Diagram of a modern microscope

A = Base, B = Limb, C = Head, D = Light source, E = Eyepiece, F = Rotating nosepiece, G = Objective, H = Coarse focus,
I = Fine focus, J = Substage focus, K = Stage, L = Condenser, M = Aperture diaphragm (L and M form part of the
substage), N= Field diaphragm, O = vertical photo tube for a camera, P = rheostat (brightness control)
Abbe condenser
The simplest and cheapest form of substage condenser.
achromat
A lens or lens system which is partially corrected (two colours) for chromatic aberration. Can apply to both condensers
and objectives.
analyser
A polarising filter that is used above the objective. Fixed in cheaper systems, can be rotated in more advanced systems.
aperture diaphragm
An iris diaphragm located within or immediately below the substage condenser. Controls the numerical aperture (NA) of
the beam of light passing through the specimen to the objective. Reducing the NA below that of the objective increases

contrast and depth of field, but reducing it too much introduces abberations. Should NOT be used to adjust the intensity of
the illumination.
aperture iris See: aperture diaphragm
apochromat (Apo)
A lens or lens system which is partially corrected (three colours) for chromatic aberration.

binocular head
The top-most part of a modern, modular microscope, fitted with a pair of inclined eyepiece tubes.
binocular microscope
A microscope with two eyepiece tubes allowing both eyes to be used for viewing the specimen. The main advantage of
the binocular instrument is more comfortable and relaxed vision, particularly important when using the microscope for
protracted periods. In a compound microscope, the image from the objective is split into 2 identical images that are seen
through the eyepieces, so there is no stereo effect. In a stereo microscope, there are separate optical paths through the
objectives, so the eyes see different images, and a 3D stereo image can be seen.
body tube
A tube that forms the main part of the optical path in older microscopes, with an eyepiece at the end nearest the eye and
an objective at the end adjacent to the object being viewed. In modern instruments, the tube has almost disappeared, and
there is only a short distance between the nosepiece and the binocular (or trinocular) head.
bullseye condenser
A convex lens mounted on a stand or adjustable arm, and used for concentrating light onto the specimen. A Victorian
innovation.

CA See: chromatic aberration

centering telescope See: phase telescope
chromatic aberration (CA)
A defect in a lens that causes coloured fringes around parts of the image.
CMO See: common main objective
coarse focus
A means of changing the distance between the objective and the slide, to bring the specimen into rough focus. In different
models, the moving part can be the stage, the limb or the body tube.
common main objective (CMO)
A design of stereomicroscope in which there is only one objective. The two eyepieces look through the same objective,
but from left and right sides so as to produce two different views that can be combined to give a stereo image. Other
stereomicroscopes use the Greenough design.

compensating eyepiece
An eyepiece that is designed for use with a matched range of objectives, and that corrects residual chromatic aberration
and spherical aberration in the image produced by the objectives.
compound microscope
An instrument consisting of a body with an eyepiece at one end and an objective at the other, plus a stage for supporting
the specimen and a substage for adjusting the illumination.
compound microscope: More information
condenser
A device with two or more lenses, held in the substage to concentrate the available light onto transparent specimens on
the stage.
condenser iris diaphragm See: aperture diaphragm
cover glass See: coverslip
coverslip
A very thin piece of glass (normally square or round) placed over the microscopical specimen. Intended to help preserve
the specimen, it also forms part of the optical system and its thickness etc. has to be taken into account when designing
and using the instrument.
crossed polars
When 2 polarising filters are rotated so that they transmit the minimum amount of light, they are said to be crossed. In this
state, suitable colourless subjects between the two filters show colours.
crossed polars: More information

dark-field illumination See: dark-ground illumination

dark-ground condenser
A condenser designed for dark-ground examination of the specimen. Light is prevented from passing directly through the
objective, and the image is formed by the light scattered by the object itself. The image appears bright against a dark
background.
dark-ground illumination (DGI)
A technique for lighting a subject obliquely from all directions, so that it appears brightly lit against a dark background.
dark-ground illumination (DGI): More information
DGI See: dark-ground illumination
diaphragm See: iris diaphragm
DIC See: differential interference contrast
differential interference contrast (DIC)

