lenses of footwall alteration, intimately associated with the ore lenses and synvolcanic structural zones
(as faults and fracture zones in Fig. 1).
Geological mapping, alteration, and geochemical studies (Mumin et al., 1986, 1991; Mumin and Scott, 1994)
document variations in hydrothermal mineral assemblages,
whole rock geochemical patterns, and in the evolutionary
patterns of the hydrothermal system over time and between
districts and deposits. Distinct variations in alteration assemblage and morphology occur between the Lyon Lake
group of deposits and those at Mattabi and F Group. In
particular, Fe-rich alteration assemblages at the Lyon Lake,
Creek, and Sub-Creek deposits occur as fine disseminations
and fracture filling in discordant feeder zones beneath chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite zones of the ore lenses (Figs. 16 and
17). These discordant zones tend to dissipate quickly into
altered footwall rocks, but link with the intensely altered
stratabound breccias described above.
The regional foliation at Lyon Lake is subparallel to
stratigraphy and dips steeply to the north at about 80.
This contrasts with an average 60 northward dip of the
volcanic and sedimentary rocks at Lyon Lake. As a result,
foliation-parallel features are sometimes confused with
primary bedding, and narrow lens-like mafic sills along
late shear planes can be confused with primary stratigraphy. Throughout most of the mine, only minor offsets
and bends in stratigraphy are related to these late structures. One possible exception is the banded iron formations
in the footwall, which tend to be highly folded (Dub et

al., 1989; Koopman, 1993), although these contortions appear to be internally restricted to the relatively narrow and
intermittent iron formation units. These contortions are not
observed in the overlying or underlying units.
Between the 425 m and 550 m levels (vertical depth),
the host rocks to the Sub-Creek orebody, and the orebody
itself, are folded, sheared, and offset about 100 m upwards
and to the north by a low-angle, sheared drag-fold (Mumin,
1988; Dub et al., 1989; Koopman et al., 1990; see fig. 9
of Koopman, 1993). This structure is also associated with
small Zn-Cu-Ag-rich massive sulfide lenses up to 600 m
east of the Sub-Creek deposit (Fig. 15). Its intersection
with the ore horizon plunges shallowly to the east, and it
appears to be part of a significant fault system characterized
by an annealed, white-quartz breccia that has been traced
in drill core for several kilometers. In many areas the structure contains abundant veinlets and disseminations of pyrrhotite, magnetite, and Fe-rich silicates (mostly chlorite,
biotite, and amphibole) and carbonates. This hydrothermal
mineral assemblage is similar to those documented in fracture zones beneath the other Lyon Lake deposits (Mumin
and Scott, 1994). Considering its mineralogy and intimate spatial association with several sulfide lenses (Fig.15),
this structure may represent a reactivated synvolcanic
fault related to mineralization, or late deformation along a
pre-existing structural weakness. Also, as documented by
Koopman (1993), it has the characteristics of a parasitic
fold on the south limb of the east plunging syncline associated with regional deformation of the south Sturgeon Lake
volcanic pile. At present, we believe there is insufficient
evidence to conclusively constrain its origin, timing, and
relationship to mineralization.
Synvolcanic faulting is evident in the Lyon Lake region.
Ore related structures form a near-orthogonal grid with one
set plunging shallowly to the east, and the complementary
structures plunging steeply to the west. The most significant structure associated with mineralization delineated
to date in the Lyon Lake region is a drape fold and offset
97
Fig. 14. Geological map of the Lyon Lake area showing the projected surface strike of some important syn-volcanic faults and fracture zones. The fractured fissure beneath the Sturgeon Lake deposit appears to be subparallel to stratigraphy because of the shallow plunge of the structure (20E) and steep
dip of the volcanic stratigraphy (65N).
in geology depicted in correlations of diamond-drill holes

extending east of the Sturgeon Lake deposit (Noranda Exploration Company Limited data, ca.19801986). West of
the deposit, it correlates with a fracture zone evident in drill
holes, has a sub-crop bearing of about 285, and strikes into
the footwall of the Sturgeon Lake deposit (Fig. 14). This
structure (Sturgeon Lake graben) was developed in the felsic footwall host rocks and was partially filled by massive
sulfide ore (Fig. 16). The structure plunges eastward at approximately 20 (Fig. 15). In mafic rocks below the deposit,
it forms a fracture stockwork at least 60 m wide (e.g., DDH
23-72, from ~30 m to the end of the hole at 205 m, with

