CULTURE I

CULTURE I

Culture: Is a system of interrelated elements 1 of a community2, which

develops throughout time.
Each community has its own culture no matter its size. The geographical
influences condition the culture of a group.
Civilisation: is an advanced stage of human development marked by a
high level of art, religion, science, and social and political organisation.
Not all the cultures reach the state of civilisation. For example, those
aboriginal

cultures

whose

stage

of

civilisation

was

interrupted

by

conquerors could not develop culturally. A culture is civilised when it

reaches an advanced level or stage of development. Gordon Childe
believes that a culture can be called a civilisation when different criteria are
present:

Presence of cities (large, dense settlements started with the

Romans)
Differentiated people (diverse social classes and their functions)
Presence of a ruling class exeunt from manual work
Taxes yielding capital for the ruler or political authority.
Presence of monumental public buildings.
Development of writing (not always)
Beginnings of science.
Foreign trade.
Achievement of agriculture.
Development of naturalistic art.

XXth Century: a culture may be called civilisation when it is able to

analyse, study and criticise its own customs, when culture itself becomes
the object of study. (Spengler)
BEGINNINGS OF THE ENGLISH CIVILIZATION
Trevelyan states that geography governs history; and therefore,
culture. This phrase these days is not valid since today the control of man
over nature is stronger because of technologic advances. Bacon, the father
of the inductive method, believed that the aim of science is to give man the
control over nature.
Geographic characteristics of England: There is a historical and cultural
significance of:

1
2

Beliefs, traditions, art, religion, food, language, education, law, science, history, identity, idiosyncrasy, patterns of behaviour, etc.
Community: People plus the geographical place they live in.

CULTURE I
The fact that England is an island: Trevelyan said that the sea is the
key to the history of the British people. The fact that England is surrounded
by the sea has played an important role on the development of this country.
Britains geographic position with respect to Europe and the rest
of the world: Map-makers, whether in Ancient Alexandria or in Medieval
Monasteries, placed the island in the North West edge of all the territories.
But, after the Discovery of America and the ocean routes to Africa and the
East, Britain laid in the centre of the new maritime movement. This change
in her geographic outlook made England, in the era of the Stuarts, the chief
site of the new transoceanic commerce, finance and industry.
DISCOVERY OF AMERICA (1492)
BEFORE
AFTER
Passive: In the old days, the main route
of trade was between the Mediterranean
and the Levant (Asia). The route was along
the Mediterranean sea, the Red Sea and
the Persian Gulf. Thus, the Mediterranean
was the main centre of commerce. England
was far from/ cut off from this centre, so
she did not participate in negotiations up
to the XVth century due to two factors:
the discovery of America and of routes to
Africa and the east.

Active:(traders) The reason for the discovery

was that England was looking for a route to the
Mediterranean. Constantinople (now Istanbul) was
the main route to Asia. In 1453 the trade-route
was closed by the Turks. In 1498 Vasco Da
Gamma (Portuguese) opened a new route to new
lands. He first sailed through the south of Africa
(Cape of Good Hope). England, then, was better
placed than Spain and Portugal since she was
between the New World and the Old World.
Later, England made use of the sea to build up
overseas trade/ international commerce.

Receptive: The country received

Acquisitive: In times of Queen Elizabeth, England

successive trades from Western Europe.

acquired the command of the sea. This country

started to acquire new territories in the second
half of the XVIth century. She emerged as the
leading sea-faring country of the world.

The power of England was maintained till the First World War, when she
lost most of its colonies. Englands power was seen in:
o Her command of the sea.
o The English Empire.
o The Industrial Revolution. industrial wealth an power (after the
I.R. Germany began to compete with England
Who?

OCCUPATION
Soldiers, military troops.

SETTLEMENT
Wholesale migration: national
establishment of a great
number of families.

CULTURE I
No displacement of the
previous inhabitants.
Racial mingling is not
stopped.
There is a strong use of
violence and force.
How long? Temporal: it is long or short,
but eventually comes to an
end.
What for? To annex new lands so as to
enlarge
their
domains/
territories.
How?

The previous culture is

expelled so as to introduce
a new culture.
Force may be used, but not
necessarily.
Permanent. It leads to the
beginning of a new culture.
To settle in a new place to set
up roots.

CULTURE I
Characteristics of the island itself:
The physical formation of the country is the key to the history of its early settlers
(Trevelyan). In other words, the sea is the key to the story of the British people. The
islands geography was important because the invaders penetrated the island trough
the South East since this area is low, flat and there are many navigable rivers and
ridges 3 , which the invaders followed. In other words, the invaders followed the easier
accesses. Exceptionally, The Danes (Vikings) were the only people that penetrated
England through the north.
I. Factors that made England a desirable land:
Richness of the soil for agriculture in the South-eastern area.
Existence of minerals.
Presence of navigable rivers for trading purposes . The rivers are conveniently
small and abundant so communication is possible.
Mild climate. The island has temperate climate, there is just enough sun and
rainfall to allow settled cultivation. It is warmer than in the northern areas, and
there are shorter periods of frost.
II. All invader tribes followed the same pattern:
1. Entered from the South East (except the Danes who penetrated the island from
the North)(the rest of the land was covered by forests).
2. Slaughtered the previous inhabitants.
3. Subdued the survivors.
4. Expelled the remaining survivors to the North (Wales) and to the West
(Scotland), where there are mountainous areas (Highlands).
UNITED KINGDOM (UK)

Northern Ireland

Great Britain
England
Wales
Scotland

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary

democracy. The country's head of state is the reigning king or queen. The head
of government is the prime minister, who is the leader of the foremost political
party in the House of Commons.
ENGLAND:
Capital: London
Official language: English
Currency: Sterling Pound
Main Authority: Queen Elizabeth II

Long, narrow raised part of a surface, esp. a high edge along a mountain.

CULTURE I

EARLY INHABITANTS
The first inhabitants of England were the Homo Sapiens, who followed the retreat of ice before the Glacial
Period. England was attached to the continent. That is why the flora and the fauna of England and the continent are
similar. Later, ice began to move towards the North of the continent.

Origin
How they
invaded

Physical
features

Purpose of the
invasion
Areas they
settled

Main activities

Social
organisation

Political
organisation
Territorial
organisation

Economic
organisation

Religion
4

trueque

IBERIAN SETTLEMENT (1)

Th e f irst in va d e rs of En g lan d we re t he
Ib e ria n s . The y ca me f ro m th e No rt h of
Af rica to Sp a in an d Po rt ug a l a n th en to
En g la n d (Me d ite rra n ea n o rig in ) d u ring th e
St on e Ag e
a nd pe ne t ra te d t he la n d
th ro ug h t he so u th e a st . The islan d wa s
ea sy to in va d e b e ca u se o f t he f la t , lo w
co a st s, an d t he p re se n ce of na viga b le
rive rs. The rea son fo r th e t e mp t a t io n t o
in va de wa s th e fe rt ilit y of th e so il,
ag ricu lt u re co u ld b e d e ve lo pe d th e re , a nd
th e clima te wa s wet , ra in y wit h n ot so lo w
te mp e rat u re s. Th e y in t ro d u ce d /e n te re d
th e b ro n ze a ge
Sh o rt ,
da rk- ha ire d
p eo p le ,
d a rkskinn ed an d lon g h ea de d pe op le . Th e y
be lon g ed to ma n y ra ce s, no t on ly on e.

CELTIC SETTLEMENT (2)

Th e I be ria n s we re in vad e d b y th e Ce lt s
du rin g th e I ro n A ge . The Ce lt s be lon g ed t o
d iffe re n t t riba l wa ve s (No rt h e rn Ge rma n y, t he
Net h e rlan d s) o f t he sa me t rib e . It wa s ea sy
fo r th e Ce lt s t o imp o se th e mse lve s be cau se
th e y we re b et t e r-a rme d, t he y h ad we a po n s
mad e of iro n an d b ecau se th e y we re
wa rrio rs, an d th e Ib e ria n s we re n ot . An ot h e r
rea son wa s th a t t he I be ria n s we re st ill in th e
B ro n ze Ag e . Th e Ce lt s killed t he I be ria n s an d
pu she d th e su rvivo rs t o th e No rt h (S co t la nd )
an d th e We st (Wa le s) an d imp o se d
th e mse lve s a nd th e ir la ng u ag e be ca u se t he y
we re a su pe rio r civilisa t io n.
Pe op le o f t he G e rma n ic t ype : f a ir- ha ire d,
ta ll, wh ite - skin n ed , st ro ng , vig o rou s, blo od th irst y p eo p le . The y we re h ost ile b ecau se
th e y we re co n sta n t ly f igh t ing a ga in st e a ch
ot he r.
Th e p u rp o se wa s se t t le me n / mig ra t io n .
Se t t le me n t , brin g th e ir f a milie s wit h th e m
Th e y we re loo kin g f o r n at u ra l re so u rce s ,
fe rt ile so il, b ron ze , g o ld , t in , t imb e r,
S ou t h E a st o f th e isla n d . B e ca u se it
So ut h Ea st lo w la n d s
wa s n ea re r t o t he con t in en t . Th e re we re
lo w la n d s a nd f ree f ro m f o re st s.
Hun t e r(a lso f ish in g ) at th e b eg inn in g
De vo t ed to t he a rt s an d cra f t s. Ag ricu lt u re
th en d evo te d th e mse lve s t o she p he rd in g. wa s rud ime n t a ry; h un t in g , b ee -kee p ing a nd
Th e y we re n o ma d s a t f irst bu t th e n f ish in g we re mo re imp o rta n t . The y we re
se t t led fo r ag ricu lt u re /f a rmin g The y se a men , pira t e s b ut ma in ly f ig h te rs / wa rrio rs,
de vot e d th e mse lve s to sh ip bu ild in g . th e y we re f igh t in g a ll t he t ime . S kilf u l u se of
High ly skille d in me lt in g me ta ls (co pp e r iro n.
an d
t in ). The y
re a ch e d
civilisa t io n
be cau se t he y we re a b le to e nt e r a ne w
ag e: b ron ze ag e.
TRI BA L IS M , like t he I be ria n s , b on d
TRI BA L IS M. The y we re o rg an ise d in to ge t he r by t ie s o f kin sh ip , f ra t e rn it y an d
t ribe s, clan s . Th e y we re kin d re d , sin ce lo ve . Th e y de ve lo p ed th e co mp en sa t ion
fa mily bo nd s/ lin ks p la ye d a n imp o rt an t syste m . I f a me mb e r of a fa mily wa s kille d ,
pa rt in th e ir live s. Me mbe rs of th e t rib e th e t rib e cou ld t a ke re ve ng e o r ask f o r
sh a red cu st o ms a nd la n gu ag e , a nd co mp en sa t ion in te rms o f she ep o r oxe n . I t
fo llo we d t he ru le s of a t riba l ch ief .
wa s a wa y t o ke ep p ea ce a nd o rd e r. The re
we re 3 ma in t rib e s: B ryt h on s, Be lg ie s, G au ls.
Non e
Non e
Non e
Th e y we re co un t ry d we lle rs, so
de vot e d th e mse lve s to fa rmin g . S o me
t rad e ma y h ave b ee n ca rrie d o ut t h rou gh
BA RTE R 4 in sh ip s t he y b u ilt . The we a lt h y
on e s o wne d la rg e r n u mb e rs o f she e p a nd
oxe n.
Ib e ria n s
we re
pa ga n s,
h ea t he n 5

Non e
Ag ricu lt u re an d t ra de we re ru d ime n ta ry.
Skilf u l a t met a l wo rk (iro n ).

DRUI DI S M, a n at u re -b ased re lig io n t ha t

CULTURE I
pe op le .

Significance

Legacy

Th e we lsh a nd t he I rish inh e rit e d so me

ra cia l f ea t u re s bu t t he y we re n ot
sign if ica n t f o r th e de ve lo p men t o f t he
B rit ish
Th e y bu ilt t he S TO NE HE NG E (th e f irst
sign o f civiliza t io n in th e E ng lish cu ltu re ):
A lth ou gh th e I be ria n s a re t he a n ce st o rs
of th e We lsh , S co tt ish an d I rish -n ot of
th e
E ng lish -,
th is
kin d
of
sta t e
ca t he d ra l/ re lig iou s
mo nu me n t
is
imp o rta n t f o r t he E ng lish , fo r it is
asso cia te d with t he o rig in s of th e co un t ry.

co n sist s in th e wo rsh ip of na t u re . Wit ch cra f t

an d f ea r.
Ce lt ic f ea t u re s in We lsh , I rish an d
Sco t t ish pe op le , b eca u se t he y we re pu she d
we st wa rd s a nd n o rth wa rd s b y t he an g lo
sa xo n.
B rita in wa s na med af t e r t he Ce lt ic t rib e
B rito n s.
In f lue n ced E ng lish a rt, e sp . p ain t ing .
La ng ua ge : I rish , Sco t t ish Ga lic, Man x
Ga lic.

Iberians and Celts were not significant in the cultural growth of the English Empire.

ROMAN OCCUPATION/CONQUEST

AD 43

to AD 410 (3)

There were two attempts to conquer the island, this was not settlement!
1st: in 43 AD, during Julius Cesars period, unsuccessful!
Period
2nd: During the 3rd and 4th centuries, it started in the 1 st cent during Claudius
period. Successful one.
Rome, romans! Julius Cesar made two attempts to annex the island but he
failed. Yet, in the first century Ani Domini6, the Romans under the command of
Emperor Claudius occupied the South Eastern part of the island and Wales. Yet,
they could not occupy Scotland (north). Romans subdued the Celts but they didnt
push or expel them. Thus, the southern east area was highly latinised/ romanised.
Romans were respectful of Celtic customs and traditions as long as they did not
Origin
How they
interfere with their political government and empire expansion. The former
invaded
immigrants enjoyed a peaceful moment, since a military force protected them from
other barbarians (pax romana). In many cases the Romans ruled through Celtic
chiefs. Besides, the Celts could profit from being in contact with a more advanced
civilisation that was in permanent contact with the continent. Britons were
concentrated in a peaceful and civilian area. In Wales, the occupation remained
military.
To govern by right of superior civilization. Occupation, not settlement, theres a
military connotation. Expansion of the Roman Empire, annexation of new
Purpose of the
territories (empires are in constant expansion). Theres no roman migration here, it
occupation
s for the sake of military purposes. The previous inhabitants, the Celts, are not
displaced.
Areas occupied
South East lands, military occupation in Wales.
Exploit the area commercially, construction of roads and walls (for protection
Main activities
from the savages in the North). They built cities, fortresses.
The same organization than in the Mediterranean Rome. Hierarchical
Political/social
organization.
The Celt chiefs were Latinized, so the Romans could control them,
organization
and the chiefs were happy because they kept power and control.
They were heathen people. But, they adopted gods and goddesses from the
Religion
Celtic and other cultures they invaded.
Their aim was mainly military. The Romans were interested in the island
Intention of the because they wanted to enlarge their Empire.
occupation
Besides, there was an economic interest since they needed natural resources,
which Britain could provide them with.
The completely failed to Latinize Britons. La Pax Romana was a period of
Significance
peace and civilization in the island. The baths, the city lights. They have no
importance in the development of the British culture.
Legacies
*The city sites: the cities were destroyed by the anglo Saxons, but the sites
5
6

(dis) having no religion. /hidn/

When Christ was born

CULTURE I
close to a river flow or at crossroads remained and were used later on to build the
cities again.
*Welsh Christianity: the Celts were pushed away by the Saxons so Christianity
developed in Wales.
*City Roads: London emerged as a commercial centre.

a) Significance of the Roman occupation:

* FOR THE CELTS:
The Roman occupation was significant since it brought changes to the Celtic way of living:
Network of roads: They were the only roads built before the Industrial Revolution. Roads
played an important role in commerce and also helped to make the occupation
permanent.
Strategic position of the roads: All the roads had strategic positions, since they converged
in the city of London, near navigable rivers.
Trading connections: Commerce begun to develop because of the network of roads.
Pax Romana: The Celts felt protected form possible invasions.
The beginning of city life: They built a city where two roads met or where a road met the
sea or a navigable river. It was easy for the future invaders to penetrate the island through
the roads built by the Romans. This was another sign of civilisation.
Roman customs: Public baths, villas with running water and heating, built in the country.
Language: The troops communicated in Latin, whereas the Celts kept the Celtic
* FOR THE ENGLISH EMPIRE:
From the Romans who once ruled England, we, Britons, have inherited practically
nothing. (Howerfield) Although Rome OCCUPIED England from AD 43 to AD 440, it was
not important for the growth of the English Empire since there was not mingling of
ethnicities.

b) Important legacies left by the Romans:

ROMAN ROADS: were used until the Industrial Revolution for different
reasons:
a) MILITARY REASONS: to make the occupation as permanent and successful

as possible. There were fortresses to defend the roads and villas.

b) COMMUNICATION PURPOSES: to have easy access to different parts of the

island.

CULTURE I
c) TRADING PURPOSES: All the roads converged in Londinean, a port

strategically placed. London was re-built where Londinean had been during
Roman times.
d) FUTURE

INVASIONS:

the

penetration

of

other

civilisations

were

accelerated and facilitated through Roman roads.

CITY-SITES: Cities were built where two rivers met, or where a river
met the sea or another river. AS destroyed Roman cities, but they used the
same sites to build their own. Thanks to the Thames and the roads London
became the main centre of commerce.
WELSH CHRISTIANITY (315 AD): At times of Emperor Constantine
Christianity from the Celtic stream or church was adopted as the official
religion (IVth c). However, not everybody was converted into Christianity and
some remained pagan. Some other Celts had already adopted Christianity
before the year 313 AD due to their proximity to the continent. This
happened in the south eastern part of England because of trading activities.
Some Celts were killed by the Anglo-Saxons, others were submitted and still
others were pushed to the North, where they took their religion. The Celts
who were latinized and Christianized by the Romans and later pushed to the
West kept Celt Christianity, took it with them and developed it in Wales
(thats why its called Welsh Christianity). Later, it was taken to Ireland.

WALES and
IRELAND

IVth

St. Patrick

Dark Ages

Vth

Presence of Barbarians:
Anglo-Saxons

SCOTLAND

VIth

St. Columba

NORTHUMBRIA
and ENGLAND

VIIth

St. Adam

building of monasteries

CULTURE I

c) Reasons why the Romans failed to Latinise England :

The Romans were in England five centuries, from 43 AD to 410 (Ist to Vth
century). However, this country is not Latin or Roman, it is an AS country.
Geographic reason: England was distant from the Mediterranean, which
was the main centre of trade; she was far from the Roman Empire.
Nature of the new invaders: The barbarians who attacked continental
Europe were a bit more civilised than those who invaded England,
because they had been in contact with the Roman Empire before. So,
instead of imposing their way of life, they adapted themselves to
European civilized ways of life. On the other hand, barbarian invaders
in England came from the northern part of the continent; therefore,
they didnt have the chance to be in contact with civilised ethnicities.
Anglo-Saxons were uncivilized and destroyed every trace of civilization
because they didnt understand it. The Roman Empire was destroyed.
Military aim of the Roman Empire: The Romans were a small group of
soldiers distributed in small groups. They could not impose their racial
features as they did not bring their families to live there.
Retirement of troops: The Romans were not expelled, but they retire their
troops in 410 because they were called by Honorious to defend Rome
from Barbarians. The Celts, who became accustomed to being
defended by the Romans, forgot about fighting. Thus, it was easy for
the AS to subdue the Celts.
Fall of the Roman Empire:
1. Economic reasons.
2. Moral corruption.
The Roman occupation was not ethnically important in the growth of the English culture.