A technique for giving colourless specimens a pseudo 3-dimensional appearance (as if illuminated by an oblique light
source) and introducing false colours, capable of producing spectacular images. Requires a special condenser with a
polariser and Nomarski or Wollaston prisms, special strain-free objectives, and an analyser and another Nomarski or
Wollaston prism above the objective.
dipping objective See: water-immersion objective
draw tube
A body tube of variable length, common before tube length was standardised. Changing the length of the tube affects
magnfication (a longer tube gives more magnification), and also affects the image quality.
dry objective
The most common type of objective, designed to be used with an air gap between the specimen and the objective.

eyepiece
The eyepiece, or ocular, is a lens system which produces the final magnification, from the primary image formed by the
objective.
eyepiece graticule See: eyepiece reticle
eyepiece reticle
A glass disc with a graduated line or cross, or a grid, that fits inside an eyepiece. After calibrating with a stage micrometer
for a specific objective, can be used to accurately measure specimens.

field diaphragm
An iris diaphragm located either at the front of an external lamp, or on top of the base of a microscope with built-in
illumination. Used to control the diameter of the beam of light entering the substage condenser, thereby reducing the
effect of stray light.
field iris See: field diaphragm
field number (FN)
The diameter of the field of view of an eyepiece when used with a x1 objective, measured in millimetres. The field number
may be marked on the eyepiece near the magnification, for example 10/18.
Field number Objective magnification = Field of view
Therefore, an eyepiece with an FN of 18 would have a field of view of 1.8 mm when used with a 10 objective.
filter
A transparent piece of glass or plastic, normally circular, that is inserted into the optical path just below the condenser, so
as to alter the colour or intensity of the light passing through the specimen.
fine focus
A means of adjusting the focus to finer limits, used after the image has been roughly focused using the coarse focus.

FN See: field number

foot
The base of the microscope.

Greenough stereo
A design of stereomicroscope in which there are two objectives. The two eyepieces look through different objectives so as
to produce two different views that can be combined to give a stereo image. Other stereomicroscopes use the common
main objective (CMO) design.

head
The top-most part of a modern microscope, available in monocular, binocular and trinocular versions.
HI See: oil immersion
high dry objective
An objective with a high numerical aperture (NA) that is designed to be used with an air gap between the specimen and
the objective. The theoretical maximum NA with an air gap is 1.0, and in practice the maximum is about 0.95. The
thickness of the coverslip becomes critical for dry objectives with a high NA, and so they often incorporate a correction
collar that can be adjusted to match a range of thicknesses, e.g. 0.140.22 mm.
high eyepoint
Refers to an eyepiece where the users eyes do not have to be very close to the eyepiece, making it possible for
spectacles to be worn.
homogeneous immersion See: oil immersion

immersion oil
A special oil that is used to bridge the gap between a specimen and an oil-immersion objective. Ideally, should also be
used to bridge the gap between the top of the substage condenser and the bottom of the slide.
inverted microscope
A compound microscope in which the objective is below the stage, allowing specimens to be viewed from underneath. In
biological versions, the lamp and condenser are above the stage, providing transmitted light.
iris See: iris diaphragm
iris diaphragm
An adjustable, circular aperture, produced by a mechanism consisting of several thin pieces of metal that slide over each
other. A good microscope will have two, the field diaphragm in the lamp system, and the aperture diaphragm in the
substage condenser.

