AN INTRODUCTION TO FERROGRAPHY

F e rr o g r a p h y W h a t is it a l l a b o u t ?
This is a technique in use since 1970, it provides Microscopic Examination and
Analysis of Debris
(particles) found in lubricating oils. These particles consist of metallic and nonmetallic matter. The
metallic particle is a wear condition that separates different size and shapes of
metallic dust from
components like all type of bearings, gears or coupling (if lubricated in path). Nonmetallic particle
consists of dirt, sand or corroded metallic particle.
Analytical ferrography is among the most powerful diagnostic tools in oil analysis in
tribology. When
implemented correctly it provides a tremendous information on machine under
operation. Yet, it is
frequently excluded from oil analysis programs because of its comparatively high
price and a general
misunderstanding of its value.
The test procedure is lengthy and requires the skill of a trained analyst. As such,
there are significant
costs in performing analytical ferrography not present in other oil analysis tests.
But, if time is taken to
fully understand what analytical ferrography uncovers, most agree that the benefits
significantly
outweigh the costs and elect to automatically incorporate it when abnormal wear is
encountered.
Additionally, a lub system performance may be improved through proper filteration
of oil. Clean oil
lubrication is always more effective. Adopting approach of oil replacement is
expensive. A rapid
centrifuged and/ or magnetic separator cleaning system helps cost cutting and
disposal of used oil, as

well. Ferrography also helps improving filteration efficiency and frequency for oil
cleaning systems.
W h a t t y p e o f d e b ris d o w e e x p e c t w h i c h a r e h a r m f u l t o L u b ri c
a ti o n S y st e m
andtheMachine?
There are six basics wear particle types generated through the wear process. These
include metallic
particles that comprise of Normal Rubbing Wear, Cutting Wear Particles, Spherical
Particles, Severe
Sliding particles, Bearing Wear Particle (Fatigue Spall Particles, Laminar Particles)
and Gear Wear (Pitch
Line Fatigue Particles, Scuffing or Scoring Particles)
There do also exist sand and dirt particles responsible to generate wear particles in
the system.
The particles are classified to determine the type of wear and its source.
White nonferrous particles, often aluminum or chromium, appear as bright white
particles. They are
deposited randomly across the slide surface with larger particles getting collected
against the chains of
ferrous particles. The chains of ferrous particles typically act as a filter, collecting
contaminants, copper
particles and babbitt. Copper particles usually appear as bright yellow particles but
the surface may change to verdigris after
heat treatment. These also will be randomly deposited across the slide surface with
larger particles
resting at the entry point of the slide and gradually getting smaller towards the exit
point of the slide.
Babbitt particles consisting of tin and lead, babbitt particles appear gray,
sometimes with speckling
before the heat treatment. After heat treatment of the slide, these particles still
appear mostly gray, but

with spots of blue and red on the mottled surface of the object. Also, after heat
treatment these
particles tend to decrease in size. Again, these nonferrous particles appear
randomly on the slide, not in
chains with ferrous particles.
Contaminants are usually dirt (silica), and other particulates which do not change in
appearance after
heat treatment. They can appear as white crystals and are easily identified by the
transmitted light
source, that is, they are somewhat transparent. Contaminants appear randomly on
the slide and are
commonly dyked by the chains of ferrous particles.
Fibers, typically from filters or outside contamination, they are long strings that
allow the transmitted
light to shine through. Sometimes these particles can act as a filter, collecting other
particles. They can
appear anywhere on the ferrogram, however they tend to be washed towards the
exit end.
Ferrous particles can be broken down to five different categories, high alloy, low
alloy, dark metallic
oxides, cast iron and red oxides. Ferrous particles are identified using the reflected
light source on the
microscope. Transmitted light will be totally blocked by the particle.
High Alloy Steel - particles are found in chains on the slide and appear gray-white.
The distinguishing
factor in the identification between high alloy and white nonferrous is position on
the slide. If it is white
and appears in a chain, its deemed to be high alloy. Otherwise, its considered
white nonferrous.
Low Alloy Steel - particles are also found in chains and appear gray-white but they
change color after

heat treatment. After heat treatment they usually appear as blue particles but can
also appear pink or
red.
Dark Metallic Oxides - deposit in chains and appear dark gray to black. The degree
of darkness is
indicative of the amount of oxidation.
Cast Iron - particles appear gray before heat treatment and a straw yellow after the
heat treatment.
They are incorporated in chains amongst the other ferrous particles.
Red Oxides (Rust) - polarized light readily identifies red oxides. Sometimes they can
be found in chains
with the other ferrous particles and sometimes they are randomly deposited on the
slide surface. A
large amount of small red oxides on the exit end of the slide is generally considered
to be a sign of
corrosive wear. It usually appears to the analyst as a beach of red sand.
Following are the images of few wear particles.
H o w t h e t e st is c o n d u c t e d ?Analytical ferrography begins with seperation of
the wear particles by magnetic separation from the
lubricating oil containing the wear debries on a ferrogram slide maker. The
lubricating oil sample is
diluted suitably with organic solvant to improved particle precipitation and
adhesion. The diluted
sample is allowed to flow from a glass slide called a ferrogram. The ferrogram rests
on a magnetic bed,
which attracts ferrous particles out of the oil.
Due to the magnetic field, the ferrous particles align themselves in chains along the
length of the slide
with the largest particles being deposited at the entry point. Nonferrous or
nonmagnetic particles and

contaminants, unaffected by the magnetic field, travel downstream and are

randomly deposited across
the length of the slide. The deposited ferrous particles serve as a dyke in the
removal of nonferrous
particles. The absence of ferrous particles substantially reduces the effectiveness
with which nonferrous
particles are removed.
After the particles are deposited on the ferrogram, a wash is used to remove any
remaining lubricant.
The wash quickly evaporates and the particles are permanently attached to the
slide. The ferrogram is
now ready for optical examination using a bichromatic microscope. Samples are
examined under a
microscope that combines the features of a biological and metallurgical microscope.
Such equipment
utilizes reflected and/or transmitted light sources. Different optical filters are
deployed to classify sizing,
composition, shape and texture of the particles.
After classifying the composition of particles the analyst then rates the size of the
particles using a
micrometer scale on the microscope. Particles having size of 30 microns or greater
are given the rating
of severe or abnormal. Severe wear is a definite sign of abnormal running
conditions with the
equipment being studied.
H o w t o t a k e A d v a n t a g e o f t h is c o n c e p t ?
Ferrography is a series of laboratory tests used to determine the condition of used
Lubricants and
equipment components, over a period. A trend of Wear Particle Concentration
typically presents the
opportunity for Maintenance programs from breakdown to be proactive. This need
better

understanding. The wear particles are either generated or captured in system

through atmospheric
dust/ dirt. The particles generating due to friction despite proper lubrication is an
indication of damage
to the system component. For example wear on gear teeth results in improper
meshing, that means
over a long period of such operation machine tends to consume more power for
same throughput.
Further operation under same loading condition leads to vibration, followed by noise
radiation. A
regular vibration-monitoring programme can capture higher vibration at much later
stage of damage
condition. More is the damage, more is the release of particles from component
thereby, increasing the
concentration of wear particles in lubrication oil tank. The choking of filters is next
stage when operator
comes to know impending failure of system.
Regular monitoring of WPC (Wear Particle Concentration) thus alerts an operator
earlier than any other
damage symptoms. This in fact helps a maintenance engineer to schedule machine
overhaul and / or be
prepared for spares & replacement.
W h a t B e n e f its d o I e x p e c t ?
Reduction in unscheduled downtime due to wear of rotary components like bearings
and gears
Effective maintenance scheduling
Improved equipment reliability and safety
Reduction in maintenance costs
Maximization of oil change-out intervals that indirectly conserves environmental
cleanliness aspect
Reduction in machine power consumption over a period