CULTURE I
THE BEGINNING OF THE ENGLISH CULTURE BEGAN WITH THE ANGLO-SAXON
SETTLEMENT. The Nordic conquest of England had larger permanent results than past invasions
because it displaced the Celts from the richest agricultural districts in order to settle a wholesome
migration. The distinctive character of the modern English is Nordic-tempered.

ANGLO SAXON SETTLEMENT (4)

The Anglo-Saxons came from Northern Germany, Frisia, Juteland and
Denmark. They were of Nordic origin. Angles and Saxons came from
Denmark and Germany and the Jutes (they were kindred families) came
from Juteland, Frisia and Lower Rhine.

Origin
How they
invaded

Physical
features
Aim of the
settlement

Language

Religion
Main
activities/
Economy

ANGLO SAXON invasions could be divided into three periods:

1. IIIth / IVth............... Romans on the Island. ASs attacks and raids, but
failed. The anglo Saxons were taken to the island by the Romans to
defend the area from barbarians.
2. Vth........................ Actual settlement of the AS wholesale migration.
3. VIth. ...................... Westward expansion, new waves of A-S tribes
kept on coming to the island. It was necessary to move towards the
North and Cornwell.
Vth and VIth are called the DARK AGES because of the presence of
savages and uncivilised people: the Anglo-Saxons. These two centuries were
of splendour in Ireland because civilization developed esp. in the field of art.
They came from Northern Germany (if they had been from the South if
Germany, England would be a Latin Country, but they were no in contact
with Roman Culture), and used the Roman roads to settle along the South
Eastern coast (in England only, not Wales as the Romans did). The AS came
originally from the shores of the Baltic, and although they belonged to
different tribes, they were kindred. They despised civilization so they
destroyed the Latin culture, pushed some of the Celts to Wales and Scotland,
and imposed their traditions and language to the remaining Celts. The Angles
settled in the East; the Saxons in the South; and the Jutes in the Kent and the
Isle of Wight.
The conquest was achieved in two expeditions:
1. Warriors arrived through the navigable rivers and burnt, chased, and
slaughtered the early inhabitants.
2. Families and farmers arrived to the roughly cleared lands and the Roman
roads.
People from the North of Germany, Germanic: tall, fair-haired, whiteskinned, strong, brave. Blood-thirsty warriors, uncivilised, savages.
They settled in England because they were looking for a place to develop
their agricultural culture. They were country-dwellers. (Its wrong to call
them nomads because wherever they settled they practiced agriculture.)
They spoke different Germanic dialects, which constituted the beginnings of
Old English. They used to write the runic alphabet only to make inscriptions
on swords. They developed oral poetry in which they spoke about their
heroes adventures, e.g. Beowulf
They worshipped the different Nordic gods whose names embody the origin
of the names of the days.
Warlike people, pirates; seal-hunters, seafarers. Country-dwellers, farmers:
OPEN FIELD SYSTEM (there were no fenses, activities were performed
in a communal way). Trade didnt play an important role. However, they

CULTURE I

Social
organisation
Political
organisation

developed barter for daily products. Most of these communities were selfsufficing since they settled in the south and south-east, where the best grain
lands, open pastures existed and the development of channel ports, and
shipping was fostered.
SOCIAL FEUDALISM . ASs tribalism present in the continent was
replaced for social feudalism on the island.
NON-TERRITORIAL FEUDALISM.
WITAN

Territorial feudalism came later with the Norman Conquest

CULTURE I
THE OPEN FIELD SYSTEM
It took its name from the fact that at certain periods the arable fields were
unfenced. Only during seed-time and harvest was the land protected by temporary
enclosures. There were two types of cultivation:

Extensive:

Intensive:

Annually fresh ground was cultivated and

after

the

raising

of

the

crops

it

The same land was cultivated every year.

was

abandoned for other soil.

VIRTUES:
o

In this system the arable land was divided into two or three fields which were

divided into strips of lands. After the division, two parts were cultivated and the
third part was left fallow8 to recover the fertility of the soil.
o

Every member of the community was entitled to acquire strips of lands according

to their social position.

o

The system produced more crops for the same amount of ploughing. A-S

harvested mainly wheat (trigo) and barley (cebada).

FLAWS:
o Time was wasted in moving from one strip to another.
o Trespassing raised quarrels between farmers.
o Nobody could manage their land as they wished.
The Open Field System came to an end in the XVIII th century with the Agrarian
Revolution. Enclosures begun in the XVI th C exceptionally, but in the XVIIIth century
they became a must because of the introduction of chemicals and machinery to
improve agriculture.

Most of the strips belonged to the Lord.

Each member of the community was entitled a number of

hides according to their social position.

HIDE:
Strip of land

uncultivated

CULTURE I
COMMUNIAL WORK: Economically, A-S had a cooperative structure. They worked
together and shared the implements of production (tools). Although they worked as a
community they had some feeling of individualism, yet it was not as strong as
FEUDALISM.

CULTURE I

SOCIAL FIELD

POLITICAL
FIELD

AS in England

AS on the continent

FEUDALISM
When AS moved to England, there were
many migrating groups that consisted of a
tribal chief and men of his tribe or of other
tribes. The tribal chief became to be known as
the lord, and the tribesmen turned to be
followers, retainers, and/or companions.
Three AS social classes:
thanes: /einz/ WIRGILD: 1200
shillings They were freemen who enjoyed
privileges. They constituted the aristocracy
composed by tribal chiefs and men who
owned land and oxen. They were the warriors
that should fight and die for the king. They
also had duties at court and obligations to the
church.
churls: /tjrls/ WIRGILD: 200
shillings They were freemen who formed the
lower middle class. Their social position
begun to deteriorate because of Danish
invasions. By that future time churls would
feel unprotected and surrender their lands to
Lords in exchange of protection in times of
the Vikings.
slaves: NO WIRGILD (1/2 pigs)
Non-free. It was the lowest class made up by
ex-Celts and degraded A-S who had
committed crimes.
There was social mobility because it was
possible for a churl to become a thane after
having accumulated five hides9 of land.

TRIBALISM

FEUDALISM
Tribal chiefs turned to be Lords on the island.
Man-to-man
Feudalism implied a personal or man-to-man
relationship based
relationship based on two principles:
on 2 principles
1. Loyalty to ones lord: Lords and followers
had duties and responsibilities. The follower
fought for his Lord, whereas the Lord granted
them protection and gifts (weapons, horses,
etc.)
2. Duty to ones kin: Each member of the
kin10 was responsible for each members
behaviour. The AS developed a compensation
system by which a murderer had to pay a
price to the Lord depending on the wergild 11
of the killed person. When the two principles
collided the loyalty to ones lord became
stronger.

A clan or tribe was a group of people with the

same family name. They had common
ancestors and share the same customs,
traditions

and

practices.

They

were

KINDRED, i.e. with strong family ties. This

was important to keep peace and order.

AUTOCRACY
The tribal chief ruled the clan. It was an
Autocratic kingship in which the Monarch
had unlimited power as he was believed a
descendent of gods.
Monarch
Tribal chief

Tribal chief

Tribal chief

MANUMISSION OF SLAVES: Practice of setting slaves half-free. This procedure was encouraged by AS women. Slaves
could buy their freedom if they could gather the money.
A-S WOMEN: Enjoyed a better position than that of early times. They had the right to decide what to do with their
properties. Besides, they were in charge of manumitting 12 slaves.
9

Hide: Piece of arable land considered enough for a peasant and his family to live on. It is also a piece of arable land cultivated by eight-oxplough.
10
Kin: family
11
Wergild: Price each AS had according to their social position. It was expressed in terms of oxen and sheep.
12

CULTURE I

STEPS TO POLITICAL UNITY

1 STEP: HEPTARCHY: Little by little some tribal chiefs became stronger, they were addressed
kings, and kingdoms emerged. During the VIIth, VIIIth, and IXth C seven
kingdoms

emerged

in

England:

Kent,

Wessex,

Essex,

Jussex,

Mercia, Northumbria, and East Anglia. Fighting was constantly

present among these kingdoms, and some became more powerful than
others. In the IXth C, King Egbert from Wessex was acknowledged
as

the

Bretwalda,

monarch

king.

HEPTARCHY.

i.e.

He

All

had

the

overlord.
control

kingdoms

Thus,

over

were

he

the

became

other

unified

but

the

kings
still

first

of

the

remained

differentiated.
2

STEP:

THE COMING OF CHRISTIANITY: England was converted into

Christianity by two streams:

The Celtic stream or

The Roman stream or

Welsh Christianity (St. Patrick)

In

the

VIIth

it

Roman Christianity

reached

It

represented

the

Northumbria. It had a system of universalistic order of the late

organisation

based

monasteries.

Its

ascetic,

on

rural empire.

outlook

anti-hierarchical.

was Great

The

Pope

sent

The England

(St.

Gregory

The

missionaries

to

Augustine).

Its

Welsh Church was monastic, i.e. bishoprics were based on the old
it

did

not

want

to

obey

the city

Pope.

and

provincial

administration. The Roman Church

had a hierarchical organisation13
starting from the Pope.

Although both were preaching the same dogma, there were differences as
regards organization and celebrations, e.g. different dates for Easter. To
choose one, the two streams met in the kingdom of Northumbria. King Oswy
decided in favour of Roman Christianity at the SINOD of WHITBY in 664 (VIIth
c). The reason was that he wanted to keep the links with the continent. The
Welsh

Church

could

not

develop

that

because

it

was

separated

from

continent.

Significance of the introduction of Roman Christianity in England in A-S times

13

Pope, archbishop, bishops, priests.

the

CULTURE I

Economically,

the

links

with

the

Latin

Mediterranean

civilisation were re-established.

Politically and religiously, churchmen, the only learned

ones,

became

chief

advisers

of

the

Crown.

Roman

ideas,

passed from the sphere of the Church to the sphere of the

State. Catholic hierarchy became the paradigm for future
English political organisation. These novelties constituted
the second step towards political unity.
3

STEP:

DANISH INVASION (Vikings):

The country was divided into

Daneland and the Saxon area because of the TREATY OF WEDMORE.

According to this treaty

the Danes retired to the Daneland,

which was in the north-east of England, leaving the south under

Alfreds domain. After Alfreds death, Edward The Elder reconquered the Daneland. Again the country was governed by one AS
king, but this time he ruled the whole country. So, Edward The
Elder was the first monarch of England.
4

STEP:

NORMAN CONQUEST (French): After the Battle of Hastings

(1066)

Norman

William

the

Conqueror

came

to

the

English Throne and ruled the whole country. Together

with

the

Norman

contributed

to

Conquest,

the

the

unification

FEUDAL
of

the

SYSTEM

also

country.

In

times of the Normans A-S feudalism was improved into a

TERRITORIAL FEUDALISM:
1. Feudalism

was

the

social

and

political

domination

of

military and land-owning aristocracy. (Lipson).

2. Agriculture

was

means

of

production.

It

was

their

main

source of wealth, a sign of prestige and social status.

The Normans were gifted for government, administration and law.

CULTURE I

What is the significance of the A-S in the growth of the English culture?
The AS settlement, which took place in the Vth C, meant the
beginning

of

the

English

culture

and

civilization.

Socially

speaking, the A-S became the ancestors of English people, since

they kept their Nordic racial traces unmingled. Linguistically,
A-S spoke Old English, which constitutes the basis of Middle
English and later Modern English.

Economically, they introduced

the Open Field System to improve agricultural tasks, which was

used until the Agrarian Revolution in the XVIII th C. Politically,
they were also significant because administrative institutions
are of A-S origin.

Their settlement meant the first phase of

the Parliament embodied in the Witan. In addition, Edward the

Elder became Bretwalda, or first king who embodied Monarchy. In
religious

matters,

the

Roman

Church

was

introduced

as

the

official religion of the country. Although it suffered a change

in the XVIIth C, when it became Protestant, the English turned to
an Anglican Church which is a Christian Church all the same.

WITAN
It was the A-S political institution that represented the embryonic phase of
what today is called Parliament.
CLASS BODY: It was known as the Kings Council of wise men, which was
made up by members of the Church (archbishops, bishops, and some priests)
and the Thanes (owners of five strips of land each). Thus, it was a class-body
which was not representative of all social sectors.
ADVISORY BODY: The Witan met three times a year and when the monarch

needed their advice. Its functions were:

Give advice to the Monarch when asked for.
Appoint (if no successors) & depose (until adoption of Roman stream)
kings in case of misgovernment
Grant lands.
Consent to laws and taxes.
14.

In the process of democratization the Witan from being a class body with
advisory functions became representative of all social classes with governing
functions.
Class body ------------------------------ Representative body
14

In the VIIIth c the Witan could not longer depose the king, since kings were considered the representatives of God on earth due to the
introduction of Christianity.

CULTURE I
Advisory functions -------------------- Governing functions

CULTURE I

DANISH INVASION (5)

Origin/
How they
invaded

T he s e p e o p l e c a m e f r o m t h e No r d i c a r e a ( S c a n d i n a v i a , N o r w a y , S w e d e n ,
and Denmark) of Europe.
T he y c a m e t o t h e i s l a n d t h r o u g h t h e No r t h o f S c o t l a n d a n d t h e n , t h e y
h e a d e d d o w n w a r d s t o t h e N o r t h o f E n g l a n d to w h a t w a s t h e k i n g d o m o f
No r t h u m b r i a . F r o m No r t h u m b r i a t h e y m o v e d to t h e M i d l a n d s a n d
e v e n tu a l l y o c c u p i e d t h e no r t h e r n E a s t e r n a r e a o f t h e i s l a n d . T o t h e No r t h
o f t h e T h a m e s , t h e D a n e s h a d t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l . A n d w h e n t h e y tu r n e d
downwards, they destroyed every sign of civilization. Danes had never
b e e n i n c o n t a c t w i t h L a t i n c i v i l i z a t i o n b e f o r e , s o t h e y f e l t no r e s p e c t f o r a
forwarded civilization. Moreover, they didnt value the importance of
C e l t i c m o n a s t e r i e s a s c e n t r e s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d c u l tu r e .

Physical
features

R a c i a l s to c k w a s n o t a l t e r e d . D a n e s w e r e t a l l , f a i r - h a i r e d , s t r o n g , a n d w e l l b u i l t . T h e y w e r e s i m i l a r t o t h e A - S b e c a u s e t h e y a l so b e l o n g e d t o t h e
G e r m a n i c f a m i l y . T h e r e w a s n o d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e A - S , so b o t h p e o p l e s
mingled.

Main
activities/
Economy

T he y w e r e b l o o d t h i r s t y w a r r i o r s w h o c o u l d f i g h t o n h o r se s . T h e y d e v o t e d
themselves to sea-faring activities: trading and pirating .

Aim of the
occupation

Social
organisation

Political
organisation

T he i r i n v a s i o n t o o k t wo s t e p s :
1.
I X t h C : P e r i o d o f a t t a c k s , r a i d s , a n d r o b b e r ie s i n
m o n a s t e r i e s . I t w a s i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e A - S f a r m e r s to f i g h t a s t h e D a n e s
w e r e t h e f i r s t o ne s w h o f o u g h t o n h o r se . Ho w e v e r , i n t h e B A T T L E o f
ETHANDUNE, the Danish leader Guthrum signed the Treaty of Wedmore
with King Alfred The Great.
2 . X t h t o X I t h C ( 9 0 0 / 9 2 4 ) : E t h e l r e d T h e U n r e a d y c o u l d n o t c o p e
w i t h D a n i s h a t t a c k s so h e l e v i e d a t a x : t h e D a n e g e l d 1 5 i n o r d e r t o b r i b e t h e
Danes. Direct taxation began in this way. When Ethelred could no longer
b r i b e t h e D a n e s , S we y n i n v a d e d E n g l a n d . T hu s , t h e s e c o n d D a n i s h i n v a s i o n
i n v o l v e d a p e r io d o f w h o l e s a l e m i g r a t i o n w i t h f a m i l i e s t h a t se t t l e d i n t h e
No r t h E a s t . T he y e v e n p e ne t r a t e d F r a n c e a n d s e t t l e d t h e r e , n a m i n g t h e
a r e a No r m a n d y .
T he m i d d l e c l a s s d e t e r io r a t e d s i n c e commendation to o k p l a c e a m o n g t h e
churls. This practice implied that the churls surrendered their land to
Lords in exchange of protection from Danish invasions . Later, churls as a
s o c i a l s t r a t a v a n i s h e d i n t i m e s o f t h e No r m a n C o n q u e s t .
D a n i s h i n v a s i o n s c o n s t i t u te d t h e t h i r d s t e p t o w a r d s t h e po l i t i c a l u n i t y o f
t h e c o u n t r y . A s so o n a s t h e TREATY OF WEDMORE w a s
signed the country was divided into Daneland (the northe a s t o f E n g l a n d ) a n d t h e S a x o n a r e a ( t he so u t h , u nd e r
Alfreds domain). After Alfreds death, Edward The Elder
re-conquered the Daneland and became the first king of
E n g l a n d . A g a i n t h e c o u n t r y w a s g o v e r ne d b y o ne AS k i n g ,
b u t t h i s t i m e h e r u l e d t h e w h o l e c o u n t r y . T he D a n e s b e c a m e
t h e s u b j e c t s 1 6 o f t h e A S k i n g o f W e ss e x . T he y w o u l d
s u r r e nd e r w i t h o u t r e s i s t a n c e i f t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s w e r e k e p t
a n d r e s p e c te d .

a. Significance on the Danish invasion:

15

Social l y, t he racial st ock w as not changed becau se t he A-S w ere not expel l ed
by t he Danes. Alt hou gh they mingl ed w it h t he A-S, they had racial
simil arit ie s.
Economic al l y, t hey int rodu ced t he commerci al spirit int o the Engl ish
idiosyn cras y, for they w ere mainl y traders. Engl and became mainl y
commerci al .
Pol it ical l y, t hey cont ribu t ed to t he achiev em ent of t he pol it ical unit y of t he
cou nt ry.
T hey cont ribut ed t o the l egal syst em; the word l aw is Danish.

DANEGELD: A tax imposed to pay the Danes who wanted to attack England in order to stop them. It wasnt effective because they asked for
more money and the monarch could not longer pay. Then, the country became under the control of a Danish Monarch.
16
Being subject to sb means, in political terms, submitting ones authority.