Khler illumination
A lighting system for compound microscopes that is designed to produce bright and uniform illumination, especially
important for taking photographs through a microscope.
Khler illumination: More information

limb
The central part of the microscope which carries the main parts, such as tube, nosepiece, stage and substage.
long working distance (LWD)
Refers to an objective for which the distance between the specimen and the objective is greater than normal.
LWD See: long working distance

mechanical stage
A stage fitted with an adjustable mechanism for holding and moving the slide, thus allowing precise positioning of the
specimen.
metallurgical microscope
A microscope designed for looking at opaque specimens by reflected light. Specimens are illuminated by light coming
through the objective (bright field), or through a cylinder around the objective that illuminates the specimen obliquely (dark
ground).
metallurgical objective
Metallurgical objectives differ from those for biological use in 2 ways; they are normally designed for use without a
coverslip, and they are designed for use with a longer tube length such as 210 mm.
mirror
Most early microscopes were fitted with a mirror (flat on one side and concave on the other) for directing the light source
into the condenser.
monocular microscope
A microscope with a single eyepiece tube.

NA See: numerical aperture

neutral density filter
A filter that reduces the intensity of the illumination without affecting its colour.
NIC See: differential interference contrast

Nomarski interference contrast See: differential interference contrast

nosepiece
Many microscopes are fitted with some form of rotatable nosepiece, capable of holding two, three or more objectives. The
nosepiece can be rotated so that one of the objectives is in line with the optical system.
numerical aperture (NA)
The numerical aperture of an objective is a measure of its ability to gather light and to resolve fine detail. A higher NA
produces a brighter image with more detail but less depth of field. An NA greater than 1.0 can only be achieved using oil
immersion, water immersion, or other liquid immersion. The NA is normally marked on the objective, as a number between
0.04 and 1.4.

objective
The first part of the imaging system, placed close to the object. It forms the primary image,which is then further magnified
by the eyepiece.
ocular See: eyepiece
oil immersion
Technique for increasing the NA above 1.0, by bridging the gap between the specimen and the objective with immersion
oil. Must not be used with objectives that are not designed for oil immersion. Ideally, the gap between the top of the
condenser and the bottom of the slide is also bridged with immerson oil.
oil-immersion objective
An objective that is designed to be used with a thin layer of immersion oil bridging the gap between the specimen and the
bottom of the objective. Image quality is greatly reduced if these lenses are used without immersion oil. Ideally, immersion
oil should also be used between the top of the substage condenser and the bottom of the slide.

parfocal
Refers to a range of objectives that are designed for use in the same nosepiece with minimal or no re-focusing when
changing objectives. Also refers to a camera that is in focus at the same time as the image seen through the viewing
eyepieces.
parfocal distance See: parfocal length
parfocal length
The distance between the specimen and the nosepiece for which an objective has been designed. For many modern
objectives, this distance is 45 mm; for older objectives it can be 37 mm, 33 mm, or other distances.
phase contrast
A technique for making transparent colourless specimens visible, by converting differences in refractive index into
differences in density. Needs special objectives and a matching condenser.
phase telescope

A special eyepiece that is used to focus on the phase ring in a phase-contrast objective, to assist in aligning the matching
annulus in a phase-contrast condenser.
photo eyepiece
An eyepiece that is designed for use in the the vertical tube of a trinocular microscope, to project the image formed by the
objective onto the film or sensor in a camera.
photo tube
A vertical tube at the top of a microscope that enables a camera to be attached.
photomicrography
Taking photographs through a microscope. Note that microphotography is the production of very small photographs.
polariser
A polarising filter that is used below the subject, and can normally be rotated.
polarising microscope
A special form of microscope designed for use with polarised light to examine specimens such as crystals, and ore and
mineral samples. It consists of the normal microscope components with the addition of a polariser, analyser, rotating stage
and other specialised attachments.
projection eyepiece See: photo eyepiece

reflected light
Lighting for opaque specimens, provided by external lamps (as used with stereo microscopes), or by light directed through
the objective (as used with metallurgical microscopes).
Rheinberg illumination
A technique for illuminating a specimen with light of one (or more) colours, against a background of a contrasting colour.
Related to dark-ground illumination.
Rheinberg illumination: More information
rheostat
Knob or slider for adjusting the brightness of the illumination.
RMS
Refers to the most common screw thread at the top of an objective, 0.8 diameter, 36 t.p.i. (RMS = Royal Microscopical
Society)
rotating nosepiece See: nosepiece

