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Size measurements of droplets and bubbles by advanced interferometric laser imaging

technique

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2002 Meas. Sci. Technol. 13 308
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INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING

MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Meas. Sci. Technol. 13 (2002) 308316

PII: S0957-0233(02)27876-5

Size measurements of droplets and

bubbles by advanced interferometric laser
imaging technique
Tatsuya Kawaguchi, Yukihiro Akasaka and Masanobu Maeda
Department of System Design Engineering, Keio University, Hiyoshi 3-14-1, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama,
Kanagawa 223-8522, Japan

Received 15 August 2001, accepted for publication 4 December 2001

Published 8 February 2002
Online at stacks.iop.org/MST/13/308
Abstract
This paper describes an advanced size and spatial distribution measurement technique
for small spherical droplets and bubbles in two-phase flows. In the field of spray
analysis, various kinds of measurement techniques have been proposed.
Interferometric laser imaging for droplet sizing (ILIDS) is the method that can
provide an instantaneous spatial distribution of droplet size. The number of fringes on
the projected images by the ILIDS technique is correlated to their individual particle
sizes. The measurement accuracy depends upon the image processing technique for
estimating the size of the circular image and the fringe spacing. The relation between
the fringe number and the particle diameter was derived by noting the angular phase
difference of the external reflection and the direct refraction. Conventional ILIDS
techniques, which observed the circular image with fringes on a film, have difficulties
in discriminating the fringe images due to the overlap between them. Moreover,
enlargement of the defocused image for measuring the larger particle caused the
complicated overlapping. The objective of the present study is to describe the
advanced ILIDS image acquisition optics and the accelerated data processing by
employing a high resolution CCD camera and automated computing system. In the
technique presented, the circular fringes are optically compressed into linear images
that are horizontally defocused and vertically focused. The present partial
compression technique, which is the integration of the vertical information of the
image, reduced the noise involved and consequently the signal to noise ratio of the
interference signals become much better than that of the conventional technique. The
linear interferograms were easily detected by scanning the horizontal pixels of the
recorded image. The signal processing procedure to determine the particle diameter
needs only one-dimensional information for calculating the fringe spacing by discrete
Fourier transforms. The present ILIDS technique was examined for the planar
measurement of size and location of spray droplets, and the size transition of CO2
bubbles by absorption in water.
Keywords: bubble diameter, droplet diameter, velocity, laser, interferometer, high

resolution CCD camera, spray flow

(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction
For the investigation of sprays or bubbly two-phase flows, the
most frequently measured properties are the velocity and size
of particles. Phase Doppler anemometry (PDA), which is an
0957-0233/02/030308+09$30.00

2002 IOP Publishing Ltd

extension of laser Doppler anemometry (LDA), can provide

the size and velocity vector of individual spherical particles
simultaneously. PDA has been adopted for investigating
various kinds of applications, and simultaneously has been
improved the signal processing for accurate velocity and size

Printed in the UK

308

Size measurements of droplets and bubbles by advanced interferometric laser imaging technique

determination, estimation of the effective measuring area and

so on (e.g. Maeda et al 1988). Some reports concluded that
there are undesired effects, due to the size distribution and mass
flux of droplets, in order to determine the effective measuring
area, i.e. particle size-dependent detection area, trajectory
ambiguity and slit effect (Durst et al 1994).
ILIDS is the imaging technique that can provide the
instantaneous spatial distribution of the spherical particle
diameter. The spatial pattern is generated by the interference
of external reflection and direct refraction of the droplet.
Konig et al (1986) investigated the relation between the spatial
pattern of the scattered light and the droplet diameter in the
forward scattering region based on Mie scattering theory.
Hesselbecher et al (1991) showed the equation for the diameter
and the angular fringe spacing by geometrical optics. The
present technique was further improved by Glover et al (1995),
Skippon et al (1996), Hess (1998) and Pajot and MounaimRousselle (1998) who analysed the features of the scattered
light around forward regions and applied it to spatially sparse
sprays. Although the technique successfully obtained the
diameters of droplets from a single image, the denser part,
where it is quite important to identify the flow structure of the
spray flow, has hardly been investigated.
The present paper describes an improved ILIDS technique
with a more automated measuring system by employing a high
resolution CCD camera and high speed computing system.
Also, to make the system applicable to denser spray or bubble
flow fields, the optical system employed image compression
equipment so that the captured images would not overlap each
other.