CULTURE I

MONARCHS UNTIL THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS:

AETHELRED THE UNREADY (Xth c) was not able to resist the Danish invasions, so he
decided to bribe the Danes with the Danegeld. Eventually, he could not raise the money because
the country went overrun/invaded. The monarch had to flee, and a Danish monarch succeeded
him.
CANUTE THE GREAT:

Danish king of England (101635). After Aethelred died in April

1016, the English Witan (council) elected Canute, king at Southampton. He begun to better the
English cultural standard because he became aware that many people was unable to read and
write. He adopted Christianity and organized spiritual expeditions.
Canute ruled under both Danish and A-S government. For the purpose of administration, the
country was divided into EARLDOMS, which at the same time were subdivided into SHIRES
and HUNDREDS.

EARLDOM:
SHIRE

SHIRE

SHIRE

gave

SHIRE

Shire-moot:
Hundred-moot:
Assembly of Assembly of the
the estates.
district ( Witan)

HUNDRE
D

Canute

SHIRE

HUNDRE
D
HUNDRED

Englishmen's

estates

to

his Danish followers as rewards. Yet Canute did not rule like a foreign conqueror for long: by
1018 Englishmen were holding earldoms in Wessex and Mercia. The Danish element in his
followers steadily decreased; of his three most influential advisers only one was a Dane; the A-S
Godwin was appointed Earl.
Canute proved an effective ruler who brought internal peace and prosperity to the land. He
became a strong supporter and a generous donor to the church, and his journey to Rome was
inspired by religious as well as diplomatic motives. He needed English support against external
dangers. In England, peace was broken only by Canute's expedition to Scotland in 1027, by
which he secured recognition from three of the Scottish kings.
English trade profited by Canute's control of the Baltic trade route. On his pilgrimage to Rome,
in 1027, he befriended the Holy Roman emperor Conrad II and other princes and met reductions
in tolls for English traders and pilgrims.
Canute was defeated at the Battle of the Holy River, Sweden. Neither Canute's illegitimate son
Harold,

who ruled England until 1040, nor his legitimate son Hardecanute, who succeeded to

Denmark in 1035 and to England in 1040, inherited his qualities. These kings died childless.

CULTURE I
Aethelred, in Normandy had two children: Edmund -who died in a battle, and Edward the
Confessor, who became Canutes successor by the Witan. Thus, the English reverted to their
old royal line in 1042.
EDWARD THE CONFESSOR :

king of England from 1042 to 1066. With the appointment of

Edward, the Danish rule came to an end. He was called the Confessor because he devoted
himself to religion. Edward was practically Norman by upbringing; he was not used to living in
England. He was much concerned with spiritual affairs; he spent many hours in the chapel.
When he arrived to England, he was rather shocked at finding that the administration of the
church was rather disorganized; the men living in the monasteries were not so learned people, so
he started a discipline in the monasteries. One of his main achievements was the building of
Westminster Abbey.
Nevertheless, for the first 11 years of Edwards reign, the real master of England was
GODWINE,

Earl of Wessex. Edward married Godwine's daughter Edith in 1045, but by 1049 a

breach had occurred between the two men. In 1051 Edward outlawed the Godwine family and
dismissed Edith. During this period Edward was rapidly losing popularity by giving foreigners
particularly Normanshigh positions in his government. Hence in 1053 Godwine and his sons
were able to gather large forces against the king. They forced Edward to restore their lands, and
they exiled many of his foreign favourites.
Upon Godwine's death in 1053, his son Harold became the dominant power in the kingdom.
WILLIAM I THE CONQUEROR:

(or The Bastard, or William of Normandy) Duke of

Normandy (as William II) from 1035 and king of England from 1066. Edward was married to
Williams sister, so by family ties he became the natural successor to the throne. Edward on his
deathbed named Harold as his successor even though he allegedly had already promised the
crown to William. For breaking the oath, Williams organised an expedition to punish Harold.
BATTLE OF HASTINGS: (1066): Williams mission was supported by the members of the
French aristocracy and the Pope. To the aristocracy, Williams promised hides; and to the Pope
William promised to organize the Church in England. Though the armies were equal in number,
the Normans were superior. On the one hand, the Normans were professional fighters, whereas
the Anglo-Saxons were only farmers who were amateurs in terms of war. On the other hand,
military strategies were also more advanced, for Normans fought on horses, while the English
did so on foot. Moreover, William did not attack London directly. There was a minority (from the
aristocracy and the clergy) who rebelled against the Normans. William killed Harold at the Battle
of Hastings, Sussex, in October 1066, and two months later he ascended the throne.

CULTURE I
Williams was one of the greatest soldiers and rulers of the Middle Ages. He made himself the
mightiest feudal lord in France and then changed the course of England's history by his conquest
of that country.

CULTURE I

THE NORMAN CONQUEST (6)

Normans were people who came from Normandy, a French province. They were

Origin/
How they
invaded

people from the Nordic origin esp. from Scandinavia. While the Daneland was
inhabited by Danes in England, Normandy was inhabited by Nordic people in
France. The Normans invaded the Daneland. As soon as the Nordic invaders
occupied the area they immediately adopted Christianity, Latin and French ways.
It was a conquest, so it implied a military enterprise. The Norman aristocracy was
in charge of the violent conquest. The conquest is similar to an occupation, yet

Aim of the
conquest

the former is permanent. The Normans did not alter the racial stock because they
didnt displace previous inhabitants. In general the conquest involves the growth
of a new culture but this was not the case of the Normans because the English
culture and civilization remained Anglo-Saxon.
They were highly advanced on military strategies, they built buildings. William

Main
activities/
Economy
Religious
field

built the Tower of London to protect himself. The Normans also built churches,
abbeys. They reached a high stage on civilization. They were mainly traders, and
they devoted themselves to commerce. The Normans introduced the enterprising
spirit into the English idiosyncrasy.
Also contributed to the coming of Christianity (hierarchical organization to the
country)

The A-S aristocracy disappeared. It was replaced by the Norman

aristocracy.
Social
organisation

Aristocracy: Made up by barons and knights. They were Norman

and freemen. In Medieval Society there was NO middle class.
Villains: Lower class made up of A-S half-free men. They were bound
to toil the soil. They were not allowed to leave the Manor.
The Norman Conquest leaded by William the Conqueror meant the last
step to the unity of the country. The FEUDAL SYSTEM also
contributed to the unification of the country. In times of the
Normans A-S feudalism was improved into a TERRITORIAL
FEUDALISM:

Feudalism was the social and political domination of a military and

land-owning aristocracy. (Lipson).

Political
organisation

Agriculture was means of production. It was their main source of

wealth, a sign of prestige and social status.

To be a member of the Witan people should be landowners.

The Normans were gifted for government, administration and law. Instead
of abolishing A-S administrative institutions, they improved them. For
example, the WITAN became the GREAT COUNCIL.
Normans also improved an efficient legal system. The most important
cases were brought before the shire-moot presided by the sheriff (or shire
reeve), who was a representative of the king. Bishops and Earls ceased to
preside the courts. The Bishops formed the Ecclesiastical Courts, whereas
the Earls constituted the Feudal Courts.

CULTURE I

CULTURE I

Significance of the Norman Conquest

The Witan turned to be called the GREAT COUNCIL (advisory
body)
Administratively

Lay people came to be tried by FEUDAL COURTS, instead of

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS.
A-S

FEUDALISM

was

improved

into

TERRITORIAL

FEUDALISM.
Many of the English thanes17 had been killed at Hastings. Those
who escaped were treated as traitors and those who survived
became villains. The deterioration of the churls18 began with the
Danish invasion. With the coming of the Normans, they finally
lost all their lands. As a result, there was a very significant change:
the disappearance of the middle class. A sharp differentiation
Socially

between social classes emerged:

Aristocracy

Barons: upper-class. Greater tenants-in-chief.

Knights: lower-class. Mesne tenants

Villains: lower class. Land-less AS thanes and

churls.

They tilled the soil either for the lord or the tenants-in

chief and mesne.

Their coming meant the return to the Mediterranean
civilisation.

Three languages were spoken:

1. French: aristocracy
2. Latin: Church members, language of learning.
3. English: the lower classes, which were the masses. Middle

Culturally

Eng. Was highly affected by the introduction of Latin

words from the French. It also became less inflected.

Many castles and churches were built: The Tower of London.

No change in the racial stock as there were only military

troops.

17
18

Warriors of AS society
Farmers of the AS society.

CULTURE I
WILLIAM I
(1066- )

William was the duke of Normandy (as William II) from 1035 when he became the
Monarch of England. He was one of the greatest soldiers and rulers of the Middle Ages.
He made himself the mightiest feudal lord in France and then changed the course of
England's history by his conquest of that country. He was afraid of having rebellions in
the island, so he resorted to some measures to remain as strong as possible:
MEASURES TAKEN BY WILLIAM TO SECURE HIS THRONE:
ECONOMIC: Land was the sign of wealth and power. Therefore, the king:
Confiscated the lands belonging to the A-S.
Kept the richest areas for himself. To weaken the power of the barons he granted
them small pieces of land scattered all over the country.
Didnt allow aristocrats to build castles near his own, because they could threaten the
king. He only allowed building castles on the coasts of the country for the sake of
protection from invasions.
Collected the danegeld as a regular tax to improve his revenue.
19

Sent to each shire royal commissioners called BAILIFFS to represent the royal
authority and control his possessions and used the Doomsday Book to record and
control the possessions of barons.
SOURCES OF ENGLISH HISTORY

Venerable Bede ( VIIIth/ XIXth C)

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

Domesday Book (in times of William I)

POLITICAL
Oath of Salisbury, was an act of loyalty by which barons and knights swore to
protect and support the king in first turn, in case of attack. If any baron rebelled against
him, the king would get the knights to fight for him.
LEGAL
Sheriffs. were in charge of SHIRE COURTS. They acted as representatives of the
Monarch and were to check that people were ready to fight for the Crown, if necessary.
MANORIAL COURTS were given to barons, who were in charge of minor crimes. At
that time money had to be pay by wrongdoers. Thus, it meant money for the Crown.
CHURCH COURTS were given to the clergy to solve religious problems.

19

It had started with Ethelred the Unready

CULTURE I

FEUDAL SYSTEM
Economically, Feudalism is a system of land tenure according to which land was
held in return for services rendered. It was also called Manorial System, since
those who tilled the land were grouped in Manors or Guilds. The King was the owner
of all the land. He kept the richest part and the rest was granted for military
services to his barons.
Socially and politically, it was the domination of the military and land-owning
aristocracy. This domination was due to the fact that land was the most important
means of production and a pillar of economy until the Industrial Revolution .
Man-to-man relationship:
- king and Barons:
- Barons and knights
- Villains and Lord (Barons and Knights)
Presence of a powerful aristocracy:
The source of power was land in the political and social fields, sometimes
aristocracy was more powerful than the king due to their holding of land.
Presence of a weak monarch:
Generally due to the presence of a powerful aristocracy. Villains did not know
the king.
Sharp differentiation of social classes and function.
The king, barons, and knights belonged to the upper-class, while the villains, to
the lower class. William, the king, granted lands to the barons (grater tenants-in
chief), who give in return military services to the king. The barons also granted
lands to their knights (mesne-tenants), who also paid military service to the baron
and indirectly defended the king. Barons and knights did not possess the land, they
just hold it. Villains could work for the king, the barons, or the knights. In return
villains were given a few strips of land for cultivation. The villains tilled the soil.
They could not leave the manor, and they paid field services.
Weak feeling of nationalism:
Due to the weak figure of the monarch. Besides the only unifying factor was
the Christian Church. Only in the Tudors times, the idea of nation consolidated.
Weak feeling of individualism.
Because of their communal way of living.
Communal way of living:
People felt they belonged to specific groups or communities (manors, guilds,
monasteries) and not to the country. This also weakened the feeling of
Nationalism.
Presence of a powerful church:
The churchmen were land-holders, the only learned, and those who monopolised
education. The only way to study was to enter the church and prepare to become a
priest. Members of the church were appointed as counsellors of the king. They
advised the Monarch culturally and politically. Their god-centred philosophy

CULTURE I
prevailed, so they influenced peoples thoughts. People felt members of a Christian
community and not of a nation. In this sense, church was a unifying factor.

CULTURE I

RURAL ENGLAND :
DECAY OF FEUDALISM (XIVth XVth C)
The central idea, the possession of lands in return for services, was attacked.
The BLACK DEATH (1342) affected England in the XIV th C. and nearly half of the
population died. The plague brought about shortage of hand-labour.
A) THE MANORIAL SYSTEM ATTACKED:
Villains paid labour services to the Lord in exchange of military protection within
the Manors.
Commutation of services: A great feeling of individualism started among
villains because of the Black Death since they became aware of their important
position in the economic growth. Therefore, they started to ask for higher wages.
Services began to be commuted by money payment. The lord released his non-free
tenants from the customary obligation to work on his land. In return villains paid
the lord an annual rent, with which the lord hired free-labourers to work in his
land. This arrangement was registered in the Memorial Ralls and a copy was given
to the villains who were called copy-holders. By the Late middle Ages, villains had
already vanished because they became free-labourers.
20

B) THE MAN-TO-MAN RELATIONSHIP ATTACKED:

King granted lands to barons in exchange for military service. Instead of paying
military service back, barons paid money, the SCUTAGE, to the king annually. The
king rented professional fighters to defend him if necessary.
Alienation of the demesne (homeland): Villains became less submissive: Peasants
Revolt . The villains demanded higher wages and the commutation of services. As
costs increased and the problem was who was to till the soil, the big land-holders
had two options in order to raise the scutage for the Lord:
1. Subdivide the land and then lease parts. The wealthiest copyholders , were in
a position to rent the land, so they became to be known as tenant-farmers, who
formed the lower- middle class. The lords, in turn, became squires living on the
rent of their lands; thus, they formed the higher middle class. The action of
subdividing and leasing lands was referred to as alienation of the demesne.
2. Turn their arable lands into pasture for sheep-raising instead of leasing them.
These lords in the future will become great producers of wool . Later, this would
pave the way to the emergence of early capitalism because of the growth of
trade, especially wool-trade.
21

22

23

20

Free- labourers went from manor to manor looking for better wages to be exchanged by their services.

21

22
23

Ex-villeins
One of the causes of the emergence of capitalism.

CULTURE I

RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Early Middle Ages
Aristocracy

Barons

(greater

tenants-in-

chief)

Late Middle Ages

Aristocracy
Squires: members of the
gentry. Upper class. (landed gentry)
HMCs (ex villeins):

Commutation
of services

Knights (mesne-tenants)
Theres no middle class since the Normans
conquered.

Lower class

Factors
Black Death

Tenant-farmers:
upper- middle class.

Copyholders: lower-

Alienation of the
Demesne

middle class.
Lower class

Villains

Free labourers:

rural-

working class.

URBAN ENGLAND :
The city takes importance when the growth of trade began.
In times of the Late Middle Ages, England was a corporate society organised on
the basis of GUILDS. Each Guild had the control of economic activities in the city,
i.e. trade. In those times it was not so important and was performed though
barter. Money or capital was not important as it is today. The market was limited
because it was only local. There was no overseas market. Thus, there were not
many needs to satisfy. There was no division of labour. Craftsmen produced the
raw material, worked the raw material with their own tools and owned the finished
product. Thus, craftsmen performed both handicraft and trade activities.
THE RISE OF EARLY CAPITALISM (late XIVth C)
Capitalism: A system of production and trade based on the private ownership of wealth, free
buying and selling, and little industrial activity by the government.
The main factors that brought about early capitalism are:
Expansion of the market: (This is the first and most important factor) The Black
Death brought about shortage of labourers and demands for higher wages on the
part of the villains. The big land-holders had to turn their lands into pasture for
sheep-raising. The market expanded from being local or limited to being
international since wool trade started with the Netherlands.
Growth of trade: This led to the emergence of wool trade with the
Netherlands. The market expanded and became international. Capital began to play
an important role. It caused the collapse of the Guild System.
Division of labour: Since there were more needs to satisfy locally and
abroad, the process of production became more complex. It turned impossible to do

CULTURE I
the activities individually. The division of labour became a must in order to produce
at a greater scale. Therefore the division of labour turned to be as follows:
Handicraft activity: Craftsmen
Mercantile activity: merchants and traders, who were those who were able to
accumulate wealth (merchant capital) to buy the raw material. They grew a strong
sense of individualism. Merchants and traders were also called middle-men,
bourgeoisie or entrepreneurs.

DOMESTIC SYSTEM:
Under the Guild System, craftsmen had an advantageous position because they
owned the raw material and the final production. Yet, under the Domestic System,
they lost such position and became half-dependent since they only crafted the
product with their tools, but depended on middle-men (merchants and traders). The
middle-men bought the raw material to squires and gave it to craftsmen. Therefore,
the latter were neither the owners of the raw material nor the final product.
Craftsmen could not fix a price to the product; instead they were paid a WAGE for
their services. They, thus, emerged as the waged working-class. The system was
called Domestic System because the craftsmen worked at home with their own
tools. But they didnt work for a price but for a wage.

EARLY MIDDLE AGES

GUILD SYSTEM

Position of craftsmen.
LATE MIDDLE AGES
DOMESTIC SYSTEM

System of production in a time when trade

was unimportant.
Manorial system: workers at Manors,
performing both handicraft and trade activities.
Limited, local market.
Simple process of production. No division of
labour.

24

System of production which replaced the

Guild System when trade grew.
Domestic system: worked at home with their
own tools for a wage.
International market.
Complex process of production so a division
of labour was necessary to fit the needs of the
market:
1. Mercantile function performed by the middle
men.
2. Handicraft performed by the craftsmen.
Craftsmen were independent:
The middlemen (merchants and traders)
1. produced their own raw material.
bought to the squires the raw material and gave
2. fixed the price.
it to the craftsmen. Craftsmen became half
3. worked at home with their own tools of dependent on the middle-men. They worked for
production
a wage at home with their own tools. Yet, the
4. sold the final product.
raw material and the final product belonged to
the middle men.
Capital wasnt important because it wasnt Capital became important as the middlemen
necessary.
performed a mercantile function: the middlemen
accumulated wealth to buy raw material, and
24

Because craftsmen still worked at home

CULTURE I
later fixed the price and sold the final product.
Results of the transition to the Domestic System in the social field :
The HMCs emerged as a powerful class. It was made up not only by the
knights but also by the bourgeoisie (merchants and traders). They now
had money to challenge the aristocracy, who no longer monopolised
power.
Emergence of the working or wage-earning class. Deterioration of the
economic situation of the craftsmen.

Deterioration of the aristocracy. After the Black Death and the emergence
of the HMCs the aristocracy began to decay and finally lost its power in
the Tudor period.

URBAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE

EARLY MIDDLE AGES
ARISTOCRACY:
# Barons
# Knights
#Clergymen

LATE MIDDLE AGES

ARISTOCRACY

# Lord, barons and clergymen.

HIGHER MIDDLE CLASSES:

# Bourgeoisie

LOWER CLASS:
# Land- labourers / craftsmen.