~175 m of anastomosing fractures filled with hydrothermal
minerals; Fig. 18). The fracture density varies from isolated veinlets, typically 2 to 10 mm thick, to an anastomosing
or irregular stockwork with floating wall rock fragments
(Fig. 18B). Six hundred to 900 m below the ore horizon,
the stockwork veins are comprised of quartz, calcite, Ferich carbonates magnetite, sulfides, and chlorite, and
correlate with fracture breccias beneath the Lyon Lake graben. Host rocks to the fractures commonly have a selvage
leached of Na and dusted with abundant very fine-grained
98
Fig. 15. Vertical longitudinal projection of the Lyon Lake ore horizon. The distribution of massive sulfide lenses and some of the structural trends are
evident in this section. The dip of the stratigraphy produces an ~10% shortening of the vertical scale.
pyrite and/or pyrrhotite. Many of the fracture selvages contain minor to locally abundant tourmaline (Fig. 19A), and
minor porphyroblastic chloritoid is present locally in the
immediate host rock (Fig. 19C). Stratigraphically upwards,
vein mineralogy changes with an increase in the amount
of iron-rich minerals. Calcite is replaced by increasingly
Fe-rich carbonates intergrown with quartz, and some of the
most Fe-rich carbonate veins are spotted with magnetite
(Fig. 19C). Nearer to the paleo-seafloor in footwall mafic
rocks beneath the Sturgeon Lake deposit, fracture veins
contain Fe-rich carbonates, pyrrhotite, chlorite, magnetite, minor to trace pyrite and chalcopyrite, and decreasing
amounts of quartz. Host rocks are depleted in Na and Ca,
and typically enriched in Fe and Mn K (Mumin, 1988;
Friske, 1983).
The style of fracturing changes in the immediate footwall
of the Sturgeon Lake deposit where the fracture zone disrupts quartz-phyric felsic pyroclastic tuffs. The stockwork
in the felsic rocks is comprised of fine veinlets, in contrast
to the open style of stockwork veining in deeper footwall
rocks. It appears that the felsic rocks must have been unconsolidated to semi-consolidated at the time of ore formation,
and could not support open stockwork veining to the same
extent as the deeper underlying rocks. The fractures in the
felsic tuffs contain chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite that
form a typical Cu-rich footwall stringer zone beneath the
Sturgeon Lake deposit. They also contain Mg-rich chlorite
and (Mg, Fe)-rich carbonate in abundance, and aluminum
silicates are reported by Friske (1983), Jongewaard (1989),
and Hudak (1996).
Even though the Sturgeon Lake structure is believed