2. Principle of advanced interferometric laser

imaging
2.1. Theoretical background
When a spherical droplet in the flow field is illuminated by
the pulsed laser sheet, the reflected and first-order refracted
light from the droplet are dominant in the wide-angle forwardscatter region around 30 80 . The ILIDS measures the diameter of the spherical transparent particles by counting the number or measuring the fringe spacing in the interference image.
Figure 1 illustrates the concept of the optical arrangement
in the ILIDS technique. On the focal image plane, the two spots
are observed as glare points in a droplet image, as shown in
figure 1. The droplet diameter is determined from the interval
between the spots (Van de Hulst et al 1991). However, it was
difficult for the method to know the particle diameter in an
actual flow field, because of the lack of the spatial resolution
and the necessity for magnification by the receiving equipment.
On the non-focal plane, the two rays interfere with each other
and the interferograms are clearly observed. Girasole et al
(2000) calculated the adequate defocus length since a certain
defocusing length is required for the far-field condition of the
receiving optics.
Van de Hulst (1957) reported that reasonable agreement
between the geometric analysis and the full LorenzMie theory
was obtained for the size parameter d/ > 1020, providing
that the refractive index of the droplet differed significantly
from its surroundings and that rays close to grazing incidence

Laser sheet
particle

refraction

reflection
collecting lens

Interferogram

non focal plane

focal plane

Glare points

Figure 1. Basic configuration of the ILIDS imaging system.

and those close to the rainbow angles were not involved. In

the case of a = 532 nm light source, the lower limit of the
measured diameter is approximately d = 2 m by geometrical
optics.
Konig et al (1986) described a method for measuring
the size of a single droplet and the angular fringe spacing
as a function of droplet size. The fringe spacing is simply
proportional to the droplet diameter and the particle size is
independent of the absolute light intensity. It is easily derived
by noting the phase difference between the reflection and
refraction from the single droplet. Roth et al (1991) showed the
angular inter-fringe spacing is linked to the droplet diameter.
Pajot et al (1998) described the relationship between particle
diameter d and the number of fringes N:
d=

2N
1
cos(/2) + m sin(/2)
2

(1)

m 2m cos(/2)+1

where is the wavelength of the laser light source and m is the

refractive index of the liquid droplet. and are the scattering
angle and collecting angle, respectively. is equivalent to the
product of fringe number N and angular inter-fringe spacing
:
d=

1
2N
m cos(/2)

m sin(/2)

(2)

m2 2m cos(/2)+1

Equation (2) for a bubble is not identical to equation (1) for a

droplet, since the beam path of internal refraction of a bubble
is different from that of a droplet and therefore the suitable
off-axis angle will change as shown in figure 2.
2.2. Fringe compression optics
In the original ILIDS technique, the fringes in circular images
are captured on the out-of-focus optical plane. Glover et al
(1995) utilized a 35 mm format camera modified by the
removal of the lens to realize the Scheimpflug condition, which
is when the image plane, lens plane and object plane of the
camera intersect in a single point.
309

T Kawaguchi et al

Laser illumination

100

bubble
Intensity

10

1
0

0.1

1
0.01
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Scattering Angle

70

80

(deg.)

Figure 2. Scattering light path and the visibility of the fringes related to angle for a bubble.

(a)

Particle

Aperture

Lens

Cyl. Lens

CCD

(b)
(A)

(B)

Figure 3. An example of a portion of the measured interferometric

image (4 4 mm). (A) Using the optical partial compression
technique, more than 100 particles can be identified in the frame.
(B) Using the conventional ILIDS technique even 15 particles
become difficult to measure within the specified area.