H o w m u c h a n d f r o m w h e r e t h e Oi l s a m p l e s a r e t o b e d r a w n ?
This really is a question of debate for critical equipment running on low quantities of
lubricants. A tank
capacity beyond 20 liters can be planned to tap 100 ml of oil every 3 to 4 months.
Typically two oil
samples are to be taken from a lubrication path, first, after filter and second before
entering to oil tank /
reservoir. However, it needs to be sure to drain accumulated oil on sampling point
before collecting
actual representative sample. Normally, to draw 100ml of oil sample 50 to 100ml of
oil need to be
drained off. Total oil loss is attributed to 1.5 liters per year. This may simply be
topped up for tank
capacities under 20 liters.
Once the ferrography adopted, the results of each analysis suggest next sampling
time, thereby
sampling requirement is also fixed and timed. Increasing wear particle
concentration however, triggers
higher sampling frequency for appropriate judgement on machine health
assessment.
W h a t is w e a r p a rti c l e c o n c e n t r a ti o n W P C ?
The count of number of particles in unit volume of oil sample is considered as WPC.
We also offer
weight of particles in unit volume of oil samples for trending.
Is t h e r e a n y st a n d a r d f o l l o w e d f o r t h is ?
Yes, an ISO 4406 is a well known and accepted standard for new oils, that also
suggests level of
degradation by means of wear particle contamination in the lubrication system.

Return to Home Page

Wear Particle Analysis - A Predictive Maintenance Tool, by Rob Lovicz & Ray
Dalley, PREDICT
This presentation was originally made at PdM-2005 - The Predictive Maintenance Technology
Conference, September 19-22, 2005 Atlanta Georgia. Click here for future dates

Abstract: Wear particle analysis and Ferrography in particular is an effective

means to identify and respond to maintenance needs. The development of this
technology includes image analysis, on-line sensors, automated oil analysis
screening tools, electronic transfer of evaluation results, and artificial intelligence.
This technical paper describes different ways on how Ferrography works and its
application in the real world through case histories.
Key Words: Ferrography; predictive maintenance; Used Oil Analysis; Passport
System V; Wear Particle Types; Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer;
Viscosity

Wear Particle Analysis or Ferrography

Ferrography is a technique that provides microscopic examination and analysis of
wear particles separated from all type of fluids. Developed in the mid 1970s as a
predictive maintenance technique, it was initially used to magnetically precipitate
ferrous wear particles from lubricating oils.

This technique was used successfully to monitor the condition of

military aircraft engines, gearboxes, and transmissions. That success
has prompted the development of other applications, including
modification of the method to precipitate non-magnetic particles from
lubricants, quantifying wear particles on a glass substrate (Ferrogram)
and the refinement of our grease solvent utilized in heavy industry
today.

Three of the major types of equipment used in wear particle analysis

are the Direct-Reading (DR) Ferrograph, the Analytical Ferrograph
System and the Ferrogram Scanner.

Direct Reading (DR) Ferrograph: The DR Ferrograph Monitor is a trending tool

that permits condition monitoring through examination of fluid samples on a
scheduled, periodic basis. A compact, portable instrument that is easily operated
even by a non-technical personnel, the DR Ferrograph quantitatively measures
the concentration of ferrous wear particles in a lubricating or hydraulic oil. The DR
Ferrograph provides for analysis of a fluid sample by precipitating particles onto
the bottom of a glass tube that is subjected to a strong magnetic field. Fiber optic
bundles direct light through the glass tube at two locations where large and small
particles are deposited by the permanent magnet. At the onset of the test, before
particles begin to precipitate the instrument is automatically zeroed with a
microprocessor chip as the light passes through the oil to adjust for its opacity.
The light is reduced in relation to the number of particles deposited in the glass
tube, and this reduction is monitored and displayed on a LCD panel. Two sets of
readings are obtained: one for Direct Large >5 microns (DL) and one for Direct
Small <5 microns (DS) particles. Wear Particle Concentration is derived by adding
DL + DS divided by the volume of sample, establishing a machine wear trend
baseline.

Machines starting service go through a wearing in process, during which the

quantity of large particles quickly increases and then settles to an equilibrium
concentration during normal running conditions. A key aspect of ferrography is
that machines wearing abnormally will produce unusually large amounts of wear
particles indicating excessive wear condition by the DR Ferrograph in WPC
readings. If WPC readings are beyond the normal trend a Ferrogram sample slide
is made with the fluid for examination by optical microscopy.

The Analytical Ferrograph: Additional information about a wear sample, can be

obtained with the Analytical Ferrograph system, instruments that can provide a
permanent record of the sample, as well as analytical information. The Analytical
Ferrograph is used to prepare a Ferrogram -- a fixed slide of wear particles for
microscopic examination and photographic documentation. The Ferrogram is an
important predictive tool, since it provides an identification of the characteristic
wear pattern of specific pieces of equipment. After the particles have deposited on
the Ferrogram, a wash is used to flush away the oil or water-based lubricant. After
the wash fluid evaporates, the wear particles remain permanently attached to the
glass substrate and are ready for microscopic examination.

Ferrogram Maker Instrument

The Microscope: Ferrograms are typically examined under a microscope that

combines the features of a biological and metallurgical microscope. Such
equipment utilizes both reflected and transmitted light sources, which may be
used simultaneously. Green, red, and polarized filters are also used to distinguish
the size, composition, shape and texture of both metallic and non-metallic
particles.

Types of Wear Particles: There is six basics wear particle types generated
through the wear process. These include ferrous and nonferrous particles which
comprise of:

1. Normal Rubbing Wear: Normal-rubbing wear particles are generated as the

result of normal sliding wear in a machine and result from exfoliation of parts of
the shear mixed layer. Rubbing wear particles consist of flat platelets, generally 5
microns or smaller, although they may range up to 15 microns depending on
equipment application. There should be little or no visible texturing of the surface
and the thickness should be one micron or less.

2. Cutting Wear Particles: Cutting wear particles are generated as a result of

one surface penetrating another. There are two ways of generating this effect.

A relatively hard component can become misaligned or fractured,

resulting in hard sharp edge penetrating a softer surface. Particles
generated this way is generally coarse and large, averaging 2 to 5
microns wide and 25 microns to 100 microns long.

Hard abrasive particles in the lubrication system, either as

contaminants such as sand or wear debris from another part of the
system, may become embedded in a soft wear surface (two body
abrasion) such as a lead/tin alloy bearing. The abrasive particles
protrude from the soft surface and penetrate the opposing wear
surface. The maximum size of cutting wear particles generated in this
way is proportional to the size of the abrasive particles in the lubricant.
Very fine wire-like particles can be generated with thickness as low as .
25 microns. Occasionally small particles, about 5 microns long by 25
microns thick, may be generated due to the presence of hard inclusions
in one of the wearing surfaces.

Cutting wear particles are abnormal. Their presence and quantity

should be carefully monitored. If the majority of cutting wear particles in
a system are around a few micrometers long and a fraction of a
micrometer wide, the presence of particulate contaminants should be
suspected. If a system shows increased quantities of large (50
micrometers long) cutting wear particles, a component failure is
potentially imminent.

3. Spherical Particles: These particles are generated in the bearing cracks. If

generated, their presence gives an improved warning of impending trouble as
they are detectable before any actual spalling occurs. Rolling bearing fatigue is
not the only source of spherical metallic particles. They are known to be
generated by cavitation erosion and more importantly by welding or grinding
processes. Spheres produced in fatigue cracks may be differentiated from those
produced by other mechanisms through their size distribution. Rolling fatigue
generates few spheres over 5 microns in diameter while the spheres generated
by welding, grinding, and erosion are frequently over 10 microns in diameter.