WORKING CLASS:

#Wage-earning class
LOWER CLASS

NORMAN KINGS
William I (the Conqueror) (1066- 1087)
William II
Henry I (1100-1135)
Adela = Stephen

Robert

1154)

(Rufus)
William (died)

(1135-

Matilda = Geoffrey Plantagenet (Count of Anjou)

Henry II (of Anjou)(1154- 1189)

Eleanor = Simon of Montfort
Richard I (11891199)
Jhon Lackland (1199
Geoffrey (died)
-1216)

Henry III
Edward I

(1216- 1272)

(Lawgiver) (1272 1307)

Edward II 1307 to 1327_

Edward III (1327 1377) Hundred Years' War with France. His son Edward the Black prince died.
Richard II (1377 1412) Edward IIIs grandson
Henry IV (1412- 1422)
Henry V (1422 1461)
Edward IV (1461- 1470) (1471- 1483)
Edward V (1483) two months

CULTURE I
Richard III (1483 -1485) Last Yorkish King

CULTURE I

E.M.A.

L.M.A.

Establishment of Feudalism
and Manorial System

Collapse of Feudalism and

Manorial System. Rise of the
Domestic System.
LAND was still important for
sheep-raising.

LAND: was main means of

Economic
Field

production and main source of

wealth and power. Agriculture
was very important till the
Industrial Revolution.

Trade took a minor role. Only

some barter within Guilds.
Rural England: majority of
people working for Manors.
Urban England: Few people in
small
communities.
Not
important

Social
Field

Clear-cut differentiation:
ARISTOCRACY:
# Barons
# Knights
#Clergymen
VILLAINS
# Land- labourers/ craftsmen

TRADE
emerged
in
international market
Rural
England:
Early
Capitalism: Arable land into
pasture for sheep-raising.
Urban
England:
Early
Capitalism: Growth of trade.
Cities developed.

Rural
England:

HIGHER MIDDLE
CLASSES:

# Squires (gentry)
LOWER MIDDLE
CLASSES:

# Tenant- farmers
# Copy holders
LOWER CLASS:

# Free labourers

Urban
England:

HIGHER MIDDLE
CLASSES:

# Bourgeoisie
WORKING
CLASS:

#Wage-earning class
LOWER CLASS

CULTURE I
Great Council: Advisory body
composed by members of the
aristocracy
(barons),
the
church, and gilds.

Political
Field

Monarch: Weak figure in the

rest of Europe. William the
Conqueror enjoyed a better
image, but people still rendered
service to the aristocracy, so
the king was not so strong.
Nationalism is weak, too.
Corporate
Society:
feeling of individualism.

Weak

Model Parliament: Still, advisory

body, but acquired new functions.
It became more representative of
Higher-middle classes (merchants
and traders)

Monarch: Gained power after

the 100s War. The feeling of
nationalism was stronger.

Individualism:
With
early
capitalism
individual
interests
were raised.

The power of nobility was

checked by the monarch and
the higher middle classes.

CULTURE I
MEASURES TO CONTROL THE POWER OF NOBILITY
The power of the nobility began to be challenged:
from below by the middle classes
from above by the king/ monarch
William I: allowed barons to establish private courts (Baronial Courts) to deal with
offences committed in their territories. So, barons acquired power. Instead, Henry I:
increased the power of the sheriffs to control the nobility. All important cases should be
brought against the sheriffs and not against the Baronial Courts .
25

Henry II tried to apply a legal system valid for all classes. So, he appointed royal
officials (itinerant judges) who were mainly cleric experts in law and finance. The Curia
Regis was a permanent small circle of advisors made up of churchmen who travelled
around the country in pairs to:
Preside different courts and solve disputes between barons.
Check their power.
Edward I: the law giver He checked the power of nobility by passing laws:
Statute of Gloucester or Quo Warranto (1278) . The Monarch had the right to
send officials to inquire the barons to know whether they had warrants granted by
the king to sit in the Baronial Court. If they did not have warrants, the Baronial
Courts would be abolished.
Statute of Quia Emptores (1290): When a lord divided a sold part of his land,
the buyer should pay feudal service to the sellers overlord, i.e. the Monarch.

25

In AS times, legal cases were presided by the sheriffs or shire-reeves.

CULTURE I

GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY

EMA

ANTECEDENTS

Democracy26: is the government of the people, for the people and by the people. All the social sectors are represented in government.
This involves the process through which Parliament turned from a class-body with limited political power into a representative governing assembly. It
started during the A-S period (Middle Ages) and did not reach its final stage until the 20 th century with womens franchising.
INSTITUTION

A-Saxon
Times

A-S
WITAN

LMA
Norman
Times

GREAT
COUNCIL
(Curia Regis27)

Henry I

26

ORIGIN
The
Witan
was created
after
the
consolidation
of
the
different
kingdoms into
one,
the
witanagemot
The
Witan
grew into the
Great Council
with William I.

MEMBERS

FUNCTIONS

MEETINGS

It was a class body:

It didnt make laws nor raise taxes. Its was only Met
three
Only
upper
classes
were an advisory and consulting body.
times a year.
represented.
* Wisemen: thanes and members
of the Church.

It was a class body:

It assisted the king in Norman times. It Met
three
Only
upper
classes
were performed the same advisory and consulting times a year.
represented since land tenure functions as the Witan.
resulted in being represented.
* Tenants-in-chief: barons, earls,
and bishops, and abbots. All were
granted land directly from the
king.

THE CHARTER OF LIBERTIES It is the earliest written document given to the nation as a
guarantee of good government. In the year 1100, it was issued by Henry I and it guaranteed the
rights of
The church.
Owners and landowners against taxation demanded by the crown.
All the classes to the protection of the Old English customs and laws.

Democracy:

Magna Carta is considered to be its first step.

Associated with the French Revolution

1919: The process of democratisation ended when women acquired the right to vote.
27
Curia Regis: a council of tenants- in-chief (those who held lands directly from the king, known as manors) and ecclesiastics that advised the king on legislative matters. It replaced its AS predecessor, the WITAN, after the
Norman Conquest of 1066, and eventually developed into the parliament of England.

1 STEP

CULTURE I
GREAT CHARTER/ MAGNA CARTA:
The MAGNA CARTA or GREAT CHARTER was signed by John Lackland in the year 1215. He was
forced to sign because the Barons rebelled against his taxation abuses. John had lost all the
possessions in the continent, so he began to impose heavy taxes. The most affected ones were
the barons because they were the ones who possessed more land. Barons were supported by
common people because the king was not loved.
The Magna Carta was a restatement of the Charter of Liberties, but fuller and stronger in its
provisions. Its 63 clauses protected mainly the rights of the barons. It affected the function of the
John
Great Council:
Lackland
12 clause: The king couldnt levy taxes without the consent of the Common Council of the
Realm28. The principle was no taxation without representation.
39 clause: No free man (baron) could be imprisoned or punished unless by the lawful judgement
of his peers, or by the law of the land. This clause developed in the trial by jury and equality of
all before the law.
National

Higher classes: barons, earls, With the sign of the Magna Carta, the Council
and churchmen
acquired the control over taxation. Indirectly, it

Council

Parliament

acquired the control of war and peace.

Henry III Henry was not liked by the nobility because he started granting titles of nobility to his wifes relatives, who were from

French origin.
In the year 1258, the barons led by Simon of Monfort forced the king to sign the Provisions of
Oxford by which the monarch lost most of his power
SIMON OF
MONFORTS
PARLIAMEN
T (1264-5):

28
29

. A few years
later,
Monfort
defeated Henry
III
and
summoned
a
parliament29 in
the year 1265.
For the first
time the word
parliament
was used. This
is the starting
point
from
which
the

Capital began to be important to Advisory and consulting body.

be a member.
* Control over taxation.
Higher classes: barons, earls, * Indirect control over war and peace.
and churchmen
Higher middle classes who
supported Monfort: two knights
from some shires, two citizens
from some cities and two
merchants and traders from
some boroughs.
This affected the structure of
Parliament. It became more

Common Council of the Realm: consisted of barons, earls, and tenants-in chief.
He summoned only representatives from towns where he had supporters.

CULTURE I
modern
representative, but not totally
parliament with because only the aristocracy
a House of and the higher middle classes
Commons and
were represented.
a House of
Lords
developed.

EDWARD I30 defeated Simon of Monfort and brought about his death. Edward I The Law Giver was the first monarch who checked the power
of the aristocracy. He governed a glorious period . However, he began to have some problems with Scotland and lost popularity.

Edward I

Scottish
nobility had to
pay for the
lands
they
held in their
country. Thus,
they rebelled
and
forced
Edward
to
summon his
Model
Parliament. .

It had limited power and was not much consulted

*House of Lords: barons, earls, on state affairs. It could not make laws.
and churchmen.
* Petitioned the king
* House of Commons: 2 * Had some control over taxation.
knights, 2 citizens, and 2
burgesses. The difference with
the previous parliament is that
he summoned all the shires,
cities and boroughs.
This structure was taken as a
model for future times.

National Monarchy
Parliament was still an advisory body. It had some control over finance and had a good
relationship with the monarch based on a community of interests against the Church. Both the
Monarch and the MPs checked the power of the Church.
Struggle between Parliament and the Crown because of differences in political ideas upheld by both of them.

TUDORS
STUARTS

James I

Charles I
Charles
II

30

EDWARD Is
MODEL
PARLIAMEN
T (1295):

PEACHAN CASE:

Peachan, of the House of Common, complained against benevolences. SUPREMACY OF LAW &

INDEPENDENCE OF JUDGES.
PETITION OF RIGHTS
ELLIOTS RESOLUTIONS
JOHN HAMPTEM: Second case of the supremacy of the Law.
LONG PARLIAMENT:
GRAND REMONSTRANCE:
RESTORATION: RESTORATION OF KING; PARLIAMENT (AND CHURCH OF ENGLAND):
DECLARATION OF BREDA: The King would be in charge of foreign affairs and the Parliament of internal matters.
TREATY OF DOVER: Beginning of political parties: Court Party and Country Party

Nicknamed Lawgiver, First Truly English, Monarch

CULTURE I
GLORIOUS REVOLUTION: Achievement of Constitutional Monarchy

James II DECLARATION OF RIGHTS BILL OF RIGHTS

HANOVERS

William III MODERN CABINET: Prime Minister and Parliament.

Victoria

1919: Women were given the right to franchise.

CULTURE I

HOW MONARCHS CHECKED THE POWER OF THE CHURCH IN THE MA.

WILLIAM I: The Monarch demanded that landowners, included the Pope, should pay
HOMAGE to the Crown. On the other hand, the Pope demanded that the Monarch should pay
HOMAGE to the Church as a representative of God on Earth. The solution was that Pope
Gregory VII, knowing Williams character did not press the Monarch to pay homage to him.
William granted the Church with the privilege of having the CHURCH COURTS. This act was
called the Benefit of the Clergy because all members of the church could be tried there.
Besides, common people also benefited from these courts.
WILLIAM II: Was very different from his father because he was not very religious. Therefore,
he started keeping revenues for himself and did not pay the Church. The Monarch resorted to
many malpractices to raise money. Then, he fell severely ill and, after he recovered, he promised
to make up for what he had done.

Thus, he appointed ANSELM as the Archbishop of

Canterbury. Anselm asked the Monarch to pay the money he had gained wrongly back to the
church. There were certain problems, so the Anselm had to leave. No archbishop was appointed.
HENRY I: He was central in the struggle against the Pope. He stated that the members of the
church were supposed to pay for the lands they possessed. In addition, the struggle between the
Crown and the Pope was about who had the power to appoint bishops and archbishops. The Pope
demanded to have the power to do so, and so did the Monarch. Also, there was an investiture
contest, since it was not certain who was to invest prelates with the symbols of office (the ring
and the crosier). The problems went on and a sort of compromised was reached:
- Members of the church were to pay feudal homage as land-owners.
- The Monarch kept the right to appoint members of the church.
- The Pope kept the right to invest with the symbols of office.
HENRY II: When Anselm died, THOMAS BECKET was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury.
He no longer supported the Monarch and started to claim the Churchs rights.

Henry II

summoned all the clergy and issued the CONSTITUTION OF CLARENDON. This constitution
stated that if a member of the clergy was found guilty in the Church courts, he must be degraded
from his orders and then be brought before ordinary courts and no appeals could be made to
Rome without the kings consent.

CULTURE I
JOHN LACKLAND: He wanted to appoint one of his favourites as Archbishop, yet the Pope
was against his decision because he thought that the Monarchs duty was not to appoint
Archbishops. The Pope appointed Stephen Langton as Archbishop but he was not allowed to
enter England, thus the Pope declared England under INTERDICT, i.e. all religious services
came to an end. English people were left adrift in religious matters. Then, John recognised the
Pope as Supreme Overlord, so the Church gained the battle again.
The Church remained powerful throughout the EMA. However, it lost prestige during
the LMA. Therefore, the Church had less power.
EDWARD I: Statue passed to attack the economic position of the church. (anticlericalism)
a.

Statue of Mortmain: It limited the power of the English Clergy to acquire

further property from laymen by prohibiting the granting of lands to the Church except with
the expressed permission of the King.

31

EDWARD III: Two statues were passed to limit the power of the Pope over the English Church.
(antipapalism)

1. Statue of Provisors: (1351) It forbade the sending of English revenue to the Pope.
2. Statue of Praemunire: (1353) It stated that it was illegal to appeal to a Roman Court
when the decisions were taken by the English church court. It also forbade the entrance of Papal
Bulls to the country without the Kings permission.

POSITION OF THE CHURCH

E.M.A.
L.M.A.
Economically powerful because churchmen

The power of the church began to

were landholders. Land was an important source

deteriorate but they didnt lose power

of wealth.

completely.

Politically influential because they had seats

in Parliament as land-owners. Besides, as they

Middle classes checked its power

because:

were the only learned people, they were a) They developed a critical attitude towards
appointed as the kings advisors.

the Churchs corruptive ways of raising

Socially and morally powerful as they set

up the values and patterns of behaviour
according to their god-centred philosophy.

Culturally authoritative since they had the

monopoly of education in monasteries. To get

money.
b) People were becoming educated since
they could have study without becoming
priests.

education men should become clergy men.

31

Even before dying, people used to leave their properties to the church so as to be forgiven of their sins.

CULTURE I

DETERIORATION OF THE PRESTIGE OF THE CHURCH IN

THE L.M.A.
1. FACTORS OUTSIDE THE CHURCH
PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF THE LATE MIDDLE AGES : The God-centred
philosophy was replaced by the man-centred philosophy. Humanism and Renaissance.
THE 100 YEARS WAR: A war between England and France in times of Edward III
(XIVth c). France was said to have supported the Scots, who wanted to become free
from the English. England obtained the victory over France, and this reinforced the
feeling of nationalism32
THE BABILONISH CAPTIVITY: It meant the transference of the Pope to Avignon. A

French Pope had been elected, so the king of France advocated that he should live in
Avignon and not in Rome. As a result, the English considered the Pope an allied to the
French. Thus, sending part of the revenue to the Pope would be sending money to their
enemies.
THE STATUTE OF MORTMAIN (Edward I) It forbade the granting of land to the church
without the expressed approval of the monarch. This attacked the economic position of
the church.
THE RISE OF THE LAY CULTURE: In the XIVth and XVth c., the Church has lost the
monopoly in education due to the introduction of the printing press. Education, then,
ceased to be the only way to acquire wealth and prestige. Many laymen were welleducated and start thinking critically, so they were in a position to oppose the church.
The emergence of capitalism also contributed to the power of the laymen over the
clergy.
2. FACTORS WITHIN THE CHURCH
THE WORLDLINESS AND GREED OF THE CHURCH : many bishops were too much
concerned with the administration of the State and began to disregard spiritual
functions. Monks left their monastic rules and became accustomed to the lifestyle of the
lay society. Friars were criticised as they had forgotten their principles of poverty,
chastity, and obedience.

32

The feeling of nationalism consolidated in the Tudor period

CULTURE I
PLURALISM AND ABSENTEEISM. Pluralism meant having two or more official posts,
while absenteeism accounted for not having time to devote to spiritual affairs. Both were
considered malpractices within the Church.
LACK OF VOCATION AND PREPARATION OF THE LOWER RANKS OF THE CLERGY . Due
mainly to the Black Death many priests died. So they were replaced by men without
education.
JOHN WYCLIFF and the LOLLARD MOVEMENT: This religious movement was against
the power, wealth and privileges of the church. Wycliff argued that:
a)

Priests should get back to the life of poverty.

b)

The Bible was the only authentic rule of faith, thus it should be translated into the

vernacular language.
c)

The theory of the transubstantiation was just a Catholic dogma and not a Christian

one.
Wycliff was a member of the church who worked at Oxford. Llolards were persecuted
in times of Henry IVth, VIth, and the VIIth. Yet, in times of Henry VIIIth they rise with
Protestantism. The LLOLARDY became an important antecedent of the Reformation.
All these factors inside and outside the Church led to two feelings:

FEELING OF ANTICLERICALISM:
ANTICLERICALISM (social connotation) It was the reaction of the
laymen against the malpractices and greediness of the members of the church. The lay
culture was against :
Absenteeism.
Pluralism.

All the factors within the church.

FEELING OF ANTIPAPALISM (political connotation) It was the reaction on the

part of the HMCs against the church mainly due to the political and economical
power of the pope. The factors that contributed to this feeling were:
The 100 Years War:
The Babilonish Captivity:

In the late Middle Ages, social, political, economic, and moral motives worked together and
produced a world in which the church was seriously questioned. However, the hostility against
the church was not strong enough to break down into a conflict.

CULTURE I

DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION
1- AIMS OF EDUCATION IN THE M.A.:
Elementary education: Nunneries and Song Schools were attached to Cathedrals,

Parish Churches. Children were instructed in faith there. Elementary schools

provided the academic education to enter Grammar Schools. In Grammar Schools
learning was based in oral repetition and rote memory. Its main subjects were
Grammar, Latin and Composition. These teachings were permeated with dialectics
partly because books were scarce and expensive. Grammar Schools were designed
as pathways to university studies, where Theology was the highest aim. The main
universities at the time were the University of Paris and Bologna. Language was not
a problem because Latin was the language of instruction at Grammar Schools. Many
educational institutions were still directed by the church and had ecclesiastical
aims. Chantries became extremely popular, and Chantry Priests, who had a lot of
spare time, devoted their time into teaching poor boys.
Change in educational aims: In the L.M.A., the church partly lost control over
education. Previously its aim was merely the training of future priests thought the
study of Theology, Metaphysics, Cannon and Philosophy. Due to the rise of
capitalism many skills were needed to cope with the trade. This constituted the
emergence of schools founded by gilds and merchants and traders. Its purpose was
technical training. Thus, lay societies fostered lay/ secular education. The
secularisation of education as such was completed in the Tudor Period (16th c)
because in L.M.A. Latin was still the language of learning.

Grammar school
Aim: Academic level to enter university.

Technical school
Aim: training in crafts and trades.

2- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INTRODUCTION OF THE PRINTING

PRESS:

Learning could be at the reach of everyone .

Books were vast and cheap.
Translations to the vernacular spread rapidly.