Figure 3 is a comparison of the captured images between

the present advanced technique (A) and the conventional ILIDS
technique (B). It only shows a portion of the captured images,
the area being 4 4 mm within the 10 10 mm matrix of the
CCD receiver. The problem with the conventional technique
is the difficulty in discriminating between the particles in an
image due to the overlapping of the circular interferograms in
regions of high particle concentrations. Figure 3 demonstrates
the significant improvements of the present method afforded
by using a partial compression technique for the ILIDS. The
radii of the circular images with different numbers of fringes
in figure 3(B) are the same since they are located in a thin
laser sheet. The number of fringes on each circular image
gives the droplet size. The evaluation of the individual droplet
images is difficult due to the overlapping of fringes. Thus
the conventional ILIDS technique is hardly applied to denser
sprays.
Figure 4 illustrates the simplified schematic of the present
ILIDS receiving optics that consists of the rectangular aperture,
circular objective lens, a pair of cylindrical lenses and a CCD
camera. An important feature of the present technique is
the optical image compression unit contained in the receiving
optics. A pair of cylindrical lenses was located between
the CCD camera and the objective lens in order to generate
the horizontal out-of-focus images on a focus plane. The
310

Figure 4. Details of the receiving optics with cylindrical lenses.

cylindrical lens can slide along the optical axis and it enables
us to adjust the degree of horizontal defocusing. The role
of the rectangular mask in front of the collecting lens is to
adjust the collecting angle and to enhance the depth of focus.
By using this anamorphic optical system, the image overlap
can be drastically decreased and the vertical focusing of the
interferometric image became clearer without the Scheimpflug
condition of the receiver being necessary.
Figure 5 is a snapshot of the conventional interferometric
image of liquid droplets in a transient spray flow. An
interference signal within the fringe overlapping region is not a
simple summation of them and therefore the image processing
of the overlapped interferograms becomes complicated. The
advanced ILIDS image receiver has been developed to generate
the most suitable interference image for denser sprays.
Figure 6 shows an example of the circular interferograms
on the actual flow field as shown in figure 5. Figures 6(a)
and (b) are the spatial intensity profiles of the measured
interferograms from the conventional and the present advanced
ILIDS technique, respectively. Example 1 in figure 6 is a
normal interference pattern by reflected and refracted light
from a single particle. The direction of the parallel fringe
in the circular images is normally perpendicular to the optical
axis of the laser sheet. Example 2 is a distorted interferogram
affected by the scattering from a neighbouring particle. The
intensity signal (a) obtained by line scanning is strongly
modulated and this cause the error in diameter determination.
In contrast with the conventional signal (a), the modulation
effect can be eliminated by the present partial compression

Size measurements of droplets and bubbles by advanced interferometric laser imaging technique

Example 1
255

(a)
0
255

(b)
0
0

128

Example 2
255

(a)
0
255

Figure 5. Snapshot of the interferometric image of transient spray

flow.

procedure (b). Example 3 is a strongly inclined interference

which was strongly distorted and has no trace of perpendicular
fringes. Such an irregular interference signal can be removed
by the automatic validation function of the optical system.

(b)
0
0

128

Example 3
255

(a)

2.3. High accuracy estimation of fringe spacing

f = k + 0.9169 + 0.3326 3

(4)

where k is the discrete frequency that gives the maximum

power in the discrete spectrum and f is an adjusted frequency
(Kobashi et al 1990).

Intensity

0
255

(b)
0
0

128

Horizontal Pixel

Figure 6. Measured interferograms and the enhancement of the S/N

ratio (examples 1 and 2) and automatic optical elimination of an
irregular interference (example 3). Each curve is the intensity
profile of a (a) circular interferogram by conventional ILIDS, or a
(b) linear interferogram by the present method.