4. Severe Sliding: Severe sliding wear particles are identified by parallel

striations on their surfaces. They are generally larger than 15 microns, with the
length-to-with thickness ratio falling between 5 and 30 microns. Severe sliding
wear particles sometimes show evidence of temper colors, which may change the
appearance of the particle after heat treatment.

Severe Sliding Wear

5. Bearing Wear Particle: These distinct particle types have been associated
with rolling bearing fatigue:

Fatigue Spall Particles constitute actual removal from the metal

surface when a pit or a crack is propagated. These particles reach a
maximum size of 100 microns during the microspalling process. Fatigue
Spalls are generally are flat with a major dimensions-to-thickness ratio
of 10 to 1. They have a smooth surface and a random, irregularly shape
circumference.

Laminar Particles are very thin free metal particles with frequent
occurrence of holes. They range between 20 and 50 microns in major
dimension with a thickness ratio of 30:1. These particles are formed by
the passage of a wear particle through a rolling contact. Laminar
particles may be generated throughout the life of a bearing, but at the
onset of fatigue spalling, the quantity generated increases. An
increasing quantity of laminar particles in addition to spherical wear is
indicative of rolling-bearing fatigue microcracks.

6. Gear Wear Two types of wear have been associated with gear wear:

Pitch Line Fatigue Particles from a gear pitch line have much in
common with rolling-element bearing fatigue particles. They generally
have a smooth surface and are frequently irregularly shaped.
Depending on the gear design, the particles usually have a major
dimension-to-thickness ratio between 4:1 and 10:1. The chunkier
particle result from tensile stresses on the gear surface causing the
fatigue cracks to propagate deeper into the gear tooth prior to spalling.

Scuffing or Scoring Particles is caused by too high a load and/or

speed. The particles tend to have a rough surface and jagged
circumference. Even small particles may be discerned from rubbing
wear by these characteristics. Some of the large particles have
striations on their surface indicating a sliding contact. Because of the
thermal nature of scuffing, quantities of oxide are usually present and
some of the particles may show evidence of partial oxidation, that is,
tan or blue temper colors.

Many other particle types are also present and generally describe particle
morphology or origin such as chunk, black oxide, red oxide, corrosive, etc. In
addition to ferrous and non-ferrous, contaminant particles can also be present
and may include: Sand and Dirt, Fibers, Friction polymers, and Contaminant
spheres.
Contaminant particles are generally considered the single most significant cause
of abnormal component wear. The wear initiated by contaminants generally
induces the formation of larger particles, with the formation rate being dependent
on the filtration efficiency of the system. In fact, once a particle is generated and
moves with the lubricant, it is technically a contaminant.
Passport System V Software and Instruments

The combination and enhancement of WPA and UOA within the past few years
have been oriented towards managing a predictive maintenance program
efficiently with the advent of software and high tech tools. Of the recent
development of our Passport System V software and instrumentation allows the
user to incorporate all different types of predictive maintenance tools with a
customized approach. The Passport System V is sophisticated, yet simple to use,
state of the art data management and report writing tool, which provides users the

most advanced capability available for computerized storage, comparison data,

and evaluation of lube and wear data. The software design makes the creation of
tables, charts, digitized pictures, drawings, and qualitative reports, previously
produced manually, a faster and easier task, with more accurate results.

The Passport System V incorporates a video camera to capture and transmit the
particle image magnified on the microscope to a personal computer. The data
management features enable the technician to rapidly prepare a report and
compare the current machine condition with the previous analysis history. The
computer screen act as a regular display for report writing or reviewing
information, while another part of the screen high resolution images are display
from the microscope or from earlier reports, or pictures from the Wear Particle
Atlas. With these combined features and having predictive maintenance
information at your fingertips allows the technician to provide a comprehensive
report with quality condition monitoring recommendations.

Passport System V

The Passport System V is a significant enhancement to predictive maintenance

monitoring. The data management capability is obviously valuable to industry
today. The technology to capture, digitize, transfer, and store images has
progressed rapidly such that the quality is now equal or even better than still

photography. The system enables the user to establish their own predictive
maintenance reference guides for their machinery. The Modem/Internet e-mail
system enables the technician to communicate with distant sister facilities' sites
and with other technicians including our own experts. Perhaps most exciting of all
is the prospect of developing an artificial intelligence base for diagnosis and
decision making.

Case History

Safety Components Fabric Technologies, Inc. is a major worldwide producer of

material used in the manufacture of air bags for passenger vehicles. Safety
Components Fabric Technologies, Inc. instituted a predictive maintenance
program in February 1998. Their program consisted of vibration analysis and
Ferrographic Wear Particle Analysis. Included in their program were 205 weaving
machines (the focus of this paper), air compressors, chillers, motors, pumps, and
fans. Vibrational Analysis is performed on a 90-day cycle on all units. All units
found to be outside of specified Vibrational limits are sampled immediately and
sent to Predict/DLI for Wear Particle Analysis. The Wear Particle Analysis
consists of Direct Reading Ferrography and Analytical Ferrography. Initially, the
standard gearcase program was used to detect premature failures in these units,
but was found to be inadequate, as the machines would fail long before
expected. With the help of the customer and Predicts Ferrographic expertise, an
innovative plan was developed that best incorporated the units design, sampling
oddities, and the condition monitoring tools employed. This plan, or Modified
Program, allowed for accurate detection of premature gearcase failures in these
machines long before any unexpected downtimes could occur.

Safety Components Fabric Technologies, Inc. employs dual rapier-weaving

machines to weave yarn into cloth. A rapier weaving machine works as such:
The warp (lengthwise) threads are secured on the loom through the heddle eyes
(a thread, wire, metal or Texsolv polyester loop held by the shaft sticks with eyes
for threading the warp ends[i]) and attached to the loom beam located in the rear
of the loom. The dual rapiers are fingerlike arms that carry filling yarn halfway
through a shed of warp yarns (a shed is a separation of the warp ends into an
upper and lower system of threads that permit the rapiers to pass through the
space that has been formed). The filling (crosswise) thread is placed by the tworapier system between the warp thread shed. The rapiers are located directly
across from each other on each side of the loom [see figure 1].

The rapiers meet one another halfway through the shed and the filling yarn
carried by the left hand rapier is transferred to the right hand rapier and is carried
the rest of the way across the loom where it is cut and the process is repeated at
a constant rate[ii]. As the warp ends are drawn through the heddles, via the
rotation of the looms lower drive gearcase, the shed is formed with each turn and
the fabric is woven concurrently as the rapiers add the fill yarn inside the shed [iii].
The loom in general and the rapiers are driven by identical transmission
gearcases on each side of the loom.
The weaving machines are driven by a continuously running AC motor over a
magnetic clutch-brake assembly. This motor is connected to a drive shaft by
three V-belts. Gearcase speed depends upon the size pulley on the motor shaft.
This drive shaft transmits power to the looms left transmission gearcase. The left
hand transmission gearcase [see figure 2] then powers a shaft that is connected
to the right hand gearcase and drives it in unison.
Each of the right and left hand transmission gearcases contains a lower and an
upper drive gear assembly. The lower drive gearing primarily contains a pinion
gear and a bull gear. The pinion gear [arrow F2g], which is attached to the drive
shaft [arrow F2e], transmits power to the left hand gearcases lower bull gear
[arrow F2d], which drives the right hand gearcase, the loom, and the double cam
follower. The double cam follower [arrow F2a] transmits the power generated by
both of the lower drive gearcases bull gears to each of the upper drive gear
assemblies via the toothed segment gear [arrow F2c]. The double cam is a vital
component of this unit because it transmits the power very evenly and smoothly
to the upper gearcase and thereby insures that the filling is inserted gently by the
rapiers. The gearing and cams in the loom are expertly engineered and
synchronized with the connecting shafts so that all componentry moves in a
specific sequence of motions and the fabric is woven precisely and efficiently.