E.M.A
Latin: learning
French: court and nobility
English: common people

L.M.A.
Latin: learning
English: Official language (1362)

3- FOUNDATION OF UNIVERSITIES: The first English university

was founded under the reign of Henry II :

a. Oxford: 1264 - 1274.

b. Cambridge: also 13th C.
By the end of the 13th century these universities became established institutions,
i.e. well-organised:
# Timetables
# Beginning of Tutorial System.
# College organization
# Living on holds under control of
master.
# Registration of students

CULTURE I

TUDOR PERIOD
th

(XVI century- beginnings of Modern Age)

Dates associated with the beginning of the Modern Age:
1492 .............. Discovery of America
1453 .............. Fall of Constantinople due to the Turks.
1485 ..............England: A new dynasty came to the throne: The Tudor Dynasty. They supported
the theory of the Divine Hereditary Right of the Monarch but they didnt express it openly.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

HENRY VII (1485- 1509). First Tudor Monarch.

HENRY VIII (1509- 1547)
EDWARD VI (1547- 1553)
MARY TUDOR. (1553- 1558) First Queen of England.
ELIZABETH I (1558- 1605) 45 years of English splendour. Leading sea
country up to the First World War.

The XVIth C: Marks THE EMERGENCE OF ENGLAND AS:

o

CAPITALIST: Early capitalism consolidated in the Tudor Period with the

expansion of the market, the growth of trade and the consolidation of the higher
middle classes. In the Early M.A. agriculture was the most important economic
activity. In the Late M.A. trade emerged as the most important activity, but
agriculture was still the pillar of the English economy. In the Tudor Period, trade
grew considerably due to the opening of new sea-routes, which led to the expansion
of the market.
o

IMPERIALIST: England performed her first attempts to set a colony in

North America with John Raleigh.

o

SEA-FEARING: The Royal Navy was created and England defied the

Spanish monopoly of America. She began to trade with the New Continent
becoming one of the leading countries in the world. New sea-routes were discovered
by Columbus and Vasco Da Gamma. This led to the growth of trade as an important
activity, which led to the expansion of the market. Englands relation with the sea
began to be active and acquisitive.
o

PROTESTANT: The Church of England was set up by Queen Elizabeth.

MIDDLE-CLASS COUNTRY: The higher middle classes: merchants and

traders consolidated in this period. When monasteries were confiscated, lands were
bought by merchants and traders. Meanwhile the power of nobility was checked by
government.

CULTURE I

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PANORAMA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 16TH

CENTURY.
THE BLACK DEATH: was also an important factor in the decay of Feudalism.

It was a pestilence that affected England in the 14th century. CONSEQUENCES

1. UPON THE POPULATION: Nearly half of the English people died, especially
villeins. Once villeins became aware of the degradation of servitude, they
became less submissive and took part in the PEASANTS REVOLT, which was
the first great struggle between those owing capital and those performing
labour.
2. UPON THE ECONOMY OF THE COUNTRY: this brought about the shortage
of the labour force. Villeins realized they were for the country, so a group
started demanding higher wages and another required the commutation of
services.

THE GROWTH OF POPULATION AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 16TH

C: By the year 1485 (15th c.), Englands population begun to increase due to internal
peace and order because the 100s War and the War of the Roses had come to an
end. Then, it was necessary to produce crops and to satisfy the needs of a growing
population.

VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY It is of great importance that with the Discovery

of America, England started trading with America, Asia and Africa. Moreover, after
the defeat of the Spanish Armada, England acquired the monopoly of international
trade and the command of the seas. Thus, Colonies would be the providers of cheap
raw material to the mother country.

EXPANSION OF THE MARKET: Meanwhile and due to the market

expansion, there was a growth trading activity with the Netherlands. Wool trade
became the main source or wealth in the international sphere. This increasing
demand of wool caused an acceleration of pasture farming. OPEN FIELDS were
swept away and enclosed. The main purpose of ENCLOSURES was the conversion of
arable land into pastures for sheep-raising. Two consequences arose from
enclosures:
o

Depopulation of villages

Farmers divorce from land.

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE TWO FORMS OF LAND UTILIZATION:

Characteristic of the Tudor period.
Thus, a struggle arose between the two forms of land utilizations. Two groups
reflected the conflict: BIG LANDOWNERS (squires) wanted to devote land to sheepraising because they were concerned with trading, whereas TENANT FARMERS

CULTURE I
wanted to devote their land to farming/ agriculture. The customary system of tillage
began to break down with the spread of enclosures and profit-making husbandry.

OUTCOME: To put an end to the struggle, the Monarch decided to stop

wool export because of:
a. The progressing growth of population.
b. The high prices of wheat and corn.
c. Shortage of supplies from abroad due to the War with France
Therefore, the export of raw wool was stopped and it was kept to fulfil the
needs of population.
15th c.
17th c.

Decline of wool trade.

Low significance of wool industry because other industries

emerged: coal, glass, cotton, ship-building).

PHILOSOPHICAL PANORAMA OF THE MODERN AGES:

o

HUMANISM: It was the philosophy of the RENAISSANCE. It puts

emphasis on man and his abilities. Its a man-centred philosophy. (XVIIth c.)
o

RENAISSANCE was an artistic revival of the classics (Greek and Latin).

Anew vision of man: adventurous, versatile, intelligent, independent. It led to

a strong desire for knowledge and the Age of Secularisation.
o

INDIVIDUALISM: became stronger. People were no longer guided by the

ideas of the church. It was an individual freedom .

33

BEGINNINGS OF EARLY LIBERALISM. Philosophical doctrine which has

individualism as its pillar.

o

NATIONALISM: It consolidated since the early modern states emerged.

Besides England defeated the Spanish Armada to foster international trade.

33

During the Reformation there were strong critics towards the Church

CULTURE I

ATTEMPTS AT OPENING NEW SEA ROUTES

(THE NORTH-EAST AND THE NORTH-WEST)
i- THE UNOFFICIAL WAR WITH SPAIN:
At the beginning, England was too much concerned with religious issues and wasnt
interested in the voyages. The Spanish were discovering and opening new routes. When
Elizabeth came to the throne, the religious problems were settled from the time being. Now
England was ready to participate in international trade and overseas adventures. Spain had the
monopoly of trade and sea routes and this is the period when England began to be in conflict
with Spain.
a) John HAWKINGS: a wealthy English merchant, realised that the king of Spain
could not prevent him from trading with the settlements in Central America. He sailed to Africa
and exchanged goods for Negroes, and then he took them to America and sold them as slaves
to the Spaniards at a high price. When King Philip of Spain heard about this private enterprise
he attacked Hawkings in his third voyage. The merchant managed to escape. H., then, asked
Queen Elizabeth to obtain redress from Spain, but she did nothing because she wanted to keep
in good terms with King Philip.
b) Francis DRAKE: A friend of H., started to attack and rob Spanish ships. So, the
king of Spain told him that he would be hung. This time Queen Elizabeth realised that a war was
inevitable and that she would need men such as Drake, so she knighted him in her ships. From
now on his voyages were no longer private enterprises but they had the authority of the Queen.
This showed the support of the Queen to acts of piracy, so many merchants and traders
began to attack and raid Spanish ships. The English found another form of hitting Spaniards to
get profit. The English Channel was the hideaway between Spain and the Netherlands, so ships
laden with goods and treasures passed trough it. The English, then, would capture Spanish
vessels and divide up the lot. When King Philip realized that Elizabeth wouldnt do anything to
stop these practices, he declared war on England.

ii- THE DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA

King Philip had already begun to prepare for his conquest of England. Many soldiers were
trained in Spain and the whole of Philips naval force was concentrated to transport them.
Englands only chance of resisting this attack was to prevent the Spanish from landing. Finally,
the Spanish Armada was defeated when trying to anchor at night in Calais. English hammered
them unmercifully. Spaniards then flew away to the North Sea.

CULTURE I
CONSEQUENCES of the Attempts at Opening New Sea Routes:

Leading sea power country: England acquired the control of the sea
and spread colonies in America, Asia and Africa.

Expansion of the market. She became active and acquisitive, for

she began to participate actively in international trade and acquired
new territories.

Mercantilism: The changes were so quick that the whole economic

structure was about to collapse. The government, then, adopted this
new economic policy based on self-sufficiency.

Feeling of nationalism increased, and also the image of a powerful

Queen who represented the whole country. This sense fostered poetry
and music. Also, play- going34 took part among the humbler classes.

Protestantism: People began to feel affection and devotion for the

Church of England simply because it was a National church. Thus,
Protestantism became stronger. If the Spanish Armada had won,
England would have returned to Catholicism.

Persecution of Puritans: After defeating the Spaniards, Elizabeth did

not need the support of extreme Protestants (Puritanism), for they
wanted to abolish the bishops and vestments who were appointed by
her. This gave her the control over the church. Puritans were
prosecuted, and the Court of High Commission was established. Its
function was to punish those who disobeyed the orders of the bishops
appointed by the Queen.

34

PLAY-GOING: Itinerant plays.

CULTURE I
CONSOLIDATION OF EARLY CAPITALISM:

MERCANTILISM

1.

DEFINITIONS:
(a)

Protectionist system whose main goal was to foster production for a country to

become self-sufficing. It lasted in national industry about a century and in international industry
for about three centuries. It is based on a planned-national economy.
(b)

Historical period in which this system was adopted: This economic policy was

common in Europe in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries.

2.

REASONS FOR ITS ADOPTION: Agriculture was regulated by the village courts,

industry by the craft guilds, and commerce by the merchant guilds at home and by trading
companies abroad. But, no private interests were considered in these practices.

Expansion of the market: Caused the change from subsistence economy to market
economy.

Growth of individualism: Brought about a new outlook on the land. Supporters of

individualism believed that agriculture should participate in commerce and that the
owners self-interests should shape agrarian development.

Fear of social discontent. People began to demand sanctions from the state in order to
prevent abuses from gilds and to foster honesty.

3.

CHARACTERISTICS: Strategic policy based on power rather than abundance.

o SYSTEM OF UNIFICATION: Mercantilism implied a gradual concentration of

economic forces in the state. The industrial and commercial activities of the community ceased
to be organized on urban basis (gilds). Local interests merged were concentrated in those of the
country as a whole. It constituted the transition from town economy which prevailed in Early
England to the nation economy which started after the Reformation. The system of unification
involved:
1. Assimilation and standardization of municipal practices.
2. Legislation which regulated on a nation basis the woollen industry, the
conditions of labour, and the currency system.
3. Break-down of barriers to internal trade.
4. Formulation of a common policy of external/international trade.

CULTURE I
o PROTECTIONIST POLICY (to be self-sufficing): Systematically, a policy of
protection was applied in all the spheres of national economy in order to develop native sources
of production and in the pursuit of the self-sufficing ideal. Trade rested upon three legal pillars:
1. Protection of industry: It aimed at promoting and fostering the
development of native industries, and at protecting them against foreign competitors. It
was carried out through a complex system of tariffs and duties in relation to exports
and imports. As the population increased, heavy taxes were levied on the export of raw
material, mainly raw wool, so as to keep it in the country. But, it was allowed the import
of raw wool with low taxes so as to gain this raw material. This strongly affected the
HMCs. As regards manufactured goods, the government encouraged the export of
goods by reducing taxes and duties. At the same time, it levied taxes on foreign
manufactured-goods so as to prevent competitors with the national market.
2. The Corn Laws: England should aim at being self-supporting. These
were agrarian legislations which protected corn growers. The Corn Laws permitted the
export of corn regardless its price; while they imposed a high duty on imported grain
when prices in England were low and a low duty when prices in England were high.
England was supposed to produce enough corn to feed internal population, and with the
passing of these laws she was encouraged also to produce a surplus to export.
3. The Navigation Acts:

They fostered the growth of the mercantile

marine, which had suffered economic problems after the war with Spain. They stated
that:
a. No commodities could be imported except in English ships.
b. No commodities could be exported from colony to colony without passing
through the mother country.
c. The master of an English ship and at least of its crew had to be
English. [Nationalism]

CULTURE I
o AIMS: Mercantilism was a system of protection whose main goal was to foster
production for a country to become self-sufficient. The Mercantilist ideal was that a community
should rely upon its own resources, agricultural and industrial, to preserve its existence. selfsufficiency or autarky did not imply isolation. It does not, therefore, imply the exclusion of
international trade.
a.

IN HOME INDUSTRY: England should produce all its primary necessities (food

and manufactured products) to the fullest extent. It must also possess its own
mercantile marine.
b.

IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE: Foreign trade would supply deficiencies which

could not be made, in return for the export of its surplus production.
PATENT OF MONOPOLIES: CORPORATIONS:
JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES:

Were in charge of international industry. They

were corporate bodies whose capital was provided by the number of shareholders who profit
from it and whose aim was to trade abroad. This kind of companies permitted England to open
new branches of commerce in India, Africa, and Canada. Yet, they found the hostility of those
companies that opposed the monopoly of lucrative traffic.
REGULATED/ CHARTERED COMPANIES:

They were corporate bodies in

which each merchant traded on their own. It was subjected to a common discipline laid down by
the fellowship to which they belonged: Craft Gild or Merchant Gild. The regulated companies
were the older forms of association that was in charge of trafficking with countries with settled
conditions. To make up for the risk of foreign trade, regulated companies operated under a
charter from the Crown. Thus, they granted it a monopoly of English commerce abroad.

Mercantilism was achieved through some measures in order to control, protect and legislate trade and
industry:
-

Protectionist policy

Corn laws

Navigation acts

Patent of monopolies

Joint-stock companies

Regulated companies

CULTURE I
THE NATIONAL MONARCHY
a)

WHY DO WE SPEAK OF A NATIONAL MONARCHY?

The new National Monarchs asserted their authority in all spheres and tended to
become heads of church as well as state. The church represented the main rival in
terms of authority. Thus, Monarchs demanded complete obedience and support in
order to preserve order and security. If not, chaos would divide political power.
b)

WHY WERE THE TUDORS ABSOLUTE MONARCHS?

Tudor Monarchs were ABSOLUTE because they imposed the political doctrine of
unlimited, centralized authority and absolute sovereignty. The essence of their
doctrine was that the ruling power was not subject to be challenged or checked by
any other agency, be it legislative, religious, or electoral. In defence of
MONARCHICAL ABSOLUTISM, the simplest argument was that kings derived their
power from God, i.e. they enjoyed the divine hereditary right of kings. Therefore,
their power could not be checked by earthly authorities such as the Parliament.
c)

ON WHAT BASIS DID THE EARLY MODERN STATE EMERGE?

The emergence f the National Monarchy was supported by the HMCs, while the
emergence of the Early Modern State/ Nation was based on strong individual
leaders: powerful Monarchs. Previously, states were governed by the church,
feudal lords and medieval customs. Now, the Monarch was proclaimed Head of
State and imposed his/her own absolute authority.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE CONSOLIDATION OF THE HIGHER MIDDLE

CLASSES:

INTERCURSUS
MAGNUS (1496). This act passed by Henry VI favoured the English merchants and traders of
wool. By means of this act Henry VII obtained favourable terms for selling wool to the
Netherlands. Therefore, the Monarch became popular among merchants and traders.

DISSOLUTION

OF

MONASTERIES (1539): Economic field, in times of Henry VIII, merchants and traders
acquired the lands of the clergymen at low prices. Political field, if the owning of land was a
requisite to be a member of the Parliament, merchants and traders could become Parliamentary
members and the bourgeoisie became represented. Social field, with the acquisition of land they
emerged as the new gentry.

DEFEAT

OF

THE

SPANISH ARMADA: This helped to the expansion of the market to the international sphere.

CULTURE I
Wool trade increased and provided merchants and traders (higher-middle classes) with vast
wealth.
DECLINE

OF

THE

POWER OF NOBILITY.
REASONS FOR THE DETERIORATION OF THE POWER OF THE
NOBILITY
BLACK DEATH.
POWERFUL HMCs: Merchants and traders acquired land confiscated from monasteries.
STATUTE OF QUA EMPTORES (1290): Stated that if the Lord decided to lease his
lands, the new tenant-farmer had to perform military service to the supreme Lord, i.e. the
Monarch.
STATUTE OF GLOUCESTER (1278): Was passed to check baronial courts. It
established that baronial courts couldnt be held without the permission of the King.
THE 100 YEARS WAR (Henry III): It contributed to the feeling of Nationalism. Thus, the
figure of the Monarch became a symbol of Nationalism He turned more powerful than
noblemen.
THE WAR OF THE ROSES (1453-1485/ Richard III): It was a war between the
Lancasters (red rose), and the Yorks (white rose) for the control of the throne. Many
noblemen died, and those who survived lost their lands and wealth. The Lancasters won and
confiscated the lands of the Yorks.
HENRY VII: He was also to blame for the decay of the nobility because he was ambitious.
In his attempt to consolidate his position as Monarch, he took measures that affected the
position of the nobility.
(a) BENEVOLENCES: With

the imposition of benevolences, the nobility was compelled

to contribute with money to the Crown.

(b) MIDDLE-CLASS APPOINTMENTS: The

King began to appoint merchants and traders to

political posts instead of appointing noblemen. This occurred because the King was mainly
supported by members of the middle class. In this way the nobility lost their monopoly over
political posts, now they had to share political power with members of the HMCs.
(c) SUMPTUARY LAWS: Put an

end to two practices:

2. Practice of Livery: Some people were paid for fighting for a house. They had to wear
uniforms and badges. Through this law, retainers were no longer allowed to wear uniforms.

CULTURE I
3. Practice of Maintenance: Was also abolished. According to this practice, Lords went to courts
with their supporters, but now it was illegal to appeal for a lawsuit accompanied by retainers .
Noblemen were no longer tried by ordinary courts; they were tried by the Court of the Star
Chamber. This Court was made up by the Kings advisors, who imposed heavy fines on the
members of the nobility.

CULTURE I
PARLIAMENT UNDER THE TUDORS
ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF PARLIAMENT UNDER THE TUDORS: Its
importance in the 16th c. laid in its active participation in the process of Reformation, which was
carried out through acts of Parliament. The Parliament also was in charge of controlling finance
through taxation (right gained in the Magna Carta)

STRUCTURE OF PARLIAMENT: Due to the War of the Roses, and their economic
deterioration, the nobles lost their monopoly in politics. Moreover, the members of the Church
lost their right to be members of the Parliament due to the confiscation of church lands. Nobility
was weakened. The members of the HMCs gained the power to be members of Parliament and
constituted the House of Commons.

House of Lords
House of Commons
Nobles: Aristocracy and some members HMCs: new gentry: merchants and
of the Church.
traders.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PARLIAMENT AND THE MONARCH: The
House of Commons demanded POLITICAL STABILITY in order to make economic progress
possible. They supported the Monarch because he approved their policies, which in turn,
favoured their economic interests.

FREQUENCY OF MEETINGS: Parliament only met when the Monarch summoned it.
Their meetings were not so frequent because monarchs were wealthy so they didnt often ask
for money.

IDEAS UPHELD IN TUDOR ENGLAND

Economic MERCANTILISM: State control and intervention in all spheres of
economy.
field
THE HMCS CONSOLIDATED and became the New Gentry or Landed
Social
Gentry. The reason was mainly because of the deterioration of the power
field
of nobility that began in the L.M.A.
DIVINE HEREDITARY RIGHT OF MONARCHS: (Though they didnt
Political
express it openly) Monarchs repealed Parliament interference in foreign
field
affairs and religion. Parliament had little governmental participation.
DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND: Mid position between
Protestantism and Catholicism. The Monarch became the spiritual leader
Religious
of the country. With Elizabethan REFORMATION England became a
field
protestant country. The English did not recognise the authority of the
Pope.