Power

The present study also proposes a computer aided automatic

image processing technique. Image analysis was carried out
using original code written in C/C++ and run on a PC. The
software identifies the individual linear fringe images and their
location in the image. The signals obtained by scanning the
captured image are similar to Doppler burst signals. The concept of the signal processing methods to evaluate the fringe
spacing is the same as an FFT based LDV/PDA technique by
which the accurate frequency is calculated with adjusted Gaussian fitting of the discrete Fourier power spectrum, as shown in
figure 7. The interpolation technique is effective in reducing
the bias error to less than 0.2% of the fundamental frequency.
The equation for adjusted Gaussian fitting is as follows:


 Pk1 
 Pk+1  
1 log Pk log Pk
=
(3)




2 log PPk1 + log PPk+1
k
k

fitting

Pk

k-1

k+1

f*

2.4. Validation ratio and particle concentration

The relation between the validation ratio of the captured image
and particle count in a certain area, or particle concentration,
depends upon the spatial sampling frequency of the receiving
optics. Glover et al (1995) detected fringe spacing by edge
detection and Hough transform of the fringe pattern. Figure 8
shows a comparison of the estimated validation ratio by numerical simulation between the conventional and present advanced ILIDS imaging system, and their dependence on the

Wavenumber
Figure 7. Fine peak detection and frequency determination by
discrete Fourier transform with Gaussian fitting.

pixel count of the receiving device that determines the spatial

sampling frequency of the interferometric image. Each validation ratio was calculated by generating up to 10 000 images
with random placement of the interferogram and we calculated
311

T Kawaguchi et al

Conventional ILIDS

1.0

Validation Ratio

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

VGA
1.0 MPixel
4.0 MPixel

0
1

10

100

1000

10000

1000

10000

Particle Count

Present Method

1.0

Validation Ratio

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

VGA
1.0 MPixel
4.0 MPixel

0
1

10

100
Particle Count

Figure 8. Enhancement of the validation ratio by the optical compression technique.

ameter range and the other calculated configurations are the

same through the simulation. The results clearly show that the
validation ratio of the present technique is much higher than
that of the conventional method. For example, in the case of
100 particles at 1 Mpixel, the validation ratio of the present
technique is more than 95% although the validation ratio of
the conventional technique is less than 20%. Moreover, a 4
Mpixel receiver enables us to keep the validation ratio at more
than 90% even if the particle count increases to 1000.

30
Shadow method
25

ILIDS

PDF (%)

20
15
10
5

3. Experiments and results

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

Diameter (m)

Figure 9. Comparison of the probability density functions of the

droplet diameter from the monodisperse particle generator measured
by ILIDS and direct shadow imaging.

the mean probability for avoiding image overlapping. The

number of pixels of the receiving device (e.g. a CCD camera)
is 640 480 (VGA), 1024 1024 (1 Mpixel) and 2048 2048
(4 Mpixel). The size of the out-of-focus interferogram, the di312

3.1. Size evaluation by monodisperse particle

At the beginning of our experiments, we compared the ILIDS
technique with a direct observation method by means of
microscopic shadow imaging for droplets of a monodisperse
particle generator. The shadow image of the droplets is
captured using background illumination from an incoherent
flash lamp. The diameter resolution of the shadow imaging
technique was 1.6 m. Figure 9 illustrates a comparison of
the probability density functions of the measured diameters.
It clearly shows that the results of the particle size agree with

Size measurements of droplets and bubbles by advanced interferometric laser imaging technique
150mm

300mm

Cylindrical
Lens

60m

Diameter (m)

400
Pulsed Nd:YAG
Laser

300

200

100

Example 1
Example 2
Example 3

CO2 , N2

0
0

Digital CCD
Camera

0.5

1.0

Time (s)

Figure 10. Experimental setup for the gas absorption measurement

of the rising bubble.

Figure 12. Diameter transition of the rising bubbles with different

initial diameters.

50mm

(CO2)

30

50mm

Velocity (mm/s)

z
r

20

10

0
0

60m

200

400

600

Nozzle

Diameter (m)
CO2

Figure 11. Rising CO2 bubble decreasing its size (increasing fringe
spacing).