The upper drive gearcase [arrow F2b and figure 3] powers each of the rapiers.
Based on the high rapier speeds and loading, the major stress loading in this unit
is found in the upper drive gear assembly [see figure 3]. Based on that fact, the
upper drive gear
assemblies are the most susceptible to abnormal wearing in both the cylindrical
antifriction bearings and gearing.

The spur gear, located on the upper drive gear shaft, is driven by the toothed
segment gear. Looking at Figure 2, the upper drive gear has been removed from
its original position. When in operation, the upper drive gear assembly is located
in the opening above the toothed segment gear [Figures 2 and 3: arrows F2c and
F3d] where the spur gears are intermeshed. This spur gearing [arrow F3c]
controls how far the rapier arm swivels back and forth. The spiral bevel bull and
pinion gear set [arrows F3b and F3e] transmits the power generated by the upper
drive gear assembly shaft spur gear to the final gear that maneuvers the rapier
arm back and forth in a rack and pinion type assembly. The upper drive gear
assembly employs single and double cylindrical roller antifriction bearings to
support loading on all applicable shafts.
The oil reservoir [Figure 2: arrow F2f] for both gearcases is located at the bottom
of the gearcase, partially immersing the lower drive bull gear. The reservoir
volume is 2 gallons. The lubricant used in this unit is ISO 150 grade EP gear oil.
An electronically controlled pumping system applies and recirculates (through a
fine filter) the lubricant to the upper gearing and bearings. After lubricating the
upper portion of the gearbox, the oil cascades down to lubricate all remaining
componentry. In addition, the bull gear is further protected from potential
abnormal wearing because it is partially immersed in the lubricant and the oil
clings to the teeth as it rotates.

Actual Case History of a Standard Gearcase Failure

In October of 2000, an extruder reduction gearcase was determined to be
undergoing a major to catastrophic wear mode via Ferrographic Wear Particle
Analysis and was rated CRITICAL. This case history includes all six sample
points taken during the monitored history of this unit and comments about how
the gearcase went from a normal wear mode to a catastrophic wear mode in a
six-month period.
As the Direct Reading (DR) Ferrography graph [figure 14] indicates, the gearcase,
from April to August (five samples), was operating "Within Limits" based on the
Wear Particle Concentration.

In other words, the samples in the selected timeframe were within the numerical
limits of the Mean of all sample points plus or minus two Standard Deviation
units. On all five samples, Analytical Ferrography observations indicated only
normal rubbing wear on the ferrogram. These five samples, from April to August,
were rated NORMAL based on the Wear Particle Concentration and the Analytical
Ferrography results.
In contrast, the October samples DR result was very high. Looking at the graph,
Octobers DR Ferrography testing result of 537 was virtually ten times higher than
the Alarm BH point (54) and 500 points higher than when previously sampled in
August. The Alarm BH point on the graph denotes the mean plus two standard
deviation points. Every wear particle concentration value above the established
BH Alarm point is considered "Out of Limits". This result was of great concern.
The next step was to perform Analytical Ferrography. Analytical Ferrography
indicated large amounts and sizes of case hardened steel, low alloy steel, and
medium alloy steel abnormal gear and bearing wear particles up to 120 microns
in size [figure 15].

When comparing Octobers Analytical Ferrographic results to previously trended

results (where no abnormal wear particles had ever been detected), it was
confirmed that this unit was undergoing a major to catastrophic abnormal wear
mode. As a result, based on the combination of the very high Wear Particle
Concentration along with the Analytical Ferrography results, this sample was
rated CRITICAL and the customer was notified immediately. The customer
inspected the unit and determined that the unit had undergone abnormal gear and
bearing wear and the unit was overhauled.
This case history for standard gearcase failure is an excellent demonstration of
how a typical gearcase can move from a normal wear mode to a catastrophic
wear mode over a period of time. This case history indicated a definite point (the
October sampling) where the unit in question went from a normal wear mode to a
critical wear mode based on both DR testing and Analytical Ferrography. An
inspection of the gearcase confirmed what Analytical Ferrography had predicted.
The customer planned for the downtime and the unit was repaired. Ferrographic
Analysis assists the customer in eliminating unplanned downtimes. Unplanned
downtimes are very expensive and detrimental based on the loss or reduction of
production and excess man-hours expended to correct the problem. Not all
gearcases undergo such dramatic changes in wear modes (normal to critical) in
such a short period. It is also typical for a gearcase to alternate between a
normal to marginal wear mode and vice versa over a long period. This rating
alternation is due to unit loading during a specific period, speed of operation, oil
changes, etc. However, if Ferrographic Analysis indicates wear being generated
far in excess of what trending has shown to be as typical (as recorded by previous
normal and marginal ratings), that unit will be rated critical and the appropriate
steps will be taken to assure that the gearcase is scheduled for appropriate

maintenance actions.
Safety Components Fabric Technologies, Inc. Typical Gearcase Failure
Safety Components Fabric Technologies, Inc. weaving machine gearcase failures
do not conform to the standard case history gearcase failure described in the
previous section. Looking at the Wear Particle Trending graph for a typical
weaving gearcase, it is unapparent that this unit is in danger of imminent failure.
From May to October, three lubricant samples were sampled from this gearcase.

The Wear Particle Concentration (WPC) did not vary to any great degree with
each sampling. The results were 4.6 in April, 9.1 in May, and 11.9 in October (all
in 1999). Analytical Ferrography results indicated normal rubbing wear in the April
and May samples. The October sample indicated a small amount of gear and
bearing wear particles up to 120 microns in size [figure 17]. Originally, the
October sample was rated marginal based on the Analytical Ferrographic results
only; the DR results were well within what is expected to be normal for a
standard gearcase.
The Analytical Ferrographic results for the October sample were rated marginal
based on the small amounts of abnormal wear particles. In a standard
gearcase, the observed small amounts of abnormal wear particles and the

relatively low WPC would typically constitute a minor overall abnormal wear
mode. As stated previously in the description of equipment condition ratings,
assumptions were made that similar equipment would be rated marginal. A
further illustration of the differing amounts of abnormal wear particles is to
observe figures 15 and 17. Figure 15 illustrates a large amount of abnormal wear
particles and an obvious high wear mode; so much so that the magnetic flux lines
are piled up on one another and are individually indistinguishable. Figure 17, on
the other hand, illustrates a small amount of abnormal wear particles along with a
small to moderate amount of normal rubbing wear in clearly distinguishable
magnetic flux lines.