CULTURE I
Periods

THE REFORMATION

1. UNDER This PROCESS started in the EMA, but reached their climax during the XVIth Century. It was much more than a religious movement, since it had

HENRY
VIII

political, social and economic connotations:

IMPLICATIONS:
a) POLITICAL: In this period,

the bridge with the Pope came to an end. Tudor Monarchs disliked the idea of having a ruler above. Thus,

they rejected the Pope as a political and religious figure and controlled the English Church as its supreme head, becoming its political and
spiritual ruler. Meanwhile, the HMCs were already represented in Parliament since land tenure was the requisite to be a member.

b) SOCIAL:

It meant the reaction of the laymen against the clergys economic power, moral corruption and the malpractices of the Church.

c) ECONOMIC:

Government started to check the economic power of the Church, since they could not accept the draining away of money

for Church authorities abroad. The Church lost properties and lands. (new distribution of wealth)

d) RELIGIOUS ANTECEDENTS:

The English had always resented their dependency on the Pope on religious matters:

1) Conflicts between Monarchy and the Papacy were not new in England:
Royal Divorce: It was the immediate cause to the Reformation.
ATTITUDE OF THE ENGLISH TOWARDS THE ROYAL DIVORCE:
- Ordinary people did not approve of the Kings decision to split up with his wife. They did not like the idea of having another queen. Besides,
the majority of the population was still Catholic and divorce was not accepted . Henry passed the Succession Act that obliged people to sign an
oath recognizing Anne Boleyn and her son as the legitimate heirs to the throne. But, many people refused to sign. People was not ready to
recognize the Monarch as the Head of Church, though they recognized Annes heirs right to the throne.
2) Development of a critical attitude towards the Church:
(2.1) Feelings of anticlericalism:
(2.2) Feeling of antipapalism

ACTS:

Under Henry VIII the Reformation was achieved through the passing of acts of Parliament.

1529: ACT AGAINST ABUSES: The Church had been imposing high fees for the performance of sacraments . This act affected the economic
power of the church since the benefit of clergy was abolished.
1532: ANNATES ACT: [annates: money paid by the newly appointed bishops and sent to Rome]. The act forbade the sending of annates to
Rome and affected the economic power of the Pope. Before carrying the act into effect, Henry proposed to the Pope not to pass the act if he
accepted the nomination of Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury. The Pope accepted and appointed, but the king put the act into effect all the
same.

CULTURE I
1533: ACT AGAINST APPEALS: It forbade appeals to Rome against a decision taken by the English throne. All spirituals affairs had to be taken
to the archbishop of Canterbury.
1534: ACT OF SUCCESSION: Declared Henrys second marriage legal, so the heirs to the throne had to be the children of Anne Boleyn (she
had a girl: Elizabeth).
1535: ACT OF SUPREMACY: Marked the breach with Rome; the Monarch and not the Pope was the head of the Church in England. This act was
mainly a political issue since Henry put an end to the dependency on Rome.
1536-1539: ACTS DISSOLVING MONASTERIES: The lands belonging to the monasteries were confiscated and nationalised by the Crown. The
Monarch sold them to the higher middle classes (new gentry).

CONSEQUENCES:
* Henry VIII passed the necessary laws to separate the Church of England from Rome, and place it under the supremacy of the King himself.
The connotations were manly political rather than religions under this period.
* Protestant ideas began to spread in England independently from the acts of Parliament.
* Only the Reformation dogma was introduced: The monarch was head of the Church of England, but the country was still Catholic:
SIX ARTICLES OF RELIGION: Henry was a catholic man, he did not approve of protestant ideas. For this reason, before dying he issued a
document stating that he was catholic in every respect except in recognizing the authority of the Pope as the supreme head of the Church.

2. UNDER

ANTECEDENTS IN THE CHANGE OF DOGMA:

EDWAR a. JOHN WYCLIFF and the LOLLARD MOVEMENT(1730): Wycliffe was a member of the church who worked at Oxford He led this religious
D VI
movement which was against the power, wealth and privileges of the church:

(15471553)
Protectors

d) Priests should get back to the life of poverty.

e) The Bible was the only authentic rule of faith, thus it should be translated into the vernacular language.
f) The theory of the transubstantiation was just a Catholic dogma and not a Christian one.
Lollards were persecuted in times of Henry IVth, VIth, and the VIIth. Yet, in times of Henry VIIIth they rose with Protestantism.

d. 100 YEARS WAR: Brought about the feeling of nationalism.

e. HUMANISM and philosophical developments. There was an emphasis on man and his rational capacity. Money acquired importance and
fuelled the feeling of individualism. Who helped:

MARTHIN LUTHER: German Catholic who reacted against the abuses and malpractices of the Church, and denied the Theory of
Transubstantiation.

JOHN CALVIN: (1530) he went on developing Luthers ideas in France and Switzerland.
JOHN KNOX: He followed Calvins ideas and brought them to Scotland.

CULTURE I
f. ACT OF SUCCESSION: After the execution of Anne Boleyn, this act was passed so that the heir to the Throne was not Elizabeth, but Edward
(Jane Seymours)

ACTS

Edward IV had been raised as a Protestant, and during his childhood government was in the hands of:

PROTECTOR SOMERSET: (Hertford 1547-1551 )

1549:

ACT OF UNIFORMITY: Was passed to enforce the use of the Common Prayer. Cranmer produced the Book in English from both

Protestant and Catholic sources. This book favoured direct contact with God. Cranmer was archbishop of Canterbury; he was denounced for
promoting Protestantism by the Catholic Mary I, convicted of heresy and burned at the stake. (abolition of celibacy, churches were
whitewhased)
The theory of Transubstantiation was not denied, but it was not even mentioned

PROTECTOR NORTHURMBERLAND: (1551 -1553)

1552: ACT OF UNIFORMITY: Crammer produced a Second Book of Common Prayer, which was less catholic. This 2 Book was also imposed
through this second act. (removal of the altar, denial of sacrament)
The Theory of Transubstantiation was openly denied.
Hierarchical organization as abolished, bishops were barely distinguished from priests.
The term priest was replaced by the word minister.

CONSEQUENCE:

PROTESTANT. There were changes in dogma.

CATHOLIC INTERLUDE:
MARY TUDOR (1553 1558)
When Edward died, Mary came to the throne for five years. She married Phillip of Spain, a strong Catholic. The Queen was devoted to
her husband, thus in this brief period England came back to Catholicism. Mary decided to put and end to Protestantism, and begun
persecuting Protestant and Anglican people: MARIAN PERSECUTION
* The Church of England became definitely

CULTURE I

ANTECEDENTS:

Queen Elizabeth was protestant, but unlike her brother and sister, she had no strong religious beliefs. Her main

concern was the nation, since she wanted to reconcile and unify England.

ACTS:

1559: ACT OF SUPREMACY. Made the Queen the supreme governor of material and spiritual matters. She was intelligent enough to use the

3. UNDER word governor in the act, so Catholics could still consider the Pope as head.
QUEEN
ELIZABET
H

(1558 - 1603)

1559: ACT OF UNIFORMITY: Compelled the use of common Prayer, which was lightly modified to make it more ambiguous. The Queen wanted
to satisfy everybody.
1571: 39 ARTICLES OF RELIGION: Were issued defining the doctrines of the Church of England. Transubstantiation was not denied.

IMPORTANCE:

Achievement of a NATIONAL CHURCH

* POSITION OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND: The Church took a mid-position, since Elizabeths intention was to reunite the nation first.
The Reformation has three main emphasis:
1.

Evolution of political doctrine: A Theory of state as a self-sufficient entity is built.

2.

New Theology: Researchers undermine the hold of faith upon their minds.

3.

New Cosmology: The new scientific outlook generates a new metaphysics.

DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS VIEWS
CATHOLICISM

PROTESTANTISM

Services were held in Latin.

Services held in English.

Hierarchical organization with the pope as Head of Church.

No hierarchical organization.

Belief in TRANSUBSTANTIATION: Christ is embodied in the bread and

wine.

Belief in CONSUBSTANTIATION: Presence of Christ in every element or person.

The Church is intermediary between man and God.

Personal relation between man and God.

Bible in Latin: priests were supposed to read and preach it.

Bible translated so that everyone could read and preach it.

Celibacy of the clergy.

Ministers were allowed to marry.

Important role of priests, sacraments, services and ceremonies.

Services, ceremonies played a secondary role.

Rites were made simpler.

Accurate organization of
ornaments and vestments.

services,

with

presence

of

images,

CULTURE I

CULTURE I

HUMANISM
The Humanist philosophy prevailed in the XVth and XVIth century.

HUMANISM IN THE CONTINENT:

Economic: Anticlerical movement. Criticism came from outside the Church.

HUMANISM IN ENGLAND:

Religious movement: Against the corruptions of the Church. The ones who
criticized the Church were inside the Church. Their aim was to better and
purify the Church.
PEOPLE WHO HELPED THE CHANGE TO OCCUR:
MARTHIN LUTHER: German Catholic who reacted against the abuses and malpractices of the
Church, and denied the Theory of Transubstantiation. In 1517 Pope Leo X was raising funds to build St.
Peters Cathedral in Rome, and he sent a monk on a tour through Germany to sell indulgences (pardon
for peoples sins). Luther, who had been worried about some doctrines of the Church, reacted against
the practise and issued his 95 Theses or topics for discussion, throwing doubts on indulgences and
other practices. For doing so, he was excommunicated.

JHON CALVIN: (1530) he went on developing Luthers ideas in France and Switzerland.
JOHN KNOX: He followed Calvins ideas and brought them to Scotland.

THE RISE OF SCIENCE

COPERNICUS:

(1473 1543) Polish astronomer who proposed that the planets have the Sun as the
fixed point to which their motion s are to be referred; that the Earth is a planet which, besides orbiting
the Sun annually, also turns once daily on its own axis; and that very slow, long-term changes in the
direction of this axis account for the precession of the equinoxes. This representation of the heavens is
usually called the heliocentric, or Sun-centred, system. Copernicus's theory had important
consequences for later thinkers of the scientific revolution, including such major figures as Galileo,
Kepler, Descartes, and Newton.
KEPLER: (1571-

1630) German astronomer who discovered three major laws of planetary motion.
Kepler himself did not call these discoveries laws. He regarded them as celestial harmonies that
reflected God's design for the universe. Kepler's discoveries turned Nicolaus Copernicus' Sun-centred
system into a dynamic universe, with the Sun actively pushing the planets around in noncircular orbits.
And it was Kepler's notion of a physical astronomy that highly influenced Newton.
GALILEO:

(1564 1642) Italian natural philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician who made
fundamental contributions to the sciences of motion, astronomy, and strength of materials and to the
development of the scientific method. His formulation of (circular) inertia, the law of falling bodies,
and parabolic trajectories marked the beginning of a fundamental change in the study of motion..
Finally, his discoveries with the telescope revolutionized astronomy and paved the way for the
acceptance of the Copernican heliocentric system, but his advocacy of that system eventually resulted
in an Inquisition process against him and he publicly rejected his heretical views.

CULTURE I
SECULARISATION OF EDUCATION

MAIN CHANGES INTRODUCED IN EDUCATION:

With the Act of Dissolution of Monasteries, education was affected.

Monasteries, the previous centres of education, were abolished and the lands
were sold mainly to the HMCs. When Charity schools were abolished, new
grammar schools came into being.
More schools were founded by members of the higher-middle classes.

AIMS OF EDUCATION IN THIS PERIOD: Previously the main aim of

education was to prepare future priests. In order to get education men had
to become priests. With the discovery of new routes and developments in
astrology the aim of education turn to training the ruling class to be future
responsible citizens that could occupy posts in the offices of State.
Education would prepare men of affairs.
NEW SUBJECTS: In addition to theology, metaphysics, and philosophy,
new subjects were introduced such as: literature, poetry, the classics,
ethics, rethoric and history. The degree of literacy increased widely.

THE NEW LEARNING: OXFORD REFORMERS

THE RENAISSANCE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS IN ENGLAND

CULTURE I

STUART ENGLAND
(XVIIth C)
PANORAMA IN THE XVIth CENTURY
SOCIAL
ECONOMIC

SOCIAL SHIFT: Movement between higher and

higher middle classes because of economic
reasons. Titles of nobility (peer) were sold
to get money for the government. So, the
classes that had money bought them and many
members of the higher middle classes became
lay peers.

Most of the members of the HMCs started

to be members of the gentry because they
acquired land.

SOCIAL CLASSES: There were four main

social groups:
RULING GROUP:
a) The peers (members of the nobility + lay
peers)
b) The squires or gentry ( big land holders
+ some members of the HMCs)
RULED GROUP:
a- The yeomen (tenant farmers + small land
holders)
b- The common people ( poor people +
labouring people + servants)

URBAN & COUNTRY COMMON INTERESTS: XVIIth

C was characterized by a community of
interests between city dwellers and country
dwellers. Both were interested in land and
trade.

INDUSTRIAL
ACTIVITY
INCREASED:
There
was
a
minor
Industrial
Revolution due to the growth in
industrial activity. Coal and iron
mining raised. The woollen industry
was still central and the cotton
industry emerged. It was also the
beginning of ship and glass industry.

ENCLOSURES: The enclosures of land

devoted
to
sheep-raising,
which
started with the Tudors, went on in
this period.

FARMING: Farming continued to be

significant because some improvements
in cultivation were introduced.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE
ACHIEVED
IN
HOME
INDUSTRY: Home industry was guided by
the principle of allowing private
business to develop without any state
control.

EXPANSION
OF
THE
EMPIRE:
The
Colonies were set up to provide raw
material.

CROMWELL:
IMPERIALISM.

Developed

the

Idea

of

Note: EL emphasis on man and reasoning capacity. L of 19thc. romantic movement.

The Rise of Early LIBERALISM (product of protestant and capitalist

countries).
a) Definition of early Liberalism:

HAROLD LASKI:

liberalism was the ideology that emerged to satisfy the

needs of a new world.
new world: new social and economic order.
new social order: The government was shared with another class:
the Higher Middle classes. They became educated and developed a
critical attitude which give way to the lay culture.
new economic order: Emergence of capitalism. The city replaced the
country.
method of reconciling intellectual and ethical
individualism. Emphasis was put on human but specifically on intellect and
humans moral.
BERNARD

RUSSELL:

XVIth and XVIIth C

Intellectual Liberalism

CULTURE I
XIXth C

Sentimental Liberalism: Romanticism: It was the movement

of the time.

b) Factors that led to the emergence and development of Early

Liberalism:
CAPITALISM: by the end of the XVth C. the capital spirit emerged to
justify the individual needs. In this way, the search for wealth and property
began to play an important role in humans lives to such a degree that it
became the motive of human activity. The liberal doctrine, characterised by
the pursuit of wealth for its own sake, legitimised that the determinant of
the meaning of utility was no longer social but individual.
THE REFORMATION: indirectly but fundamentally, the Reformation
fostered Early Liberalism. The Reformation paved the way for individualism
by confiscating wealth that was previously used to support principles that
interfered with the individuals opportunities. The Reformations gave an
opportunity of self-enrichment not only for the King but also to the nobility
and the upper-middle classes.
SECULAR LIFE: The Medieval religious principles, together with the
Churchs wealth disappeared. A secular conception of life emerged slowly
but soundly.
RISE OF SCIENCE: technological inventions
HUMANISM & REVIVAL OF LEARNING
REVIVAL OF INDIVIDUALISM
THINKERS: Thomas More, Luther, Pascal, Hobbes, Richelieu,
Machiavelli
VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY: Opening of new sea routes, discovery of
new lands.
c) Characteristics and aims of early Liberalism:
CHARACTERISTICS: (Russell)

Religious toleration. Moderate Protestantism

Early liberal highly valued industry and commerce. Emphasis on

property accumulated through ones labour, i.e. emphasis on
individual enterprise in opposition to corporate enterprise.

CULTURE I

They were against the hierarchical right to the Crown. They were in
favour of the idea that each community should choose the
government it wanted: Constitutional Monarchy.

All men were born equal, if not education became the levelling
factor to acquire equality.

Early liberals went against the Medieval order:

i) The doctrine of the Church.
ii) Feudalism
iii) A powerful Monarch
iv) A powerful aristocracy.

AIMS

Reaction against:
i)

Dogmatism: evident in the Reformation

ii)

Absolutism: against the absolute power of the Monarch

Emphasis on reason.

EARLY LIBERALISM
(end of XVIth C and beg. of XVIIth C.)

Early Liberalism was a doctrine formulated to defend the interests and

needs of the new society. The capitalist spirit, whose essence was the
pursuit of wealth for its own sake, spread out until succeeded in
transforming the old medieval culture into one that would suit its new
ECONOMIC

purposes. The capitalists stood up for property ownership and wanted

FIELD

commercial liberty, which they considered the basis of trade efficiency;

that is, they sought to achieve the LAISSEZ-FAIRE POLICY in home
industry and FREE TRADE in international trade. This policy would
leave them control over trade and at the same time security over
person and property.
The liberal ideology held the principle that every community had the
right to choose its own form of government; therefore, they fought for a

POLITICAL

CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY that would regard Parliament as a

FIELD

permanent and necessary part of the government. They were against

absolutism. They viewed material wellbeing as incompatible with
arbitrary authority.
Liberals stood for TOLERATION AND FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE,

RELIGIOUS

although Parliamentarians in England fought at first for Puritanism. It

FIELD

was not until the 2nd half of the XVIIth C. that they joined the fight for

LEGAL FIELD

such Liberal ideas.

Liberal ideas upheld the SUPREMACY OF LAW and vindicated

CULTURE I
individuals rights to be protected from interference outside the course
of Law. Ashley states that they fought the Crown in order to establish
the Legislature as the effective centre of law-making power.

CULTURE I
STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT:
Parliament was more powerful than the Monarch during this period because in this struggle
between the two forces searching for power the Parliament won.
CHANGES IN ATTITUDE OF PARLIAMENT:
They rebelled against the Stuarts taxation and stated that they were the ones to control
taxation.
i)

The TUDORS were rich Monarchs

ii)

QUEEN ELIZABETH left a National debt

iii)

JAMES I had to pay off this debt, so he needed the approval of Parliament. However,
they were not ready to approve taxation because they were the ones to pay it.

1) Ideas upheld by the Stuart Monarchs and by the Most Influential

Members of the Parliament in the political, economic and religious
fields:
XVIIth C

MONARCHY

PARLIAMENT

Conservative: Against changes, innovations.

Liberal: progressive. They wanted to introduce

They were for keeping the old order on every

changes in every field.

field.
Supported the DIVINE HEREDITARY RIGHT of

They wanted to be permanent in the machinery of

the Monarch

government to advise the Monarch on different

James I wanted to get rid of wars because they

issues to grant a CONSTITUTIONAL

were very expensive, so he held a friendly

MONARCHY

relation with Spain. Thats why the Monarch

Members of the Parliament wanted to have a SAY

wanted to have his son married to the Spanish

IN FOREIGN AFFAIRS because they were the

ECONOMIC

Infanta.
In favour of MERCANTILISM

ones to pay the taxes.