Figure 13. Correlation plot of the bubble diameter and rising

velocity estimated by the distance of fringes and the time interval of
illumination.

each other quite well. The resultant deviation of both methods

was less than 3% in average diameter.
3.2. Size measurement of the dissolved bubbles
The size measurement of the gas bubbles was done with
pure gaseous CO2 which is dissolved in water. A simplified
depiction of the experimental apparatus is shown in figure 10.
It consists of the degassed water tank with optical flat window
for laser illumination and a stainless steel gas injection nozzle
whose internal diameter is 60 m. The optical equipment
consisted of the high power pulsed laser and the imaging
receiver. The laser source was a dual pulsed Nd:YAG laser
at 532 nm in wavelength, with maximum output power of
100 mJ/pulse, repetition frequency up to 30 Hz, and the
thickness of the laser sheet was 1500 m at the exit of the
nozzle. The receiving device was a digital CCD camera with
1008 1018 pixeld, where each pixel is a 10 bit greyscale and
the size of each pixel was 9 9 m2 . The maximum size of
the measuring area was 50 50 mm2 and the magnification
ratio of the receiving optics was 1:5. The distance between
the objective lens and the test section in the tank was 180 mm

z 10
z 20

r 10

r 20

z 30
z 40
z 50

z
10mm

Figure 14. Steady spray flow by the solid cone nozzle (Delavan
type B 45 , 0.5GPH). The measuring view area is a 10 10 mm2
square cross section.

313

T Kawaguchi et al

r = 0mm
z = 10 mm
dmean = 29.5 m

8
6
4
2
0

z = 20 mm
dmean = 37.8 m

8
6
4
2

r = 20 mm

r = 10 mm

z = 30 mm
dmean = 36.1 m

dmean = 34.7 m

dmean = 40.7 m

6
4
2
0

0
z = 40 mm
dmean = 36.6 m

50

100

150 0

50

100

150

6
4
2
0

z = 50 mm
dmean = 35.7 m

PDF (%)

8
6
4
2
0
0

50

100

150

Diameter (m)
Figure 15. PDFs of droplet size and their spatial distributions (2 m/div.) Each r and z indicate the central position of the 10 10 mm2
square region.

and the collecting angle and off-axis angle were 5 and 45 ,

respectively. The out-of-focus distance was 2.0 mm from
the focusing plane. The volume flux of CO2 through the
stainless steel nozzle was 0.100.25 mm3 s1 , with the bubbles
leaving the nozzle one by one every 100300 ms. The takeoff
of the bubble was not synchronized with the measurement
system.
Figure 11 is an instantaneous photograph of the
interference image array of the rising bubbles. We can easily
find at least seven circular fringe patterns in the picture:
however, the actual size of the bubbles was of the order of
hundreds of microns.
Figure 12 is the time history of the diameter transition
for differing initial diameters, to within 1 s. Instantaneous
diameters of the bubbles are obtained by counting the fringe
spacing of the circular interferogram in the image in figure 11.
The maximum rate of mass transfer of CO2 was 0.20 mm3 s1
in volume from a 400 m bubble.
Figure 13 shows the correlation between the bubble diameter and its rising velocity. The diagram clearly shows that
the rising velocities of larger bubbles are much faster than that
of smaller bubbles. The rising velocity in this diameter range
is mainly determined by the buoyancy (d 3 ) and drag force
314

(d 2 ), which is related to the surface condition including the

presence of contamination by solid particles, dust or surfactants on the surface. In the present experimental arrangement,
the measured range of velocities was 530 mm s1 with a diameter range of 200400 m.
3.3. Droplet sizing in a higher concentration spray
The fundamental equipment for the droplet sizing experiment
is the same as for the previous bubble measurement. The
thickness of the pulsed laser sheet was 0.5 mm. Spatially
projected images with fringes were captured by a high
resolution CCD camera which acquires digital data directly
providing time series measurements. Circular polarized
incident light is used for better recognition of the fringe and
background. The scattering angle was equal to 73 for droplets
to get high visibility by equalizing the intensity of the reflected
and refracted light. The collecting angle was 11.7 which is
calculated from the distance between the collecting lens and the
test section, and the size of the aperture in the receiving optics.
Figure 14 is a snapshot of the water spray and the
test section for the following ILIDS measurement. The
corresponding results are illustrated in figure 15 which shows