Figure 17: low and high alloy steel gear and bearing wear particles (120mm max.) 200X

In reality however, it was found that this unit, along with several others that were
rated similarly, should have been rated critical because the upper drive gear
assemblies in these gearcases were undergoing a
high to catastrophic wear mode and were failing unexpectantly. These gearcases
obviously did not conform to standards set for units that were assumed similar.
Based on this situation, it was unclear whether Ferrographic Wear Particle
Analysis could be employed to accurately predict premature failure in these
gearcases.
Vibrational Analysis was shown to be successful in identifying gearcases that
were undergoing some form of an abnormal wear mode. Many of the weaving
machine gearcases, found to be outside of typical predetermined vibrational
limits, were undergoing an abnormal wear mode. However, the disadvantage of
Vibrational Analysis was that it was not specific in determining what degree of
wear was ongoing in each of these units. Not all units found to be outside of
vibrational limits were undergoing a catastrophic wear mode. In order for
Ferrographic Wear Particle Analysis to be successful in this application, it would

have to be capable of differentiating the wear mode ongoing in each unit (if any)
where Vibrational Analysis was unable to distinguish. It would be very valuable to
find a complementary relationship between Vibrational Analysis and Ferrographic
Analysis. Ideally, if this relationship could be employed, Vibrational Analysis could
flag the weaving machine gearcases that were potentially undergoing an
abnormal wear mode, a sample of the lubricant could be pulled from each of the
flagged unit reservoir(s), and Ferrographic Analysis in turn would determine the
severity of the wear mode in each weaving unit. Obviously, the missing link in this
relationship was the Ferrographic Analysis. Steps had to be taken to assure that
Ferrographic Wear Particle Analysis could accurately predict abnormal wearing in
these units. Once it was proven that Ferrography could be utilized, the method
would have to be customized and developed specifically to determine the severity
of the wear mode ongoing in each of the gearcases. This new method would
have to be consistent and accurate in the determination of any ongoing wear
modes sent in for analysis.
GEARCASE INVESIGATION, FAILURE ANALYSIS, and ASSESSMENT of
FINDINGS
Patrick Kilbane, a Predict Machine Condition Analyst, was sent to Safety
Components to assess why the gearcases had failed prematurely. First, a failure
analysis was performed on the gearcase to estimate how much metal is actually
being worn off the internal componentry that led to a premature failure. If no more
than a small amount of wear is generated when the gearcase fails, it will be
difficult for Ferrographic Analysis to accurately predict a catastrophic wear mode.
If the failed gearcase is found to generate a large amount of abnormal wear,
another avenue must be investigated to explain the ferrographic anomaly. The
investigative team would then have to consider anything relatively unusual in the
makeup or sampling intricacies in the gearcases that would explain why they do
not conform to standard ferrographic analysis methods. After all investigative and
failure analysis information was completed, it would be compiled. This compiled
information would help the investigative staff determine whether Ferrographic
Analysis could be employed and customized to effectively, consistently, and
accurately predict what type and degree of a wear mode is ongoing in this unit.
Failure Analysis: Sixteen failed weaving machine gearcases were opened and
inspected. Very little to no abnormal wearing was found in the lower drive gearing
[Figure 2: arrows F2a, F2d-F2g].

Conversely, when the toothed segment gear and the upper drive gear assembly
[Figure 2: arrows F2b-F2c, Figure 3: all arrows] were inspected, a large amount of
abnormal wear was found on most to all componentry. This is clearly illustrated in
figures 18 to 20. Figure 18 is an image of a severely worn upper drive gear
assembly shaft cylindrical roller antifriction bearing. As observed in the image, a
large amount of fatigue spalling was discovered on both of the races and all of the
rollers. All failed gearcases showed this type of wear on every one of the upper
drive gear assembly shaft cylindrical roller bearings. Figure 19 is an image of a
severely worn upper drive gear assembly shaft spur gear from a failed weaving
unit gearcase. As the image illustrates, a large amount of pitch line pitting and
spalling along with scuffing and scoring was discovered on many of the gear
teeth. All failed gearcases demonstrated some degree of this type of wear on this
specific gear. Figure 20 is an image of a spur gear and shaft found in the upper
drive gear assembly pinion gear set. This gear is also from a failed weaving unit
gearcase. As the image illustrates, a large amount of pitch line pitting and
spalling along with scuffing and scoring was discovered on many of the gear
teeth. Many of the failed gearcases demonstrated some degree of this type of
wear on the pinion gear set.
The investigators determined in the failure analysis of sixteen (16) upper drive
gear assemblies that the units failed in the same manner. Every upper drive gear
assembly shaft cylindrical roller bearing [figure 18] was severely worn: more so
than any of the other gearbox componentry. Based on that fact and operation
history on the failed unit, it was determined that the upper drive gear assembly
shaft cylindrical roller bearing would loosen and misalign under very high loads
and speeds, initiating an abnormal wear mode in the gearbox. As the bearing
loosened further, the upper drive pinion gear also became misaligned. The
catastrophic wear mode commenced in these units when the misaligned shaft
gearing began to wear abnormally.
As described and illustrated, a large amount of abnormal wearing was discovered

in the upper drive gear assembly on every failed gearcase. Based on that fact,
quite a lot of abnormal wear would be present in the lubricant. Ferrographic
Analysis should theoretically be capable of differentiating the degree of abnormal
wear ongoing in the weaving unit gearcase. Because there was so much
abnormal wear debris generated in a failure mode and that standard ferrographic
methods were not identifying it, there obviously was an alternate reason why
Ferrographic Analysis was not accurately diagnosing the problem. The weaving
machine gearcases were further investigated.
Investigation of the weaving machine gearcase: Ferrographic Analysis is
dependent on several factors:
One common gearcase factor that may affect Analytical Ferrography results is
sampling location. Ideal sample points can be found in several spots in a
gearcase. The best point is found at the lubricant return line right after the oil has
lubricated the gearing and bearings. This sample is well mixed, uniform, and
representative of the overall lubricant circulating in the system. If it is impossible
or impractical to take a sample at that point, the next best sampling point can be
found one to two inches deep in the reservoir very close to lubricant return line.
This sample is well mixed and uniform, but care has to be taken to assure the
sample is taken in the same place every time to assure consistent trending
results. It is also advisable that the same person takes the sample each time. If it
is impossible to sample at either of those sampling points due to unit design, the
sample should be taken at the most favorable location by the same person, in the
exact same sample position, and utilizing the same sampling technique every
sampling period. That way the ferrographic trending results are consistent from
sample to sample.
Another common gearcase factor that may affect Analytical Ferrography results is
the return flow of the lubricant. It should be confirmed that the returning lubricant
flow is completely homogenous and well mixed once it returns to the sump. If the
sample is not well mixed and uniform, the amount of wear particles in the
lubricant will be diluted and any sample taken and sent in for Ferrographic
Analysis will not be representative of the ongoing wear mode in the unit. The
most representative samples are ones that return in whole to the reservoir via a
return line. Some of the least uniform and representative lubricant samples are
found in units where the oil is sprayed over a large surface area and is allowed to
fall over the length of the sump via gravity. Samples taken from this type of
system may be taken in an area that is wear particle lean or rich compared with
the mean amounts of particles generated by the unit. Ferrographic Analysis of
these types of samples has a lower probability of accurately identifying the
ongoing wear mode.
A final common gearcase factor that may affect Analytical Ferrography results is
the effect of differing loading and speeds on each individual gearcase. Each