slide

A holder for the specimen, normally of glass and of a standard size and thickness. Some early slides were made of wood
or ivory.
slider
Before the use of glass to produce slides (it was expensive in the 18th and 19th centuries), specimens were usually
mounted on small narrow sliders made of bone or ivory. They normally held several specimens, each in a small circular
hole. Solid objects were usually left uncovered, and transparent specimens were held between two thin pieces of mica.
spherical aberration
A defect in a lens that causes straight lines to appear curved, usually worse towards the edges of the image.
stage
A flat square or round plate fixed to the limb at right angles to the optical system, used to support the specimen or slide.
stage clip
Most stages of early microscopes were fitted with two spring clips to hold the slide in place, and low-priced microscopes
still use this system. The position of the slide had to be adjusted by moving it with the fingers. More precise control is
provided by a mechanical stage.
stage micrometer
A special microscope slide with a microscopic and very accurate ruler. Used to calibrate an eyepiece reticle for a particular
objective, so that specimens can be measured accurately.
stereomicroscope
A microscope that can produce two distinct optical paths to give an erect image, and allows the object to be viewed by
each eye from a slightly different angle. The image has depth, thus providing stereoscopic perception of the object.
stereomicroscope: More information
stop
A fixed size aperture that can be placed in the light path between the mirror and the specimen. Sometimes found on
cheaper instruments, particularly from the Victorian period, taking the place of the substage iris diaphragm. The
instrument would normally be supplied with two or more stops with different hole sizes.
substage
Part of the microscope attached to the limb under the stage and which holds the condenser, the diaphragm and usually a
filter holder. It can normally be adjusted so as to move it towards or away from the stage.
substage condenser See: condenser
substage iris diaphragm See: aperture diaphragm
Top
T

transmitted light

The normal lighting for transparent specimens, with the condenser focusing light onto and through the specimen before it
enters the objective.
trinocular head
The top-most part of a modern, modular microscope, fitted with a pair of inclined eyepiece tubes for viewing plus a vertical
photo tube for attaching a camera.
trinocular microscope
A microscope that has an inclined pair of binocular eyepieces, and also a vertical tube for attaching a camera.
tube length
The distance from the bottom of the nosepiece to the top of the eyepiece tube. For many years, the standard distance
was 160 mm, although older Leitz systems used 170 mm, and some metallurgical microscopes used longer distances
such as 210 mm. These were all finite systems. Modern microscopes from major manufacturers now use infinite systems,
where the tube length can be changed by inserting accessories without affecting the magnification.
turret See: nosepiece
Top
W

water immersion
Technique for increasing the NA above 1.0 by using water to bridge the gap between the specimen and the bottom of the
objective. Must not be used with objectives that are not designed for water immersion.
water-immersion objective
An objective that is designed for use with water bridging the gap between the specimen and the bottom of the objective.
Some water-immersion objectives are designed only for use with a thin layer of water between the cover slip and the
objective. Other water-immersion objectives have a longer working distance and are designed to be dipped into culture
solutions to examine cell and tissue cultures; these objectives can also be used to observe pond life.
Wenham binocular microscope
An early form of binocular stereo instrument introduced by Francis Wenham in 1860. The light from the objective is split
using a single prism, placed just above the objective, and passed into the two body tubes. The concept proved quite
popular, and many manufacturers used the design in their ranges.
WF See: widefield
widefield (WF)
Refers to an eyepiece with a field number (and therefore field of view) that is larger than normal. The eyepiece needs to
be used with an objective that can provide a good image across the wider field of view.
working distance
The distance between the specimen and the objective. Ranges from a fraction of a millimetre for a high-magnification
objective to several centimetres for a stereo microscope.