to be a continuous fracture zone extending into the footwall, there is a strong contrast in the alteration mineralogy
and fracturing patterns between the felsic tuffs that immediately host the deposit and the underlying mafic intrusions and other footwall rocks. Part of the difference can
be attributed to host rock composition. More importantly
though, Mg-enrichment and the Mg-rich alteration mineral
assemblage in the immediate footwall indicate that greater
permeability of felsic pyroclastic rocks permitted an influx
of cool seawater, which mixed with the hydrothermal fluid
and caused precipitation of the footwall stringer zone. The
deeper-seated Fe-rich alteration assemblages are attributed
to evolved, near-neutral hydrothermal fluids, whereas the
overlying Mg Fe-rich and aluminous assemblages are attributed to regeneration of acidic fluids resulting from seawater entrainment in footwall rocks, and mixing with the
evolved hydrothermal fluid (Mumin, 1988; Mumin et al.,
1991; Mumin and Scott, 1994).
Based on the morphology of the Sturgeon Lake deposit
(Fig. 16), correlation of linear sulfide-associated structures,
and widespread open-space fracturing in footwall rocks,
we interpret the Sturgeon Lake structure to have been a fissure within a graben that was oriented perpendicular to the
main direction of extensional deformation (cf. F Group).
The presence of mafic intrusions and smaller felsic dikes
indicate that the fissure also provided a conduit for both
mafic and felsic magmas, some of which post-dated mineralization. Repeated activation of the structure created the
deep fracture zone that disrupted the country rocks, and
Fig. 16. Mine section 9900E through the Sturgeon Lake ore deposit. Massive sulfides fill a small
graben at the top of a fissure zone. An extensive fracture stockwork underlying the deposit has
been traced for over 1 km below the deposit. A footwall Cu-stringer zone occurs in the upper 60m where the fracture stockwork disrupts felsic pyroclastic rocks that were permeable
to seawater infiltration. Circles with dashed lines represent drill holes. Abbreviations: Carb =
carbonates, Chl = chlorite, Cpy = chalcopyrite, Gn = galena, Mt = magnetite, Po = pyrrhotite, Py
= pyrite, Qtz = quartz, Sph = sphalerite.
provided access to the hydrothermal reservoir. Brecciation

and open fractures provided an excellent conduit for rapid
and voluminous hydrothermal discharge leading to formation of the Sturgeon Lake orebody.
An estimate of extension can be derived from the density
of open-space fracturing. Six hundred meters stratigraphically beneath the deposit, diamond drilling indicates that the
zone is at least 60 m wide with a minimum average fracture
density of at least 12%, suggesting the possibility of 7 m of
combined extensional fracturing plus any volume loss that
may have occurred during alteration. However, multiple
intersecting fractures and disruption of the veining suggest
that this was not a single event, but occurred as a series of
tectonic disruptions over time.
Fracture zones orthogonal to the Sturgeon Lake structure dip steeply to the west and occur repeatedly throughout the district. Some of these faults are currently believed
to be related to the paleo-graben that lies stratigraphically
below the Lyon Lake, Creek, and Sub-Creek Zone ore bodies (Fig. 14). Graben filling with mixed volcanic and sedimentary rocks has resulted in abundant lateral and vertical
facies changes, which complicate delineation of structures
and hydrothermal feeder zones related to the Lyon Lake
ore deposits. However, fracturing in and below the graben
is similar to the open-space fracture stockworks described
above for the Sturgeon Lake deposit (Fig. 18). The lower
99
part of the graben contains about 60