weaving unit runs at differing speeds. In addition, woven fabric size and yarn type
creates differing loading on a unit. As an example, a heavy rope type thread is
much heavier and more difficult to weave into cloth. This gearcase is powering
the weaving process under a great deal more loading than an identical unit that is
weaving lighter weight thread into cloth. Therefore, the loading and speeds
should also be investigated on all failed gearcases looking for common failure
modes.
Therefore, the next logical step in this investigation was to determine lubricant
sampling locations, return flow, and/or unit loading and speed anomalies that
would explain the small amounts of wear debris that represented a catastrophic
wear mode observed by means of Ferrographic Analysis. The entire lubrication
system and reservoir were thoroughly investigated. Varying degrees of all three
factors were discovered.
As stated above, a common contributing factor that typically affects Analytical
Ferrography results is the sample point and sampling techniques. If the sample is
taken in the incorrect location or in an incorrect manner, the Ferrographic results
are also typically incorrect. In the weaving units gearcase, the only location
available for sampling was found at the drain cap, which is located approximately
one inch above the bottom of the reservoir at the front end. Due to the gearcase
design, there were no alternative sampling points. The same operator took the
samples at the exact same location and utilized the same sampling technique at
all times. This ensures, even though the sample point is less than ideal, that the
Analytical Ferrography results will be consistent from sample date to sample
date. In other words, the precision of all samples is excellent while the accuracy
may be suspect based on how representative the lubricant is of the wear mode
ongoing in the unit (return flow). Therefore, the sample point location and
sampling technique were the best that were practical for this application. The
investigation revealed that sampling and sampling techniques were not likely to
be a major factor inhibiting accurate Analytical Ferrography testing results.
The failed gearcase loading and speeds were investigated and compared to units
that were operating within limits. It was discovered that a large portion of failed
gearcases were under high loads and/or speeds at some time in their history, but
correlations were not always as would be expected. Some units under lower
loads and/or speeds would exceed Vibrational limits and begin to fail while other
units that were under higher loading and/or speeds remained within Vibrational
limits and were not sent in for Analytical Ferrography testing. It was apparent that
other enigmatic factors were affecting these gearcases (such as a slight
misalignment) and not others. The investigation revealed that excessive loading
and/or speeds was a factor in gearcase failure and should indicate a higher
amount of abnormal wear particles via Ferrographic Analysis. However, this did
not correlate with every unit and was not readily apparent in either Vibrational or
Ferrographic Analysis. Therefore, excessive loading and/or speeds could not be

easily utilized to aid in the early detection of a gearcase problem due to potential
concealed and enigmatic factors ongoing in a gearcase.
The return flow of the lubricant was then investigated. The oil is pumped to the
upper drive gear assembly, where it is sprayed onto the gears and bearings. The
lubricant returns over the entire length of the sump by gravity. In analyzing the
sampling techniques of these weaving machines, it was found that any sample
taken would not be completely homogenous and representative of the wear
mode. The sump, which is long, narrow, and shallow, acts to disperse wear
particles generated by the machine because the returning lubricant does not drain
into a single point in the sump via a return line. Rather, the return flow cascades
over the length of the sump. It would be expected that the amounts of wear
particles would be much smaller than expected. Therefore, the investigation
revealed this to be the crucial factor that explained why so few abnormal wear
particles were being observed via Ferrographic Analysis. In fact, the failing
gearcase was generating a large amount of abnormal wear particles.
The returning lubricant flow was found to be the primary reason that the
application of specific alarm limits was needed on these weaving machine
gearcases. To a lesser extent, the sample point was also a contributing factor
because of its less than ideal location. However, because the samples were
taken by the same operator in a consistent location and utilizing the same
sampling techniques, the trending results would at least be consistent. The
limitations on sampling locations were unavoidable; the weaving units could not
be redesigned. The typical alarm limits for standard gearboxes would not apply in
these weaving machine gearcases due to these factors. In any ongoing wear
mode, the amounts of abnormal wear particles and/or the wear particle
concentration would be much lower than expected for gearcases in general.
The gearcase failure analysis and further investigation yielded an understanding
of the intricacies inherent in these gearcases. These units would generate far
less abnormal wear particles than typically observed in an average gearcase.
Analytical Ferrography could be employed on these units under the proper
specifications, but a new method needed to be developed to compensate for the
differences between this unit and a typical gearcase. A new and customized
method would now be developed specifically to determine the severity of the wear
mode (if any) ongoing in each of the gearcases.
MODIFIED FERROGRAPHIC WEAR PARTICLE ANALYSIS METHOD

The first step in developing the customized Analytical Ferrography method was to
try to determine when an abnormal wear mode begins in these units. The
Analytical Ferrography data from the sixteen failed gearcases was taken. The
wear particle concentration and size of particles was plotted and compared to
Vibrational analysis data and failure analysis data. After reviewing this

comparison, it became obvious that when the Wear Particle Concentration (WPC)
rose above twenty (20) and/or if any abnormal wear particles over 15 microns in
size were observed via Ferrographic analysis, that Vibrational readings and prefailure analysis indicated a problem in the gearcase. This finding determined the
point where these weaving machine gearcases entered into an abnormal wear
mode.
The second step in developing the customized Analytical Ferrography method
was to attempt to decipher the point when the gearcase enters into a catastrophic
wear mode. It was determined that when the abnormal wear particles reached
sizes of 70 microns or higher, failure was imminent. This value was discovered
after comparing the failure inspection and further investigation results with the
Analytical Ferrography abnormal wear particle sizes. Because the amounts of
abnormal wear particles were always going to be small, the abnormal wear
particle sizes were the most important factor in determining the severity of the
ongoing wear mode. This was also based on comparing the Analytical
Ferrography results with the failure analysis and the further investigation results.

The final step in developing the customized Analytical Ferrography method was to
set Analytical Ferrography specifications so that the weaving machine gearcase
can be accurately rated. These specifications were set according to the two steps
listed above. The ratings are listed below:

The unit was rated NORMAL if the DR Ferrography results were less than
20 and the Analytical Ferrography results indicated only normal rubbing
wear (particles less than 15 microns in size).

The unit was rated MARGINAL if the DR Ferrography results were greater
than 20 and/or the Analytical Ferrography results indicated abnormal wear
particles (regardless of type) in the range of 15-65 microns in size.

The unit was rated CRITICAL if the Analytical Ferrography results indicated
abnormal wear particles (regardless of type) equal or greater than 70
microns in size.

Since the implementation of these specifications, they have been shown to be

very accurate in determining the severity of a wear mode in these weaving
machine gearcases. In addition, there have not been any unplanned downtimes
due to gearcase failure since the specifications were set. Predict has made
timely predictions of three known premature failures since implementation. These
predictions saved Safety Components fabric Technologies, Inc. the aggravation of
unplanned downtimes along with the additional costs of parts and labor.

Aircraft Gas Turbines

Aircraft and aircraft-derivative jet engines are subject to various failure

mechanisms. Some of these failure modes proceeded very rapidly, whereas
others can be detected hundreds of operating hours before a shutdown condition
is reached. Most failures of gas turbines occur in gas path. Gas-path failures
frequently, but not always, cause an increase in wear particle size and
concentration in the oil system, probably due to the transmittal of imbalance
forces to turbine bearings and other oil-wetted parts. The resulting bearing or gear
wear is then detected by both Used Oil Analysis and Wear Particle analysis.
Determining the exact source of wear problem can be difficult in a gas turbine
because of complexity of the oil-wetted path. Typically several cavities, housing
bearings, or gears will be force lubricated through individual return lines
connected to a tank from which the oil is pumped (at a high rate), then pass
through a filter and heat exchanger, and the cycle repeated. Magnetic chip
detectors or magnetic plugs are often installed in the return lines from various
engine parts. These can help to pinpoint the source of generation in cases where
particle metallurgy, as determined by heat-treating ferrograms, is similar for
various engine parts. However, chip detectors will not give a warning until the
wear situation is so severe that extremely large particles are being generated. By
this time, the opportunity for predictive maintenance may be lost. Other analytical
techniques, such as vibration analysis, may help to pinpoint the part in distress
utilizing expert system software that provides recommendations for action. In any
case, predictive maintenance tools integrated together offer the maintenance
engineer the best decision making tool.