arts and Specifications

Historians credit the invention of the compound microscope to the Dutch spectacle maker, Zacharias Janssen, around the
year 1590. The compound microscope uses lenses and light to enlarge the image and is also called an optical or light
microscope (vs./ an electron microscope). The simplest optical microscope is the magnifying glass and is good to about
ten times (10X) magnification. The compound microscope has two systems of lenses for greater magnification, 1) the
ocular, or eyepiece lens that one looks into and 2) the objective lens, or the lens closest to the object. Before purchasing
or using a microscope, it is important to know the functions of each part.
Eyepiece Lens: the lens at the top that you look through. They are usually 10X or 15X power.
Tube: Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses
Arm: Supports the tube and connects it to the base
Base: The bottom of the microscope, used for support
Illuminator: A steady light source (110 volts) used in place of a mirror. If your microscope has a mirror, it is used to
reflect light from an external light source up through the bottom of the stage.
Stage: The flat platform where you place your slides. Stage clips hold the slides in place. If your microscope has a
mechanical stage, you will be able to move the slide around by turning two knobs. One moves it left and right, the other
moves it up and down.
Revolving Nosepiece or Turret: This is the part that holds two or more objective lenses and can be rotated to easily
change power.
Objective Lenses: Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope. They almost always consist of 4X, 10X,
40X and 100X powers. When coupled with a 10X (most common) eyepiece lens, we get total magnifications of 40X (4X
times 10X), 100X , 400X and 1000X. To have good resolution at 1000X, you will need a relatively sophisticated
microscope with an Abbe condenser. The shortest lens is the lowest power, the longest one is the lens with the greatest
power. Lenses are color coded and if built to DIN standards are interchangeable between microscopes. The high power
objective lenses are retractable (i.e. 40XR). This means that if they hit a slide, the end of the lens will push in (spring
loaded) thereby protecting the lens and the slide. All quality microscopes have achromatic, parcentered, parfocal lenses.
Rack Stop: This is an adjustment that determines how close the objective lens can get to the slide. It is set at the factory
and keeps students from cranking the high power objective lens down into the slide and breaking things. You would only
need to adjust this if you were using very thin slides and you weren't able to focus on the specimen at high power. (Tip: If
you are using thin slides and can't focus, rather than adjust the rack stop, place a clear glass slide under the original slide
to raise it a bit higher)
Condenser Lens: The purpose of the condenser lens is to focus the light onto the specimen. Condenser lenses are
most useful at the highest powers (400X and above). Microscopes with in stage condenser lenses render a sharper
image than those with no lens (at 400X). If your microscope has a maximum power of 400X, you will get the maximum
benefit by using a condenser lenses rated at 0.65 NA or greater. 0.65 NA condenser lenses may be mounted in the stage
and work quite well. A big advantage to a stage mounted lens is that there is one less focusing item to deal with. If you
go to 1000X then you should have a focusable condenser lens with an N.A. of 1.25 or greater. Most 1000X microscopes

use 1.25 Abbe condenser lens systems. The Abbe condenser lens can be moved up and down. It is set very close to the
slide at 1000X and moved further away at the lower powers.
Diaphragm or Iris: Many microscopes have a rotating disk under the stage. This diaphragm has different sized holes
and is used to vary the intensity and size of the cone of light that is projected upward into the slide. There is no set rule
regarding which setting to use for a particular power. Rather, the setting is a function of the transparency of the
specimen, the degree of contrast you desire and the particular objective lens in use.
Eyepiece: The lens the viewer looks through to see the specimen. The eyepiece usually contains a 10X or 15X power
lens.
Diopter Adjustment: Useful as a means to change focus on one eyepiece so as to correct for any difference in vision
between your two eyes.
Body tube (Head): The body tube connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses.
Arm: The arm connects the body tube to the base of the microscope.
Coarse adjustment: Brings the specimen into general focus.
Fine adjustment: Fine tunes the focus and increases the detail of the specimen.
Nosepiece: A rotating turret that houses the objective lenses. The viewer spins the nosepiece to select different objective
lenses.
Objective lenses: One of the most important parts of a compound microscope, as they are the lenses closest to the
specimen.
A standard microscope has three, four, or five objective lenses that range in power from 4X to 100X. When focusing the
microscope, be careful that the objective lens doesnt touch the slide, as it could break the slide and destroy the
specimen.
Specimen or slide: The specimen is the object being examined. Most specimens are mounted on slides, flat rectangles
of thin glass.
The specimen is placed on the glass and a cover slip is placed over the specimen. This allows the slide to be easily
inserted or removed from the microscope. It also allows the specimen to be labeled, transported, and stored without
damage.
Stage: The flat platform where the slide is placed.