Supported LAISSEZ-FAIRE

FIELD
RELIGIOUS

Supporters of the Church of England ( mid-

The

FIELD

position) But the Monarchs wanted to do away

PROTESTANT

with the in-between church, since they

PURITANISM, i.e. they were not liberal in the

enjoyed a very good position being both Monarch

religious field because they wanted to do away

and

with the Catholic customs in their process of

POLITICAL
FIELD

head

organization)

of

the

Church

(hierarchical

majority

of
with

MPs

were

tendency

strongly
towards

purification of the Church of England.

Some others agreed with the Church of England
as in Elizabethan times.

LEGAL

Later, favoured toleration and freedom of thought.

Supremacy of the Law.

FIELD

Right of the individual to be protected by the law.

Magna Charta was an antecedent

CULTURE I

CHARLES I
(1625 - 1649)
POLITICAL ISSUE: Charles I was strong supporter of the Divine Hereditary Right of the
Monarch. He didnt recognize authorities above him. He was a weak man from Dutch origin.
ECONOMIC FIELD: Conservative. He was for Mercantilism
RELIGIOUS FIELD: Armenian ideas (Armenious was a Dutch philosopher. The Church should
come back to the Catholic Church.
Charles appointed W. Laud (against Puritans) as Archbishop of Canterbury. Besides he married
a Catholic French princess. He promised Catholicism would not be molested and that England
would lend part of her Army to France. However, he never complied with his word.
The puritans were prosecuted. LAUDIAN PROSECUTION
Some Puritans left the country (1630s) because they wanted freedom of worship: BRITISH
EMPIRE.
QUARREL BETWEEN MONARCHY & PARLIAMENT IN TIMES OF CHARLES I

POLITICAL ISSUES:
The Parliament was against the Monarch because of religious matters and because the Duke of
Buckingham. The MPs distrusted the Duke of Buckingham because of dishonesty.
1 Parliament Summoned Parliament voted the right to collect money for one year. The MPs
limited Charles I of the right to the Customs Duty (REVENUE). Thus, Charles I dissolved the
Parliament.
2 Parliament Summoned: The king needed money to wage the war that France declared to
England. Elliot complained about the Monarchs behaviour and he impeached Buckingham.
The King dissolved Parliament again.
Charles I applied illegal procedures to raise money: BENEVOLENCES or forced loans. If people
did not pay, they were punished:
Imprisonment without a trial.
Billeting of soldiers in their homes (Home imprisonment)
Martial law to lay people: People were tried by the Martial Court: people were
deprived of the civil law, and they would be brought before and sentenced by the
Martial Court.
The money raised was spent in an expedition to France which ended
up in failure. Thus, he was forced to summon a third Parliament.
3 Parliament Summoned
1628: PETITION OF RIGHTS (to stop illegal practices):
Memorandum drawing attention to the fact that civil rights had been disregarded. It was similar
to the Great Charter. It suggested:
No more martial law.
No more billeting of soldiers
No taxation without Parliament consent
No mere imprisonment without a trail.

CULTURE I
This memorandum was similar to the Magna Charta (12159 in their purpose to stop illegal
practices.
The Monarch was forced to accept the Parliamentary demands and the Petition of Rights to
obtain the money to afford the war. Parliament approved taxation.
The money raised was spent in a new expedition to France which
ended up in failure.
The antagonism between the monarch and the Parliament widened. Thus, before the monarch
dissolved the Parliament again, the Parliament passed

1629: 3 ELLIOTS RESOLUTIONS:

Whoever tried to innovate in the Church of England
Whoever was responsible of collecting taxes without Parliamentary consent
would be charged with
Whoever paid these taxes
TREASON to the NATION

The Parliament was dissolved again and Elliot arrested.

1629-1640: 11 YEARS OF TYRANNY: Charles I dissolved Parliament and ruled the

country alone for 11 years. He wanted to prove that the Parliament was not indispensable for
governing.
However, money was always a problem for him:
2) He sold his jewels
3) He sold the patent of monopolies.
4) He imposed a new tax: SHIP-MONEY
5) Practice of knighthood (lords who did not provive $ to king were heavily fined.)

ECONOMIC ISSUE :
One of the reasons leading to the Civil War.
SHIP-MONEY: This money was supposed to be invested in reorganizing the English fleet.
People should pay or contribute with vessels or ships. But it was not so.
John Hampdem and educated classes protested against ship-money. Lower classes were not
aware. He was against the way the monarch got the money, i.e. without Parliamentary consent.
Hampdem was overtly voicing the rights of the Magna Charta, since they had been disregarded.
However, he was brought to trial and lost.

RELIGIOUS ISSUE :
The immediate reason leading to the Civil War
Scotland:

England:

Presbyterianism

Protestantism / Church of England

The Monarch did not care about the Church in Scotland. A special edition of the Book of Common Prayer
was printed and the king wanted to impose it on England and Scotland. The Scots reacted against this
imposition. All Scots joined to preserve their faith, the purity of the Gospel.
Charles had to subdue the Scots. He had to wage a war but could not summon Parliament because they
were not in good terms. Instead, he summoned the FEUDAL ARMY: many noblemen who were medieval

CULTURE I
retainers. However, they were not enough. Charles decided to sign a TRUCE (the two countries decided
not to fight for some time).
THOMAS WENTWORTH (Earl of Stratford): he ruled Ireland. He was called to come
back to England and support the King of England. Wentworth advised Charles I to summon Parliament
back as it was the only way to get the money to wage the war against the Scots.

4 Parliament Summoned
1640: SHORT PARLIAMENT: Parliament was summoned again in Westminster and
very shortly was dissolved.
Charles idea of subduing Scotland was also a failure.
The problem became even worse because it was not only about subduing the Scots but about
preventing the Scots from invading England. The Scots were invading. Thus, Charles summoned
Parliament again.
5 Parliament Summoned
1640 - 1660: LONG PARLIAMENT: The Parliament put high pressure on the Monarch.
They expressed dissatisfaction of having Wentworth as adviser to the King, so he was arrested
and charged with HIGH TREASON for being conspiring against the Monarch. In fact,
Wentworth was loyal to the monarch. The impeachment was cancelled because there was not
enough evidence to prove Wentworths guilty.
Ways in Which the Parliament Secured Sovereignty:
ACT: Parliament could not dissolve without its consent.
ACT: The Monarchs previous practices (distrait of knighthood, forest
rights and ship-money) to raise money were illegal.
TRIENNIAL ACT: elections in Parliament were to be held once every three
years.
ACT OF ATTAINDER (1641): The MPs passed an act stating that
Wentworth had committed offences deserving death without a trial. The
Monarch did not agree but finally he had to agree because he needed
economic support. Therefore, the king signed the act and Wentworth was
beheaded.

CULTURE I
STEPS LEADING TO THE CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY:
CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR
RELIGIOUS
POLITICAL
ECONOMIC

IMMEDIATE CAUSE!!

The MPs draw up the:

a) The money raised

REMONSTRANCE:
Document
among GRAND
which clearly enumerated the malpractices
MPs:
Some Mps were that the monarch had held during the 11
strong puritans, while some YEARS OF TYRANNY. It was similar to the
Magna Carta/Great Charter.
others supported the mid- There was a long discussion among the MPs
position of the Church of because not all members of the House of
Commons were in favour of the document.
England. The ones who Finally the document was passed but in the
wanted to introduce reforms House of Commons there were two clearly
differentiated tendencies:
(Puritans) suggested the

was

ROOT AND BRANCH BILL to a) in favour of the b) against

put
an
end
to
the Monarch :
Monarch:
hierarchical organization of
ROYALISTS/

which

a) Confrontation

the Church of England (Pym

CAVALIERS

he

ROUND HEADS

and Hampden). But, the bill The Monarch:

was dropped because it 1- Refused to accept The Parliament:
could not reach the majority the bill.
a) Also begun to raise
of votes. Yet, the Bill grew in 2- Accused some of an army to defend the

spent

expedition
which

in
to

ended

an

France
up

in

failure.
b) The money raised
was spent in a new
expedition

to

ended

France
up

in

failure.
c) SHIP-MONEY: This
money was supposed
to

be

invested

reorganizing

in
the

English fleet. But it was

used by the Monarch

it the members of the religion,
law
and
showed
the
differences H of C of high peace of the country. for his own benefit and
raised in illegal terms.
within Parliament in the treason.
They got money from
religious field for the first 3Should
have taxation.
d) Charless idea of
time.
brought
them
to
LIBERAL IDEAS
subduing Scotland was
b) Irish struggle: Ireland trial, yet he himself
also a failure
begun
to
suffer
the went to Westminster
importance

because

antagonism

between to arrest the traitors.

Catholics and Protestants as But, the MPs were

soon as Wentworth left the warned
country to advice the king and
of England

beforehand

the

monarch

remained ridiculous

The Monarchs issue was to and stupid in front of

bring order and peace to citizens.
Ireland,

so

he

The

needed Monarch was losing

money to raise an army. support and he had

However, the MPs were not to leave England. He
ready to grant the Monarch settled

on

the

a standing army because Western country and

they thought he could rebel started to raise an
against Parliament again.

army to defend his

position.
CONSERVATIVE
IDEAS

CULTURE I

CULTURE I
1. The CIVIL WAR (1642 1646)

FIELDS

TRAITS

CONSEQUENCES

ROYALISTS/ CAVALIERS

Religious

ROUND HEADS

For the ANGLICAN CHURCH: No

Supported

PURITANISM:

They

changes in the Book of Common

were for all the liberal aims or

Prayer.

ideas except in the religious field.

They wanted to make the Church

Political

Religious independence was achieved: People disliked the

enforcement of a fixed Church system. They wanted complete
freedom for all forms of Puritan worship (many sub-groups).
They were Puritan but not extremists, thus they were referred

to as independent
more protestant
ISSUE: Supremacy of the power, i.e. the Monarch and the Parliament For the time being the Monarchy was abolished. The House of
were fighting for the supremacy of their power.
Commons had also been abolished. The country was ruled by
ROYALISTS/ CAVALIERS
ROUND HEADS
For Constitutional Monarchy. They Cromwell and his followers. This period became known as the
Strong supporters of the Monarch.
boosted a permanent Parliament to Cromwellian Interregnum.
have

say

in

the

affair

of A Council of State was formed to carry on the day-to-day

business government.

government.
ROUND HEADS
The ROUND HEADS won the Civil War. Yet, the only liberal
Laissez-faire in home industry. i.e. a
For State control and intervention
aim achieved after the war was the attainment of laissezEconomic
free hand in the management of
faire in home industry.
economic affairs
ROYALISTS/ CAVALIERS
ROUND HEADS
a) Merchants
and
Traders
a- Big land-holders (from the
(Inhabitants of the towns and cities
North and Western countries)
from the South-East)
The Civil War brought about mobility of social classes. The
b) Small land-holders (form the
new gentry became more important and strengthen, since the
Social
South-East)
c) Some big land-holders (from the confiscated land was bought by merchants and traders.
South-East): they were for the more
progressive ideas because of the
proximity to the continent.
ROYALISTS/ CAVALIERS
ROUND HEADS
No recognition of any other For the supremacy of the Law and
Legal
institution above the Monarch
the right of the individual to be
defended.
IMPORTANCE: The Monarch was defeated. He was brought to Court to be judged for High treason. Cromwell was responsible for the creation of a
special court to treat the King. There was disagreement among the members of the Parliament, thus Cromwell did away with those who did not approve
of the creation of this special court thought arrestment or rejection to have a say in Parliament. Finally, the Court was created.
ROYALISTS/ CAVALIERS

CULTURE I
Oliver Cromwell was a patriot and was fighting for his country. The war was won thanks to Cromwells skilfulness. Oliver Cromwell and the Army of
Independence = New Model Army: He had formed an army of Puritan yeomen and farmers and permeated it with his enthusiastic spirit. Cromwell
summoned professional men, i.e. soldiers, properly armed, paid, equipped and trained. He was a conservative after all because he gave the Monarch
many opportunities to make up his faults. He knew that the outcome of the war would be very unfair to the English. However, the Monarch didnt change
his viewpoints; he stated that he didnt recognize any institution above him, except God. So, he did not answer when he was tried. Cromwell turned fed
up with the issue and decided to execute the Charles I.
1649 : CHARLES Is EXECUTION

CULTURE I
The Cromwellian Interregnum (1649- 1659)

THE (PURITAN) COMMONWEALTH:

A body politic founded on law for the common weal, or good. The term was often used by
17th-century writers, for example, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, to signify the concept of the
organized political community. For them it meant much the same as res publica did for the
Romans, or as the state means in the 20th century. Specifically, commonwealth served as the
label of the Cromwellian regime in Great Britain (164960). Modern usage has further
extended the term.
In England,
The House of Lords had been abolished and half of the House of Commons
had lost their seats for having supported the King. The remaining minority
(upon authority of the NEW MODEL ARMY) elected a Council of State to
govern. This council was made up by:
a) Members of the Rump (remnant of members of Long
Parliament)
b) New Model Army officers.
General elections were not called because they would result in a ROYALIST
majority.
In Ireland,
BRIEF UNION OF RELIGIONS: The execution of the king resulted in the
union of the Catholic peasants and Anglican landlords against the regicide
government. Cromwell went there to restore order. After the temporary
union between Catholics and Protestants, the latter joined Cromwell. Thus,
Eastern and Northern Ireland were under his power.
In Scotland,
The Scots were indignant that the English Army should have killed the King
and disregarded the COVENANT. (In 1643 the Long Parliament had
promised to establish a Presbyterian Church in England). So, they invited
Prince Charles to be King of Scotland and he accepted. An expedition to
Scotland was carried out with Cromwell as leading figure. The Scottish
Army was defeated by Cromwells Army. Thus, Prince Charles escaped to
the continent
Foreign matters: The Commonwealth was engaged in a foreign war
against the Netherlands, another Puritan Republic.

CULTURE I
1653: NAVIGATION ACT: Goods would be brought to England only in
English ships or in ships of the country from which they came.
1654: Netherlands were compelled to make peace on terms favourable to
England.
By the time Cromwell had become the most important member of the
COUNCIL OF STATE. The Army had supported the Rump Parliament until
it tried to perpetuate authority by enacting that vacancies in the House
were to be chosen by themselves. Cromwell got angry and dissolved
Parliament. Therefore, the army officers had to device other form of
government. They created the INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT:
The power formerly exercised by the king was to be entrusted to a LORD
PROTECTOR.
1653: Cromwell was proclaimed LORD PROTECTOR
COUNCIL OF STATE

INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT

* Ramp Parliament

New Model Army

* New Model Army

LORD PROTECTOR

(Cromwell member)

Oliver Cromwell

CROMWELLIAN PROTECTORATE (1653 1659)

CRITICISM
MERITS
a- Despotism: He justified himself a)Religion: he adhered to his belief
by saying that it was his first duty of toleration, since he did not allow
to keep government going.

the imposition of a religion.

a) Cromwell was dependent for b)

authority

on

the

New

Foreign

Model Affairs: Most important imperialist.

Army; thus, he delayed calling * Cromwell made an alliance with

Parliament

and

declared

the protestant

powers

in

Europe

House had no right to try to alter (Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands) and

the Instrument of Government. attacked the Spanish West Indies
Finally, he dissolved Parliament.

capturing Jamaica , which became

b) He collected taxes just as the

most

important

British

Charles had done before. When possession in those areas.

people disputed Cromwells right * Cromwell united the British Isles
to do so, he dismissed judges who under one government for the 1
decided against his favour.

time under the COMMONWEALTH:

CULTURE I
Cromwell met with many revolts,

Scotland: Independent

so he divided the country into 10

government was abolished

districts under the command of a

Ireland: Lands were confiscated

MAJOR GENERAL who would be

and

responsible for law and order.

soldiers on the New Army as a

Unfortunately, these were mainly

reward

Puritan

strengthening

fanatics

and

tried

to

enforce their creed. The English

Nation turned horrified.

given

to

and

the
as
the

officers
a

and

way

of

Protestant

minority in Ireland.
a)Domestic affairs: Cromwell made
reforms in the Legal System by
which it became simpler and cheaper
for people to appeal to the Law
Courts to help them in their affairs.

DECLINE OF THE PROTECTORATE

Cromwell knew his government was un.2popular within the Parliament for his
despotic measures. However, his need for money forced him to summon a
SECOND PARLIAMENT. The house begun at once to demand a revision of the
Constitution. Most of its members were Puritants and suggested a return to a
system more like the Monarchy with the two Houses of Parliament.
Cromwell was renamed Lord protector and two Houses were created.
Upper House
LORD PROTECTOR +
Low House
The low House attacked the new Constitution, thus Cromwell got angry and
dissolved Parliament.
1658: Oliver Cromwell died. He had nominated his eldest son as his
successor.
1659: Richard Cromwell took over his fathers government. However, he did
not have neither the capacity nor the willingness to grapple with the state
affairs. As soon as generals begun to question his authority and limit his power,
he threw up his office and retired into his private life.
The COUNCIL OF OFFICERS tried to revive the Commonwealth, but quarrelled
with Parliament again.
Presbyterians and even Independents were in favour of a Restoration of the
Stuarts, provided there would be no prosecution of Puritans or ruling without

CULTURE I
Parliament. The Nation was at heart conservative.

The RESTORATION:
The changes and confusions of the last 10 years had convinced the
English that there was no prospect of settling a new government but reestablishing the old system.
RESTORATION
Meaning of this
event

Charles II: Signed the Declaration of Breda

Parliament: Cavalier Parliament assured permanence.
Church of England: Claredom Code assured

restoration.

GENERAL MONK, the commander of the Army of occupation in

Scotland reached London and together with the surviving members of
the Long Parliament arranged an election. The NEW PARLIAMENT sent
an invitation to Prince Charles to take over government under certain
conditions:
THE DECLARATION OF BREDA (1660)

Stated the conditions under which Charles II would accept the throne:
Granted pardon to all who had fought against the late King.
In other words, it supported the republican governments,
except those who had actually signed the death-warrant.
Forced Kings compromise to rely on the advice and
assistance of a free Parliament. [IMPORTANT for the
achievement of DEMOCRACY]
Prohibited the confiscation of lands and houses acquired
under the republican government.
Rejected disquieting any mans difference of religion.
[IMPORTANT for the accomplishment of RELIGIOUS
TOLERATION]

Toleration was broken by the CAVALIER PARLIAMENT, which

passed the CLAREDOM CODE.
1660: Charles II was proclaimed King of England.