Conclusion

The benefit of automation is in the use computer programs and emerging

software technologies of artificial intelligence to assist in determining when to
remove equipment from service for maintenance. These case histories provide a
real world scenario that indicates its not that easy to put artificial intelligence to
make maintenance decisions. However, this does not mean we do not try. For
example, an advanced system, which integrates emerging technologies in
vibration, motor current analysis, Thermography, ultrasonic, electronics,
microprocessing, graphics, and data management, could regularly sample a
number of machines. From a sampling device, compare the samples to previous
samples for trend information (along with other Data parameters), make the
decision to schedule the machine for maintenance, generate a work order for the
maintenance team and send a purchase/work order to accounting for needed
repair parts.
The maintenance manager/engineer could have almost instantaneous reports on
the condition of each machine, along with a dollar figure indicating the optimal
dates for shutdown and other maintenance requirements, basically, a financial
decision.
Technology advances oriented toward maintaining and incorporating all
production data serve as an efficient assessment of manufacturing equipment.
Companies as we know it today can ill afford any shutdowns what so ever due to
a tremendous amount of re-engineering or downsizing occurring worldwide.
Therefore, predictive maintenance tools working in conjunction with production
efficiency, analyzed through a cash flow model are the decisions making tools of
today and tomorrow.
Acknowledgments
Wear particle analysis and Used Oil analysis information were extracted from the
wear particle atlas and extensive experience of Predict employees. Other
contributors to the preparation of this technical paper were Rob Lovicz, Mike
Cannon, Pat Kilbane, Carolyn Martovitz, Dr. Rod Bowen, Vernon Westcott, and
Bill Hoskins.

Contact Robert Lovicz or Raymond Dalley, Predict, 9555 Rockside Road #350,
Cleveland, OH 44125; (216) 642-3223, or e-mail rjdalley@predictusa.com

[i]

A Glossary of Loom and Equipment Terms, Hall, Joanne, 2000,n.p, unpaged

[ii]

Rapier Loom, Encyclopedia Britannica, 2000, unpaged

[iii]

Textile Glossary, Knutson, Mervil, 2000,n.p, page 2

Condition monitoring
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please

help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012)

Condition monitoring (or, colloquially, CM) is the process of monitoring a parameter of

condition in machinery (vibration, temperature etc.), in order to identify a significant change
which is indicative of a developing fault. It is a major component ofpredictive maintenance.
The use of conditional monitoring allows maintenance to be scheduled, or other actions to be
taken to prevent failure and avoid its consequences. Condition monitoring has a unique
benefit in that conditions that would shorten normal lifespan can be addressed before they
develop into a major failure. Condition monitoring techniques are normally used on rotating
equipment and other machinery (pumps, electric motors, internal combustion engines,
presses), while periodic inspection using non-destructive testing techniques and fit for service
(FFS)[1] evaluation are used for stationary plant equipment such as steam
boilers, piping and heat exchangers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Condition monitoring technology
2 Rotating equipment
3 Other techniques
4 The Criticality Index
5 See also

6 Notes and references

7 Further reading

Condition monitoring technology[edit]

The following list includes the main condition monitoring techniques applied in the industrial
and transportation sectors:

Vibration condition monitoring and diagnostics [2]

Lubricant analysis [3]

Acoustic emission

Infrared thermography [4]

Ultrasound emission

Motor Condition Monitoring and Motor current signature analysis (MCSA)

Most CM technologies are being slowly standardized by ASTM and ISO.[5]

Rotating equipment[edit]
The most commonly used method for rotating machines is called a vibration analysis. [6][7]
[8]
Measurements can be taken on machine bearing casings with accelerometers (seismic or
piezo-electric transducers) to measure the casing vibrations, and on the vast majority of
critical machines, with eddy-current transducers that directly observe the rotating shafts to
measure the radial (and axial) displacement of the shaft. The level of vibration can be
compared with historical baseline values such as former start ups and shutdowns, and in
some cases established standards such as load changes, to assess the severity.
Interpreting the vibration signal obtained is an elaborate procedure that requires specialized
training and experience. It is simplified by the use of state-of-the-art technologies that provide
the vast majority of data analysis automatically and provide information instead of raw data.
One commonly employed technique is to examine the individual frequencies present in the
signal. These frequencies correspond to certain mechanical components (for example, the
various pieces that make up arolling-element bearing) or certain malfunctions (such as shaft
unbalance or misalignment). By examining these frequencies and their harmonics, the CM
specialist can often identify the location and type of problem, and sometimes the root cause
as well. For example, high vibration at the frequency corresponding to the speed of rotation is
most often due to residual imbalance and is corrected by balancing the machine. As another
example, a degrading rolling-element bearing will usually exhibit increasing vibration signals

at specific frequencies as it wears. Special analysis instruments can detect this wear weeks
or even months before failure, giving ample warning to schedule replacement before a failure
which could cause a much longer down-time. Beside all sensors and data analysis it is
important to keep in mind that more than 80% of all complex mechanical equipment fail
accidentally and without any relation to their life-cycle period.[citation needed]
Most vibration analysis instruments today utilize a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)[9] which is a
special case of the generalizedDiscrete Fourier Transform and converts the vibration signal
from its time domain representation to its equivalent frequency domain representation.
However, frequency analysis (sometimes called Spectral Analysis or Vibration Signature
Analysis) is only one aspect of interpreting the information contained in a vibration signal.
Frequency analysis tends to be most useful on machines that employ rolling element
bearings and whose main failure modes tend to be the degradation of those bearings, which
typically exhibit an increase in characteristic frequencies associated with the bearing
geometries and constructions. Depending on the type of machine, its typical malfunctions, the
bearing types employed, rotational speeds, and other factors, the CM specialist may use
additional diagnostic tools, such as examination of the time domain signal, the phase
relationship between vibration components and a timing mark on the machine shaft (often
known as a keyphasor), historical trends of vibration levels, the shape of vibration, and
numerous other aspects of the signal along with other information from the process such as
load, bearing temperatures, flow rates, valve positions and pressures to provide an accurate
diagnosis. This is particularly true of machines that use fluid bearings rather than rollingelement bearings. To enable them to look at this data in a more simplified form vibration
analysts or machinery diagnostic engineers have adopted a number of mathematical plots to
show machine problems and running characteristics, these plots include the bode plot,
the waterfall plot, the polar plot and the orbit time base plot amongst others.
Handheld data collectors and analyzers are now commonplace on non-critical or balance of
plant machines on which permanent on-line vibration instrumentation cannot be economically
justified. The technician can collect data samples from a number of machines, then download
the data into a computer where the analyst (and sometimes artificial intelligence) can
examine the data for changes indicative of malfunctions and impending failures. For larger,
more critical machines where safety implications, production interruptions (so-called
"downtime"), replacement parts, and other costs of failure can be appreciable (determined by
the criticality index), a permanent monitoring system is typically employed rather than relying
on periodic handheld data collection. However, the diagnostic methods and tools available
from either approach are generally the same.
Recently also on-line systems have been applied to heavy process industries such as pulp,
paper, mining, petrochemical and power generation. These can be dedicated systems like
Sensodec 6S or nowadays this functionality has beenembedded into DCS.[10]
Performance monitoring is a less well-known condition monitoring technique. It can be
applied to rotating machinery such as pumps and turbines, as well as stationary items such
as boilers and heat exchangers. Measurements are required of physical quantities:

temperature, pressure, flow, speed, displacement, according to the plant item. Absolute
accuracy is rarely necessary, but repeatable data is needed. Calibrated test instruments are
usually needed, but some success has been achieved in plant with DCS (Distributed Control
Systems). Performance analysis is often closely related to energy efficiency, and therefore
has long been applied in steam power generation plants. Typical applications in power
generation could be boiler, steam turbine and gas turbine. In some cases, it is possible to
calculate the optimum time for overhaul to restore degraded performance.