m of felsic pyroclastic rocks, locally
averaging up to 25 vol.% disseminated
to massive pyrrhotite, pyrite, and magnetite (Fig. 19D). Mixed volcanic and
sedimentary rocks filled the rest of the
graben prior to deposition of the Lyon
Lake, Creek, and Sub-Creek Zone
orebodies. Consequently, most of the
ore lenses and adjacent host rocks for
these deposits show no clear evidence
of any pre-existing large structures,
only subtle drape folds resulting from
pre- and syn-depositional subsidence
within the graben (Fig. 17). The Lyon
Lake and Creek Zone deposits were
examined by Roberts (1981) for evidence of structural deformation and
displacement. Based on observations
at that time, Roberts stated that no significant structural deformation of the
deposits was evident, other than minor
offsets of less than 1 m. Rather, existing structure of the deposit was interpreted to be the result of deposition
over pre-existing topographic features
and syn-depositional subsidence. Although we have mapped possible displacements of up to several meters,
these observations remain consistent
with our present findings, the only significant exception being the Lyon Lake
structure that deforms the Sub-Creek
ore deposit.
Hydrothermal feeder zones have been located beneath
the Lyon Lake, Creek, and Sub-Creek Zone deposits
with the aid of geochemistry, alteration, and mineralogy
(Mumin, 1988; Mumin et al., 1991; Mumin and Scott,
1994). The ore lenses are zoned, and several distinct chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite-rich proximal zones with distal pyrite-sphalerite envelopes have been mapped in detail (e.g.,
Fig.17). The chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite-rich proximal sulfides
grade, over short distances, into disseminated pyrrhotitemagnetite-chlorite, and locally into quartz-carbonate-amphibole-biotite-bearing discordant and stratiform footwall
zones. Variable texture, competency, permeability, and degree of consolidation and geochemistry of the host rocks
influenced the fracture and alteration patterns observed in
these rocks. Consequently, some fracture zones appear to
be discontinuous and exhibit some variation in mineralogy. Locally, fracturing is dominated by quartz veins and
tension gashes. Some veins contain abundant pyrrhotite
and Fe-carbonate, with trace magnetite and chlorite. Fine,
anastomosing to irregular fracture stockworks with abundant pyrrhotite and magnetite, moderate amounts of (Fe
Mg)-rich carbonates and chlorite, some tourmaline (e.g.,
Fig. 19B), occasional cryptocrystalline quartz selvages,
and trace chalcopyrite occur beneath Cu-rich portions of
some of the sulfide lenses. Their close relationship to ore,
100
Fig. 17. Mine section 11 500E through the A-zone of the Lyon Lake ore deposit. The detailed section is rotated 70 about a horizontal axis to approximate
its original attitude at the time of ore formation. The massive sulfides formed in a basin filled with mixed sedimentary and volcanic rocks, and drape over
minor structures along the paleo-seafloor. Footwall stringer and disseminated mineralization consists of pyrrhotite, magnetite, chlorite, carbonate, quartz,
and trace to minor tourmaline, pyrite, and chalcopyrite in fractured zones.
hydrothermal mineral assemblage, and termination of most

of the veining in the sulfide lenses suggest that they were
part of a synvolcanic feeder system for the deposits. At
greater depth (~300 to 700 m) below the deposits, extensive
open-style fracturing is present in drill holes beneath and
within the graben structure with the same mineralogy as
described above for deep fracturing beneath the Sturgeon
Lake deposit (Figs.18 and 19). In addition to crosscutting
structures, a significant amount of hydrothermal fluid was
channeled into stratabound zones by variable permeability in the mixed volcanic and sedimentary rock fill of the
graben.
Geochemical investigations have delineated a footwall zone of Na depletion beneath the Lyon Lake group
of deposits (Severin, 1982; Friske, 1983). More recently,
Mumin (1988), Mumin et al. (1991), and Mumin and Scott
(1994) used residual alteration indices to document regional alteration and fluid evolution patterns in the Lyon
Lake area, and outlined an extensive region character-
ized by Mg K enrichment, Na depletion, and high Rb/