Stage clips: Metal clips that hold the slide in place.

Stage height adjustment (Stage Control): These knobs move the stage left and right or up and down.
Aperture: The hole in the middle of the stage that allows light from the illuminator to reach the specimen.
On/off switch: This switch on the base of the microscope turns the illuminator off and on.
Illumination: The light source for a microscope. Older microscopes used mirrors to reflect light from an external source
up through the bottom of the stage; however, most microscopes now use a low-voltage bulb.
Iris diaphragm: Adjusts the amount of light that reaches the specimen.
Condenser: Gathers and focuses light from the illuminator onto the specimen being viewed.
Base: The base supports the microscope and its where illuminator is located.
- See more at: http://www.microscopemaster.com/parts-of-a-compound-microscope.html#sthash.RlRGomw9.dpuf

Instrument list[edit]

Instrument

Uses

autoclave

used for sterilization of glass ware and media

auto-destruct syringes

specimen collection

Bijou bottle

a cylindrical small glass bottle with a screw cap used as a

culture medium holder

Blood collection bottle

to collect blood by venipuncture

brittany

a process of free from spore-bearing bacteria

Candle jar

historically used for anaerobiosis; a lit candle was placed in

as air-tight jar such that when it went out it would be
because it used up all the available oxygen

Castaneda's medium /
Castaneda's bottle

used for simultaneous solid and liquid cultures in many

bottles

Centrifuge

to separate supernatant & palette

Cragie tube

for determining bacterial motility.

Desiccator

to dry things

Durham's tube

used to detect gas production in sugar fermentation media; the

tube is placed in an inverted fashion so that gases produced
get trapped in it and do not float away to the surface

Gas-pak

releases gases to remove oxygen from a closed container,

usually for anaerobiosis

Haemagglutination plate

for viral culture detection

Incubator

used for bacterial or fungal cultures

Inoculation loop:

used to inoculate test samples into culture media for bacterial or

fungal cultures, antibiograms, etc.

Latex agglutination tiles

for serological analysis

Lovibond comparator

a type of a colorimeter

McCartney's bottle or Flat

medical bottle

for simultaneous solid and liquid cultures.

McIntosh and Filde's anaerobic jar

production of anaerobic conditions for organisms that die in

the presence of even littleoxygen (anaerobiosis),
e.g. tetanus bacteria

Microtitre plates

for ELISA

Nichrome wire loop

used to inoculate test samples into culture media for

bacterial or fungal cultures, antibiograms, etc.; reheated by
flaming to red hot before use

Petri dish/agar plate

to act as a supporting container to hold the culture medium in

Platinum wire loop

used to inoculate test samples into culture media for

bacterial or fungal cultures, antibiograms, etc.; reheated by
flaming to red hot before use

Pre-sterilized disposablecontainer

specimen collection

Pre-sterilized disposable swabs /

NIH swab / postnasal swab

specimen collection

Pre-sterilized disposable syringe/ autodestruct syringes

specimen collection

Serological test slides like those

for ASO, VDRL, rheumatoid factor

vide links

Sterile loops

used to inoculate test samples into culture media for

bacterial or fungal cultures, antibiograms, etc.; not heated
before usethese are disposable pre-sterilised

Thermal cycler

used to amplify segments of DNA via the polymerase chain

reaction (PCR) process.

Tissue culture bottles

to grow or keep alive cells or tissue from a living organism,

e.g. stem cells

Tuberculin syringe

as a normal syringe or to perform Mantoux test

Universal container

a cylindrical small glass bottle with a screw cap used as a

culture medium holder

Vaccine bath

used to heat vaccine containing medium gently to around

45-55 degrees Celsius duringvaccine production

Vacuum pump

to draw out the air from any closed chamber before pumping
back CO2, O2 or N2, usually for anaerobiosis

VDRL rotator

for VDRL test