Size measurements of droplets and bubbles by advanced interferometric laser imaging technique

50 mm below the spray nozzle, and the radial positions r =

0, 10, 20 mm. A Delavan nozzle (type B, 0.50 GPH, solid
cone) was employed with an injection pressure of 0.8 MPa
at atmospheric pressure. The results show robust features
of the droplet distribution similar to our previous PDA work
(Maeda et al 1988). The sampled number of droplets per PDF
was 10 000 from 30 frame images. The data rate was up to
300 particles per image of 10 10 mm in square cross section.
The number of particles in a cubic centimetre was estimated at
about 6000 and the validation ratio was approximately 90%.
Figure 16 is a still photograph of the transient spray flow
of n-heptane controlled by a fuel injector with an electromagnetic valve. The size distributions of droplets in the sprays
were measured with injection and ambient pressures of 0.5 and
0.1 MPa, respectively. In the transient spray flow, local particle
concentration and diameter distribution depend upon time and
space. The time delay after the start of injection and the duration time of laser illumination were 4 ms and 5 ns, respectively.
Figure 17 shows the droplet size distributions on the
vertical cross section including the centre axis. Each PDF
histogram of droplet size was obtained from the result within
the viewing area of the receiving optics. The size of
themeasurement volume was 10 10 mm2 , at a depth of

Injector
10mm

Figure 16. Snapshot of a transient spray flow at 4 ms after the start

of injection. Viewing area is 80 80 mm.

the distributions of droplet sizes at the axial position of

the centre of the observation area z = 10, 20, 30, 40 and

Injector

10mm

20mm

r = 0mm
z=0mm

0.2
0.1
0
0.2
0.1
0

20mm

0.2
0.1
0
0.2
0.1

40mm

0
0.2
0.1
0

PDF

0.2
0.1
0
0

30

60

90

120

150 0

30

60

90

120

150

30

60

90

120

150

60mm

Diameter (m)
Figure 17. PDF of particle diameters and their spatial distribution of droplets (5 m/div.) at 4 ms after the start of injection.

315

T Kawaguchi et al

0.5 mm that is determined by the thickness of the laser sheet.

On the centre axis at r = 0 mm, a drastic change of the
PDF was not found at z > 30 mm: however, the distribution
changes in the upstream region at z < 30 mm. In contrast
with the result at r = 0 mm, the PDF at r = 10, 20 mm
showed that the mean diameter in the downstream region
was larger than for the upstream region at z = 30 mm. In
other words, larger particles have reached the downstream
region rapidly and smaller particles remained in the upstream
region.

4. Conclusions
An advanced interferometric laser imaging technique for
droplet and bubble sizing has been developed. This utilizes
a receiving optical system that permits the acquisition of
the interference in denser particulate flows and its digital
image processing. The optics can significantly enhance the
optical signal to noise ratio and capture the interference images
without any losses attributed to overlapping neighbouring
images with fringes. The fringe spacing was calculated by
discrete Fourier transforms and the adjusted Gaussian fitting
for the Fourier power spectrum of the interferogram so that
the resolution of the fringe spacing was obtained to higher
accuracy which provided the droplet and bubble diameters.
The results of the monodisperse particle measurement
demonstrate that the resultant accuracy of the present technique
was less than 3% in average diameter. The technique
was applied to the sizing of dissolving bubbles and the
steady and transient dense spray flow of water and n-heptane
and obtained acceptable spatial distributions of the particle
diameters successfully.

Acknowledgment
The present work was supported by a Grant-Aid of the
Japanese Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (grant
no 11450078).

316

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