Sr ratios. They interpreted this feature to be an extensive
reservoir zone about 1 to 3 km stratigraphically below
the Lyon Lake group of deposits, where evolution of the
hydrothermal fluid and metal leaching took place. The reservoir is separated from the mineralized horizon by Late
Caldera Sequence rocks (Fig. 14). Oxygen stable isotope
analyses (e.g., high positive whole rock 18O values: B.M.
Smith, unpublished data; Moss, 1992; Holk and Taylor,
2000) and geochemical and mineralogical distribution patterns in country rocks indicate that only minor to moderate amounts of low-temperature fluids affected these intermediary rocks, causing albitization and carbonatization of
feldspars (Mumin, 1988; Mumin et al., 1991; Mumin and
Scott, 1994). Consequently, deep synvolcanic faulting was
necessary to access the high-temperature hydrothermal
reservoir deep beneath the Lyon Lake group of deposits. In
contrast, the reservoir zone beneath Mattabi and F Group
was much closer to the paleo-seafloor horizon (Franklin,
Structural Controls on Massive Sulfide Deposition and Hyrdothermal Alteration in the South Sturgeon Lake Caldera A.H. Mumin et al. 101
Fig. 18. A. Drill core from hole 23-14, which intersected the footwall fracture zone near the base of the Lyon Lake graben. Fractures form an open-type
stockwork filled with Fe-rich carbonates, quartz, chlorite, minor to locally abundant magnetite and pyrrhotite, and trace to minor chalcopyrite and pyrite.
Fractures are clearly visible due to weathering of Fe-rich carbonates and minor sulfides in an altered dacitic host rock. Field of view is 29 cm. B. Close-up
from the fracture stockwork intersected in drill hole 23-71-72, showing brittle fragmentation of dacitic host rock (light colored) within an Fe-carbonatequartz-chlorite-biotite matrix with minor magnetite and traces of pyrite, pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite (dark). Altered dacitic host rock is predominantly
quartz-chlorite-biotite-grunerite-magnetite. Field of view is 4 cm. C. Polished core from the fracture stockwork zone that disrupts mafic rocks in the deep
footwall of the Lyon Lake Group ore deposits. The open-space brittle fractures are variably filled with quartz, carbonates, and magnetite. Vein selvages
are dusted with ultra-fine-grained pyrrhotite, which, along with chlorite, gives the altered mafic rock a very dark appearance. The quartz-carbonate veins
have been subjected to orthogonal shearing and boudinage, resulting in the segmented appearance of some of the veins.
1976; Morton et al., 1985, 1990; Groves et al., 1988; Walker, 1993). In these districts, shallower faulting would have
been sufficient to tap into the reservoir and focus hydrothermal discharge.
An interpretation of the structural setting for the faulting, rifting, and mineralization in the Lyon Lake area is
schematically illustrated in Figure 20. Although schematic,
the illustration retains the true spatial distribution of the
deposits and stratigraphy, but is rotated approximately 60
to the horizontal axis to return stratigraphy to its original,

near-horizontal orientation. Linear structures form subparallel faults that repeat throughout the Lyon Lake area
in an orthogonal pattern. Fault scarps, grabens, and halfgrabens caused by extension and collapse of the volcanic
rocks are common. Both sets of orthogonal structures fractured footwall rocks deep enough to access the underlying
hydrothermal reservoir, and formed conduits for focused
discharge of hydrothermal fluids at the paleo-seafloor
102
Fig. 19. A. Photograph taken with a stereomicroscope of a carbonate-tourmaline vein from the deep fracture stockwork zone of the Lyon Lake graben,
drill hole 23-67 at 286; field of view is 4.4 mm. B. Photomicrograph taken in plane polarized transmitted light of a pyrrhotite-tourmaline stringer with
minor pyrite and trace chalcopyrite. Sample is from a footwall sulfide-rich zone ~150 m below the Lyon Lake deposit; drill hole 23-75 at 336; field
of view is 0.43 mm. C. Photograph taken with a stereomicroscope of a carbonate-chlorite-quartz vein from the deep fracture stockwork zone ~600 m
below the Lyon Lake deposits. The fracture also contains abundant magnetite and pyrrhotite, with minor chalcopyrite and trace pyrite and arsenopyrite.
The host rock is dominantly chlorite-quartz-sericite with chloritoid porphyroblasts. Sample is from drill hole 17-23 at 240; field of view is 13.5 mm.
D.Photograph taken with a stereomicroscope of a magnetite-pyrrhotite-rich (with minor chalcopyrite and trace pyrite and arsenopyrite intergrown with
the pyrrhotite) formation near the base of the Lyon Lake graben. Fine carbonate-quartz-chlorite-grunerite veins are abundant. Abundant magnetite porphyroblasts overgrow and include pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. The host rock is dominantly grunerite-actinolite-chlorite-quartz-carbonate-garnet. Sample
is from drill hole 23-67 at 350; field of view is 13.5 mm. Abbreviations as in captions to Figures 7 and 8, plus: Act = actinolite, Grun = grunerite, Gt =
garnet, Mt = magnetite, Po = pyrrhotite, Ser = sercite.
horizon. Figure 20 illustrates a further important finding

of this investigation, that some intrusions, structures, and
alteration zones which appear stratabound at surface, are
in fact crosscutting in the 3rd dimension (depth; e.g., Sturgeon Lake structure, Fig. 14). These unusual structural and
stratigraphic relationships are the result of late regional deformation.
Conclusions and Implications for Exploration