Other techniques[edit]

Often visual inspections are considered to form an underlying component of condition

monitoring, however this is only true if the inspection results can be measured or critiqued
against a documented set of guidelines. For these inspections to be considered condition
monitoring, the results and the conditions at the time of observation must be collated to
allow for comparative analysis against the previous and future measurements. The act of
simply visually inspecting a section of pipework for the presence of cracks or leaks
cannot be considered condition monitoring unless quantifiable parameters exist to
support the inspection and a relative comparison is made against previous inspections.
An act performed in isolation to previous inspections is considered a Condition
Assessment, Condition Monitoring activities require that analysis is made comparative to
previous data and reports the trending of that comparison.

Slight temperature variations across a surface can be discovered with visual

inspection and non-destructive testing withthermography. Heat is indicative of failing
components, especially degrading electrical contacts and terminations. Thermography
can also be successfully applied to high-speed bearings, fluid couplings, conveyor rollers,
and storage tank internal build-up.[11]

Using a Scanning Electron Microscope of a carefully taken sample of debris

suspended in lubricating oil (taken from filters or magnetic chip detectors). Instruments
then reveal the elements contained, their proportions, size and morphology. Using this
method, the site, the mechanical failure mechanism and the time to eventual failure may
be determined. This is called WDA - Wear Debris Analysis.

Spectrographic oil analysis that tests the chemical composition of the oil can be used
to predict failure modes. For example a high silicon content indicates contamination of grit
etc., and high iron levels indicate wearing components. Individually, elements give fair
indications, but when used together they can very accurately determine failure modes
e.g. for internal combustion engines, the presence of iron/alloy, and carbon would
indicate worn piston rings.[3]

Ultrasound can be used for high-speed and slow-speed mechanical applications and
for high-pressure fluid situations. Digital ultrasonic meters measure high frequency
signals from bearings and display the result as a dBuV (decibels per microvolt) value.
This value is trended over time and used to predict increases in friction, rubbing,
impacting, and other bearing defects. The dBuV value is also used to predict proper
intervals for re-lubrication. Ultrasound monitoring, if done properly, proves out to be a
great companion technology for vibration analysis.

Headphones allow humans to listen to ultrasound as well. A high pitched 'buzzing sound' in
bearings indicates flaws in the contact surfaces, and when partial blockages occur in high
pressure fluids the orifice will cause a large amount of ultrasonic noise. Ultrasound is used in
the Shock Pulse Method[12] of condition monitoring.

Performance analysis, where the physical efficiency, performance, or condition is

found by comparing actual parameters against an ideal model. Deterioration is typically
the cause of difference in the readings. After motors, centrifugal pumps are arguably the
most common machines. Condition monitoring by a simple head-flow test near duty point
using repeatable measurements has long been used but could be more widely adopted.
An extension of this method can be used to calculate the best time to overhaul a pump
based on balancing the cost of overhaul against the increasing energy consumption that
occurs as a pump wears. Aviation gas turbines are also commonly monitored using
performance analysis techniques with the original equipment manufacturers such
as Rolls-Royce plc routinely monitoring whole fleets of aircraft engines under Long Term
Service Agreements (LTSAs) or Total Care packages.

Wear Debris Detection Sensors are capable of detecting ferrous and non-ferrous
wear particles within the lubrication oil giving considerable information about the condition
of the measured machinery. By creating and monitoring a trend of what debris is being
generated it is possible to detect faults prior to catastrophic failure of rotating equipment
such as gearbox's, turbines, etc.

The Criticality Index[edit]

The Criticality Index is often used to determine the degree on condition monitoring on a given
machine taking into account the machines purpose, redundancy (i.e. if the machine fails, is
there a standby machine which can take over), cost of repair, downtime impacts,
health, safety and environment issues and a number of other key factors. The criticality index
puts all machines into one of three categories:
1. Critical machinery - Machines that are vital to the plant or process and without which
the plant or process cannot function. Machines in this category include the steam or
gas turbines in a power plant, crude oil export pumps on an oil rig or the cracker in an
oil refinery. With critical machinery being at the heart of the process it is seen to
require full on-line condition monitoring to continually record as much data from the
machine as possible regardless of cost and is often specified by the plant insurance.
Measurements such as loads, pressures, temperatures, casing vibration and
displacement, shaft axial and radial displacement, speed and differential expansion
are taken where possible. These values are often fed back into a machinery
management software package which is capable of trending the historical data and
providing the operators with information such as performance data and even predict
faults and provide diagnosis of failures before they happen.
2. Essential Machinery - Units that are a key part of the process, but if there is a failure,
the process still continues. Redundant units (if available) fall into this realm. Testing
and control of these units is also essential to maintain alternative plans should Critical
Machinery fail.

3. General purpose or balance of plant machines - These are the machines that make
up the remainder of the plant and normally monitored using a handheld data collector
as mentioned previously to periodically create a picture of the health of the machine.

See also[edit]

Machining vibrations

Shock Pulse Method

Notes and references[edit]

1.

Jump up^ API 579/ASME FFS-1: "Fitness-For-Service" (2007)

2.

Jump up^ J. Rafiee and P.W. Tse, Use of autocorrelation in wavelet coefficients
for fault diagnosis, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, 23 (2009) 155472.

3.

^ Jump up to:a b ASTM D6595-00: "Standard Test Method for Determination of

Wear Metals and Contaminants in Used Lubricating Oils or Used Hydraulic Fluids by
Rotating Disc Electrode Atomic Emission Spectrometry" (2011)

4.

Jump up^ A. N. Nowicki (2004). Infrared Thermography Handbook Volume 2.

Applications - (INST32X). British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing.

5.

Jump up^ J Michael Robichaud: "Reference Standards for Vibration Monitoring

and Analysis"

6.

Jump up^ Liu, Jie; Wang, Golnaraghi (2008). "An extended wavelet spectrum for
bearing fault diagnostics". IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and
Measurement 57 (12): 28012812. doi:10.1109/tim.2008.927211.

7.

Jump up^ Jar dine, A.K.S.; Lin, Banjevic (2006). "A review on machinery
diagnostics and prognostics implementing condition-based maintenance". Mechanical
Systems and Signal Processing 20 (7): 14831510. doi:10.1016/j.ymssp.2005.09.012.

8.

Jump up^ BS ISO 18431-1: "Mechanical vibration and shock. Signal processing General introduction" (2005)

9.

Jump up^ BS ISO 18431-2: "Mechanical vibration and shock. Signal processing Time domain windows for Fourier Transform analysis" (2004)

10.

Jump up^ Jaatinen, Erkki. "Product Manager". Tappi PaperCon 2011.

Retrieved 28 November 2011.

11.

Jump up^ BS ISO 18434-1: "Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines.

Thermography - General procedures" (2008)

12.

Jump up^ BS ISO 18431-4: "Mechanical vibration and shock. Signal processing -

Shock response spectrum analysis" (2007)

Further reading[edit]

BS ISO 13372: "Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines. Vocabulary" (2012)

ISO (2011). ISO 17359:2011, Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines - General
guidelines. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Simon R. W. Mills (2010). Vibration Monitoring and Analysis Handbook - (INST397).

The British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing.ISBN 978-0-903132-39-8.

Charles W. Reeves (1998). The Vibration Monitoring Handbook. Coxmoor Publishing

Co. ISBN 978-1-901892-00-0.

Trevor M. Hunt & John S. Evans (2008). Oil Analysis Handbook. Coxmoor Publishing
Co. ISBN 978-1-901892-05-5.

BS ISO 13374: "Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines. Data processing,

communication and presentation (parts 1-3)" (2012)

BS ISO 13381-1: "Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines. Prognostics General guidelines" (2004)

http://www.slideshare.net/muchulucky/condition-monitoring-through-non-destructivetestings-of-machine-ppt