Within the Sturgeon Lake caldera, the most voluminous and persistent hydrothermal venting and massive sul-
fide deposition occurred along synvolcanic rift and graben

faults and fissures that created permeable fracture zones
deep enough to access the underlying hydrothermal reservoir. These permeable structures are a normal consequence
of the development of large massive sulfide-hosting caldera
complexes (Poulsen and Hannington, 1995; Goodfellow
et al., 1999; Franklin et al., 2005). They most commonly
result from regional extensional tectonics, and/or caldera
collapse as the underlying magma reservoir is depleted. In
the Hokuroku district of Japan, massive sulfide deposits are
localized at the intersections of orthogonal faults associated with the failed rift of the Japanese island-arc, and with
Fig. 20. Schematic block diagram illustrating the interpreted structural setting for the Lyon Lake ore deposits. Some features that appear stratabound in
plan view (Fig. 14) are in fact crosscutting in the 3rd (depth) dimension.
caldera formation within the failed rift (Hashimoto, 1977;

Scott, 1978, 1979; Cathles et al., 1983; Guber and Green,
1983; Ohmoto and Takahashi, 1983; Finn et al., 1994;
Yoshida, 2001). The regional association of synvolcanic
structures and massive sulfide ores is also well documented
in the main caldera of the Noranda massive sulfide district,
Quebec, where the entire district forms a collapse structure
with many internal synvolcanic faults (Gibson and Watkinson, 1990). Detailed studies at Millenbach (Knuckey et al.,
1982) show the intimate relationship of a series of sulfide
lenses distributed along synvolcanic structures and their
intersections. Gibson et al. (2000) discussed the graben
within which the giant Horne Cu-Au-rich VMS deposit
formed. Similar structural features are also documented
for the giant Kidd Creek Zn-Cu-Ag-rich VMS deposit near
Timmins, Ontario, which also formed within a synvolcanic
graben (Bleeker, 1999; Gibson et al., 2000).

The style of synvolcanic fracturing is highly variable
throughout the Sturgeon Lake district and changes with
the composition, competency, degree of consolidation, and
alteration of host rocks. Synvolcanic structures and fracture styles vary also according to the amount and method
of tectonic movement including: (1) extensional rupturing,
collapse, shearing, and faulting perpendicular to the principal direction of extension (e.g., F Group, Jackpot, and
Sturgeon Lake structures); and (2) orthogonal faulting and
shearing, and shear-induced tension fracturing (e.g., west
plunging structures at F Group and Mattabi). Permeability was particularly enhanced at the intersections of synvolcanic faults, where repeated orthogonal movements
resulted in significant rock brecciation and the formation
of planar breccia zones. In texturally uniform footwall
104
rocks, the distribution of alteration zones was controlled

by the morphology of the structural conduit. In rocks with
rapid vertical and/or lateral facies, permeability, and competency changes (e.g., Lyon Lake graben), there was an
additional stratigraphic control over fluid migration. Variations in competency and consolidation of individual units
within the Lyon Lake graben appear to have varied from
impermeable soft muds and chemical sediments, to loosely
consolidated tuffs and breccias, to rigid dikes, flows, and
hydrothermally cemented and sealed layers. Consequently,
the nature of fracturing in these rocks varied considerably.
Soft muds and loosely consolidated debris will not sustain
open fractures unless under the influence of pressurized
fluids. This intercalation of facies of variable permeability and competency interfered with the direct discharge
of hydrothermal fluids, and inhibited seawater infiltration
into the footwall zone. Consequently, the Lyon Lake deposits do not exhibit typical pipe-like footwall alteration
and Cu-stringer zones such as those at Noranda (Sangster
and Scott, 1976; Gibson and Watkinson, 1990; Poulsen and
Hannington, 1995).
Many structures in the vicinity of VMS ores are commonly dismissed as late, post-ore features unrelated to mineralization because they displace ore and host rocks. However, the evidence from Sturgeon Lake suggests that most
of these are reactivated synvolcanic structures. They off-set
and deform ore and host stratigraphy because they can be
active before, during, and after massive sulfide deposition.
Some form conduits for hydrothermal discharge at higher stratigraphic horizons, whereas reactivation of others
merely offsets stratigraphy. Some of these structures form
conduits for magmatic intrusions, and these intrusive bodies may obliterate the evidence of structure and previous
hydrothermal activity.
Investigations at Sturgeon Lake revealed several criteria
for distinguishing synvolcanic from late structures. Synvolcanic structures form subparallel rift and graben fault
scarps that repeat at irregular intervals varying from tens
to hundreds of meters. They occur in a semi-orthogonal
pattern with the main set of extensional ruptures forming
planar features perpendicular to the principal direction of
extension. They form as a consequence of caldera doming and collapse, as a result of episodic resurgence and
depletion of the magma chamber. At Sturgeon Lake, these
structures can be identified along paleo-seafloor horizons
by offsets in stratigraphy or drape folds that occur only in
the footwall of a particular unit. Alternatively, the lowermost of a series of units will drape over or fill structures,
whereas overlying units conform to the regional paleo-topography, and tend toward paleo-horizontal layering. Footwall contacts of undeformed sulfide deposits can provide
excellent definition of paleo-topography at the time of ore
deposition, including many of those that may have formed
as sub-seafloor replacements, provided that the replaced
unit conformed to paleo-topography. Additionally, any undeformed geological marker unit can be used.
The strike of structural conduits at the current erosional
surface can vary from perpendicular to stratigraphy, to apparently stratabound but crosscutting in the third dimen-
sion. However, it is not always possible unequivocally to

identify those geological features that are stratabound at
surface but discordant at depth, especially where only surface information is available and outcrop exposure is limited or minimal. In practice, it can be very difficult, and
we suspect that in deformed terrains like Sturgeon Lake
many of these apparently stratabound, but actually discordant, features remain unrecognized. Oblique, subconcordant
structures are common, and variations in the strike of synvolcanic structures and associated hydrothermal alteration
zones occur because of the interrelation of regional stratigraphic dip and the plunge of linear features. Hydrothermal
conduits in faults can be recognized by their vein mineral
assemblages, which vary according to fluid characteristics,
host rock geochemistry and the subsequent metamorphic
history of the area.
Our observations at Sturgeon Lake are consistent with
the structural aspects of the model for VMS-producing
hydrothermal systems presented by Franklin (1995),
whereby sulfide deposition is associated with the boundary
faults of a graben structure. The most significant difference
between our observations and Franklins (1995) model is
in the variety and style of geochemical alteration and fluid
migration, which can show differences between districts
and between individual deposits within districts (Mumin,
1988; Mumin and Scott, 1994). As with many other VMS
regions, we find that synvolcanic structures are the most
important features controlling the locations of economic
massive sulfide deposits. In particular, graben and halfgraben structures are excellent sites for the accumulation and preservation of thick sulfide lenses in a natural
containment. Rapid infill and accumulation of volcanic,
volcaniclastic, and chemical deposits further enhance the
chances of preservation by burial or formation beneath a
thin veneer of sediments. Grabens are a consequence of
extension and collapse, and extension promotes the formation of permeable faults and fracture networks.
A variety of structure and fracture patterns created permeable discharge zones for hydrothermal fluids at Sturgeon Lake. Hydrothermal mineral assemblages associated
with structural conduits also vary significantly within the
mining camp, between deposits of a single group, and even
within a single structure as it transects stratigraphic units
of varying composition, competency, and consolidation.
Clearly, one of the best methods for locating VMS deposits
is to delineate the attitudes of synvolcanic structures, and
explore those with associated high-temperature hydrothermal minerals. Excellent exploration targets occur where
synvolcanic structures with high-temperature hydrothermal alteration intersect paleo-seafloor horizons.
Acknowledgments
This research was made possible by Noranda Inc.,
Mattabi Mines Limited, and Noranda Exploration Company Limited, who generously funded the project and
provided unrestricted access to geological data. We thank
INMET (formerly Corporation Falconbridge Copper) for
access to their data and the Sturgeon Lake mine site. We
have benefited from discussions with company geologists, with whom the senior author worked as a geologist
in the Sturgeon Lake camp for 7 years. R.L. Morton from
the University of Minnesota-Duluth and his research team
provided many insights into the volcanology of the Sturgeon Lake caldera. We thank the reviewers for excellent
suggestions improving this manuscript. This research was
conducted with the support of NSERC.
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108
Excalibur
Property
Xstrata Excalibur
Property Property
Xstrata
Property
P-4
Rhy
An
662000
661000
660000
659000
658000
657000
5527000
P-3
D
D
5526000
P-2
CLAW LAKE
51-6
P-1
51-3
51-5
D
51-2
Sed
51-4
An
A-1
5525000
N-3
Rhy
N-2
N-1A
Sed
Glitter Lake Compilation Map:
A-5
Compilation of previous exploration data

UTM: NAD 27
B. Jones and H. Mumin, 2008
D
An
An
Andesite, Basalt
Gabbro/Diorite Intrusions
Rhy
Rhyolite, Rhyodacite
Sed
Metasediments, Tuff
GLITTER LAKE
VLF Conductors
Diamond Drill Hole
Massive, stringer, or disseminated sulphides
N-4A
Property Boundary
0
0.5
Kilometers
Excalibur Resources
Sturgeon Lake Mining Camp District
Northwestern Ontario, Canada

Sturgeon

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Exploration and Mining Geology, Vol. 16, Nos. 12, p.

Structural Controls on Massive Sulfide Deposition and Hydrothermal Alteration in the

Department of Geology, Brandon University, Brandon, Manitoba, R7A 6A9.

Corresponding Author: mumin@BrandonU.ca

Lyon Lake and SubCreek Zone

* After Franklin (1995).

some of the stratigraphic, deformational, and alteration

F Group deposit (Fig. 3) and comprise quartz, chlorite,

trending faults (b in Fig. 2) has segmented and moderately

Fig. 3. Photograph of footwall mafic mesobreccia deposit from ~300 m

minor amounts of tourmaline along

immobility of Al2O3, the most intensely altered rocks are

low-pressure stability field (Holdaway, 1971), whereas

from the altered and silicified pumice

much more extensive than at F Group

represent synvolcanic conduits for hydrothermal fluids that

Lyon Lake Deposits

and Franklin (1995). However, they vary considerably in

deposit (Mumin, 1988; Mumin et al.,

the footwall and hanging wall of the deposits, as well as

in the footwall, which tend to be highly folded (Dub et

in geology depicted in correlations of diamond-drill holes

23-72, from ~30 m to the end of the hole at 205 m, with

Even though the Sturgeon Lake structure is believed

provided access to the hydrothermal reservoir. Brecciation

part of the graben contains about 60

hydrothermal mineral assemblage, and termination of most

ized by Mg K enrichment, Na depletion, and high Rb/

to the horizontal axis to return stratigraphy to its original,

horizon. Figure 20 illustrates a further important finding

Conclusions and Implications for Exploration

fide deposition occurred along synvolcanic rift and graben

caldera formation within the failed rift (Hashimoto, 1977;

graben (Bleeker, 1999; Gibson et al., 2000).

rocks, the distribution of alteration zones was controlled

sion. However, it is not always possible unequivocally to

actions, Royal Society of London, v. 335, p. 427441.

Hokuroku District, Japan: Economic Geology, Monograph 5, p. 7195.

posits: Geological Association of Canada, Special Paper

Preliminary report, Internal report for Mattabi Mines

of the Hokuroku district, Japan: Mining Geology, v. 28,

Glitter Lake Compilation Map:

Compilation of previous exploration data

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