CHARLES II

CULTURE I

(1660 1685)
Charles II was the King of Great Britain and Ireland, who was restored to the throne after
years of exile during the Puritan Commonwealth. The years of his reign are known in English
history as the Restoration period.
After his acceptance of the Declaration of Breda, the Stuarts Dynasty
was restored under Charles Is son: Charles II.
Charles II promised to comply with the Declaration of Breda. He was
both Catholic and supporter of the Divine Hereditary Right of the monarch
but kept it a secret.
As the Constitutional Monarchy (King + House of Lords and House of
Commons) had to be started again, EDWARD HYDE was appointed LORD
CLAREDON. LORD CLARENDON was a man of high principles and had
been adviser of Charles I and Charles II (during exile)
THE CAVALIER PARLIAMENT:

First, Parliament was made up almost entirely of Royalists, thus it came to

be known as the Cavalier Parliament. His members made it clear that the
restoration was of Monarchy and Parliament. Thus, they passed an act to
preserve its government and prevent the King to become autocratic:

It would be High Treason to raise arms against the King, even to

mention it.

Parliament limited regular revenue to half the cost of government, so

that the King should always resort to parliamentary grants.

Parliament would not allow the King to keep up a standing army.

CULTURE I
THE CLARENDON CODE

Most of the MPs were conservative and thus they supported the Church of
England. They were mainly High Churchmen. Their aim was to assure
Puritanism would never be in authority again. Thus, the Cavalier Parliament
passed four acts known as THE CLARENDON CODE:
AIMS:

To assure the Restoration of the Church of England

To restrict all official posts only to members of the established

Church.

To prohibit all other religious services, except those of the Church of

England.

To prevent dissenters from getting a better education for their

children than that of a village school.
1- CORPORATION ACT (1661): Compelled all members of
corporations35 to be members of the Church England and take an oath
of Non-resistance to the King (to bear arms against the King was
unlawful). This act was designed to prevent dissenters from having
power in Parliament. Puritans could no longer be members on the corporations
because they were not members of the Church of England.
2- ACT OF UNIFORMITY (1662): Compelled all ministers of
churches in England and Wales to use the Book of Common Prayer.
Also, it stated that a licence from the Bishop would be the requisite to
set up schools. Only the members of the Church of England were
granted the license.
3- THE

CONVENTICLE

ACT

(1664):

Forbade

peoples

attendance at religious services other than those of the Church of

England. The penalty was imprisonment. [ This act was later repealed
by the TOLERATION ACT in 1689]
4- THE

FIVE-MILE

ACT

(1665):

Forbade

clergymen

or

schoolmasters to come within five miles of any town unless they

declared that they would not endeavour any alteration either in State
35

CORPORATION: Sort of Council that ruled towns and cities made up of merchants and traders.

CULTURE I
or Church. As Puritans were townsfolk, they were deprived of private
education or religious services at home.
Both the Claredom Code and the Declaration of Breda were passed by the
CAVALIER PARLIAMENT, though they were contradicting each other. By
signing the Code, both Charles II and Lord Claredom were forced to break
the promise of general toleration made in the Declaration of Breda.

EFFECTS:
a) Puritans [low churchmen] submitted to the Acts and attended the
Church of England, but with a new attitude: they fought for toleration
[ex-puritans who formed the Whig Party].
b) Those who refused the Acts were deprived of offices and higher
education [and formed the lower working classes]
CHURCH OF ENGLAND
HIGH CHURCHMEN

LOW CHURCHMEN

CONSERVATIVE

TOLERANT

THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH POLITICAL PARTIES

FIRST DUTCH WAR: Ended with the Navigation Act during the

Commonwealth in 1653. (Cromwellian Interregnum)

SECOND DUTCH WAR: (1664)

Reason: commercial rivalry. The English were jealous of the Netherlands

because they were the chief ports of European trade together with the East
and West Indies. The war soon came to an end with the TREATY OF BREDA
(1667). The Dutch were victorious because certain disputed territories in
Asia and Africa fell in the hands of the Dutch, while England acquired New
York.
THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE (1668)
King

Louis

XIV

of

France

embodied

the

idea

of

the

Divine

Hereditary Right of the King larger than any Stuart King. He was
an active and ambitious ruler. His aim in FOREIGN AFFAIRS was to

CULTURE I
extend the frontiers of France to the Rhine. So, he had to
master the Spanish Netherlands. The Dutch looked for support in
England due to the coming struggle.

England allied with the

Dutch in order to defend her commercial interests. There was a

strong feeling that the Protestant nations should stand together
against the great Catholic despotism. Thus, a Triple Alliance
was formed between England, Sweden and the Netherlands. Louis
was not prepared and gave away.

TREATY OF DOVER( 1670) (Secret)

King Charles II begun to work:
i)

To free Catholics from prosecution.

ii) To free himself from parliamentary control.

King Louis XIV promised Charles to provide him with a regular annual
subsidy,

provided

Catholics

and

that

lent

Charles

his

fleet

both
to

gave

fight

freedom
against

of
the

worship
Dutch.

to
The

arrangement included a secret clause by which Charles promised to

declare himself a Catholic as soon as a suitable opportunity arose.

The CABAL: Five ministers had become a sort of inner circle of the
Council. It was called the CABAL:
1) Arlington
2) Ashley
3) Buckingham
4) Clifford
5) Lauderdale
Although all of them were involved in the Kings scheme, only two of
them (Arlington and Clifford both Catholics) knew the secret about
the King turning to Catholicism.
Charles carried out the first part of the scheme. He issued the:
DECLARATION

OF

INDULGENCE

(1672):

Granted

freedom

of

worship

to

Protestant dissenters and Catholics.

Charles II thought that the support of these two classes would enable
him to overcome the opposition of Parliament.
THIRD DUTCH WAR:

CULTURE I
Charles joined France in a war against Holland. Louis had already bribed Sweden
into withdrawing from the Triple Alliance. WILLIAM OF ORANGE was called to defend
his country, i.e. Holland. The French attack was delayed and William of Orange
organised a defence in junction with German rulers.
Charles in need of money was forced to summon Parliament. Its members
were angry because of the secret TREATY OF DOVER and because of the
DECLARATION

OF

INDULGENCE.

Even

the

dissenters

were

unwilling

to

accept concessions if these were to be shared with the Catholics.

ASHLEY

led

strong

opposition

against

the

King.

He

declared

the

declaration of Indulgence illegal. Parliament passed the:

TEST ACT (1673): Compelled all people holding official positions to
declare their disbelief in the essential doctrines of the Catholic
Church. A number of Catholics in high places were forced to declare
their faith, which had kept in secret, e.g. the Duke of York.
The Parliament did not grant money to the King for the Third War against the Dutch.
Therefore, the scheme with the French also decayed.
THE POPISH PLOT: The Popish Plot was a fictitious conspiracy by Titus
Oates that gripped England in anti-Catholic hysteria between 1678 and
1681.Oates alleged that there existed an extensive Catholic conspiracy
to

assassinate

accusations

Charles

fell

apart,

II.

Eventually

leading

to

his

Oates'
arrest

intricate
and

web

conviction

of
for

perjury. Aim: to dissolve Parliament and general elections with the

majority of the Country Party.
The King tried to win the confidence of Parliament back by taking as
chief minister its most influential member: SIR THOMAS OSBORNE.
OSBORNE

ASHLEY

Royalist or Cavalier

Round Head

Formed the COURT PARTY

Formed the COUNTRY PARTY

Prevented the dissolution Favoured the dissolution of

of Parliament.

Parliament.

The Beginnings of Opposition: The Court Party and the Country

Party
ASHLEY tried to force the king to dissolve Parliament.

CULTURE I
1678: Revelations against the POPISH PLOT, by which the King had to be
executed. The Duke of York was placed on the Throne and the Catholic
religion was imposed upon England. For the following few months the nations
was full of panic and fear.
When the Parliament met, Ashley resorted to public agitation. He uncovered
evidence that Osborne had been in secret communication with King Louis
and understood that this was part of the plot. Ashley wanted to impeach
Osborne, but Charles II feared that this would lead to the whole story of the
Dover treaty coming out. Thus, he dissolved Parliament. Ashley won because
the Cavalier Parliament with its majority of royalists was dissolved. He knew
that if a general election was called, the House of Commons would become
stronger with more members of the opposition, i.e. the Whigs.
FIRST GENERAL ELECTIONS FOUGHT ON PARTY LINES (1679)
Ashley organised for the first time in history a great political campaign
for ensuing GENERAL ELECTIONS.
He managed to:
b) Procure the election of a large number of opponents of the Court.
c) Convince the new Parliament that it must safeguard the Protestant
religion by preventing the Duke of York (James 2 nd, Charles 2nd brother) from
becoming king.
RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES
1642 1646
Civil War

Round Heads

Cavaliers or Royalists

(fought for Protestantism)

1673
Opposition against

Court Group

Country Group

TORIES

WHIGS

Popish Plot

1679
Emergence of
political parties as
such

The name, from Irish origin,

ORIGIN

referred

to

the

outlaws,

Catholics.
RELIGIOUS
LEGAL
POLITICAL
ECONOMIC

CHURCH OF ENGLAND
(Anglican)

Supremacy of MONARCHY
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY
MERCANTILISM

The

Presbyterians

in

the Scotland were called Whigs, so

the party took the nickname.
TOLERATION OF WORSHIP
(fought for Protestantism, unlike the
Round Heads)

Supremacy of LAW
CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY
FREE TRADE

CULTURE I
LAISSEZ-FAIRE
LIBERAL

PHILOSOPHIC CONSERVATIVE
AL

RESULTS OF GENERAL ELECTIONS: The Whigs won

Liberal aim ACHIEVED: Supremacy of the Law The Whigs passed

the:

HABEAS CORPUS ACT (1679): A guarantee that the government will not keep
political opponents in prison without a public trial. [The MAGNA CARTA/ GREAT
CHARTER was supposed to provide this protection but it had failed]

Parliament: The majority of Parliament seats were taken by

the Whigs. The classes represented were the higher middle
classes, because the requisite to form part of Parliament
was the possession of land.

Monarchy: Ashley wanted to prevent the duke of York (James

II) to become king on the basis that he was a Catholic.
Thus, he passed:

1 EXCLUSION BILL (1679): Stated that the claim for the throne was to the Duke of Yorks
daughter, Mary, who was married to the Prince of Orange.
The king Charles I dissolved Parliament, but later in need of money he summoned it again.
2 EXCLUSION BILL (1681): Proposed that the Crown should pass to the Duke of Monmouth
(protestant), an illegitimate son of King Charles II.

The King needed money and was forced to accept the Exclusion Bill
appointing his Protestant illegitimate son.

Louis XIV was anxious to leave

England on his side and he knew that this would be impossible if Charles II
depended on Parliament to make ends meet. So, he renewed his offer of an
annual subsidy that would make it unnecessary to summon a Parliament for
the rest of the reign. So, just before the Whigs were about to pass the 2 nd
Exclusion Bill (in Oxford Parliament in 1681), the King dissolved Parliament.
Ashley and his followers fled to Holland and the WHIG party was for the
time being wiped out. Later, four years afterwards, Charles II was formally
received into the Catholic Church before he died.
James I

CULTURE I
Charles II
Monmouth
(Protestant)
illegitimate

James II (Duke of York - Catholic)

Anne
Orange

Mary
(Protestant)

William

of

CULTURE I

JAMES II (1685 1688)

Charles's brother and acknowledged heir, James, Duke of York, had converted to Roman
Catholicism. He was King of Great Britain and the last Stuart monarch in the direct male line. He
was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and replaced by William III and Mary II.
James II (as no other Monarch in England) was supported by:
o The TORIES who at the moment were the majority in Parliament because, after
their defeat, the Whigs fled away.
o The NATION also supported him because he was the legal successor to the
throne.
o The French Monarch.
Under the condition of not introducing changes to the Church of England, James II was
approved the right to:
a) Raise a standing Army.
b) Granted regular revenue for ordinary expenses.
His reign would be a success because of the support he enjoyed, however, it wasnt.

Glorious Revolution (1688)

a. Events Leading to the Glorious Revolution:
James II appointed Catholics to official posts, i.e. disregarded the Corporation
Act.
He dismissed ministers who had been his supporters just because they were
Protestants, i.e. he rejected the Test Act.
In Oxford University, James appointed Catholics as Heads of the Colleges, i.e. he
overlooked the Five-Mile Act.
James II also issued two Declarations of Indulgences (1687 and 1688) giving
freedom of worship to everybody. They failed again because of the same reason.
People was not able to share their belief.
The Archbishop of Canterbury and seven other bishops were accused of Treason.
But they were not found guilty.
Therefore, The Monarch had the support of neither the Parliament nor the nation.
There was an open expression of dislike of the idea of turning England to
Catholicism again. The Monarch had a son who would be a Catholic Monarch. This
idea grew as the immediate cause leading to the Glorious Revolution.
GLORIOUS REVOLUTION was an agreement between the Tories and Whigs. They
sent a letter to William of Orange and Mary (James Protestant daughter) to come

CULTURE I
and protect the Church of England. They accepted and were appointed William III
and Mary II. This Revolution was more important than the French Revolution
because it was not a bloody revolution and it meant the triumph of liberal ideas: the
setting up of the Constitutional Monarchy.

The Bill of Rights (1689)

The BILL OF RIGHTS was formally called Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the
Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown. It was attached to the DECLARATION OF
RIGHTS, i.e. the invitation to William and Mary to become King and Queen, which stated the
conditions under which the English Crown was given to William. It rejected the repetition of
James malpractices, that is, doing without the Acts of Parliament and interfering with elections.
The Bill of Rights stated that:

it was illegal to suspend the law of the Nation

it was illegal to keep a standing army in peacetime without Parliamentary

authorization.

Members of the Parliament were to enjoy freedom of speech.

Supporters of the Roman Catholic Church were excluded from the

possibility of becoming Monarchs.

The king could no go against what the law stated. (supremacy of Law)

Through the Bill of Rights the establishment of an institution above the King was a fact. The
monarch became an officer of the throne with his rights and duties. A Monarch necessarily
needed the approval of Parliament. It meant the achievement of a Constitutional Monarchy.
Parliament became a permanent and necessary body in government. The Bill of Rights did not
introduce any new principles but it merely explicitly declared the existing law. The only
innovation was that the King should not be Catholic.

AIMS:

The main purpose of the act was unequivocally to declare illegal various practices of
James II:
o the royal dispensing with the law in certain cases.
o the complete suspension of laws without the consent of Parliament.
o the levying of taxes.

CULTURE I
o the maintenance of a standing army in peacetime without specific
parliamentary authorization.

To stress Parliamentary existence in government.

A number of clauses sought to eliminate royal interference in parliamentary matters,

stressing that elections must be free and that members must have complete freedom
of speech.

The act also dealt with the proximate succession to the throne, settling it on Mary's
heirs, then on those of her sister, afterward Queen Anne, and then on those of
William, provided they were Protestants.
HOW PARLI AMENT SECURED I TS POWER THROUGH ACTS AFTER RESTORATION :

(1689 1694) Successive Bills or Acts: (to assure permanence of Parliament)

FINANTIAL CONTROL ACT: Presentation of an estimate of the money
needed for the year, i.e. an annual budget. For taxation, the Monarch needed parliamentary
approval.
ARMY CONTROL ACT: The King could not keep the standing army for
ever.
MUTINY ACT: gave the right to raise a standing army for only one year.
Every year the King had to summon Parliament to re-approve it.
TRIENNIAL ACT: Elections in Parliament should be held every three years.
With

these

Acts

the

Royal

power

was

finally

checked.

(Liberalism)
TOLERATION ACT (1689): Granted freedom of worship for nonconformists (dissenters) and Catholics were not to be molested.
Toleration was achieved but equality on religion was not
attained because the Test and Corporation Acts had not been retreated.
XIXth Century: Equality of religion attained:
1828: Test and Corporation Acts repealed.
1829: Catholic Belief Act: All official posts but three were open to
Catholics.
Significance of the Glorious Revolution
Triumph of Whigs policy: Triumph of Liberalism
LAISSEZ-FAIRE IN HOME INDUSTRY strengthened.
Economic
(already attained in the Civil War)

CULTURE I
MERCHANTILISM still remained in INTERANTIONAL TRADE
(State

control

came

to

an

end

when

Capitalism

consolidated: The Bank of England founded (+ the

Political

National Debt)
* CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY attained.
(with the BILL OF RIGHTS & SUCCESSIVE ACTS)
* The Divine Right to the Throne was dropped.
(as soon as William came to the throne because he

Religious

was not the true heir but his wife Mary)

* TOLERATION reached.

Legal

(with the passing of the TOLERATION ACT)

* HABEAS CORPUS consolidated.

Foreign

* Fostered WAR POLICY.

Affairs

(Whereas the Tories were for peace, the war meant

eventually the acquisition of new territories and
the subsequent increase of trade. It was an
economic interest.)
From now on, the Whigs remained in power for a long time.

WILLIAM III (Of Orange)

& Mary

(16891702)
Became stadtholder (in the Low Countries was a medieval function which during the 18th
century developed into a rare type of de facto hereditary head of state of the thus "crowned"
Dutch Republic )of the Netherlands as William III (16721702) and king of Great Britain (1689
1702), reigning jointly with Queen Mary II (until her death in 1694). He:
o Foreign Affairs: Directed the European opposition to Louis XIV of France.
o Domestic affairs:
a) Secured the triumph of Protestantism.
b) Held Parliament in government.
Why Williams III lost popularity?
1) Mainly because he was a foreigner and he disregarded English affairs.
2) He was too much concerned with saving his native country (the Netherlands) from being
absorbed by France.
3) He was wasting too much money: At the beginning he appointed members of both parties
to his government (the Bill of Rights had been issued by both). But later, quarrels arouse
between the members in relation to WAR:
TORIES: were against war.

CULTURE I
WHIGS: were in favour of war.
As there was no agreement between the MPs, the general elections resulted in the triumph
of the WHIGS. William started to appoint only Whigs to the seats of Parliament because
they would support him economically in wartime.
4) William became even more unpopular with the death of his wife Mary (1684). William III
died childless, so he was succeeded by Marys sister: Anne.
The Bank of England (1694) Incorporated by act of Parliament with the immediate purpose of
raising funds to wage the war against France in the Low Countries. A royal charter allowed the
bank to operate as a joint-stock bank with limited liability. No other joint-stock banks were
permitted in England and Wales until 1826. This special status and its position as the
government's banker gave the bank considerable competitive advantages.

QUEEN ANNE
(1702 1714)
The last Stuart monarch, she wished to rule independently, but her intellectual limitations and
chronic ill health caused her to rely heavily on her ministers, who directed England's efforts
against France and Spain in the War of the Spanish Succession (170114).
The bitter rivalries between Whigs and Tories that characterized her reign were intensified by
the parties opposing views over the succession to her throne.
She was reared a Protestant. From the first she was motivated largely by an intense devotion to
the Anglican Church. She detested Roman Catholics and Dissenters, and sympathized with
High Church Tories.
TORIES
WHIGS
Were for Anne's exiled Roman Catholic Were in favour of the Hanoverian
brother, James, the Old Pretender, who descendants of King James I of England as
had been excluded by law from the successors (Protestants)
succession.
Act of Settlement of 1701
Peaceful accession of the Hanoverian prince George Louis (King George I, 171427)
because he was a Protestant.

CULTURE I

GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY IN ENGLAND

ACHIEVEMENT OF CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY: Parliament
grew from a class advisory body to a more representative ruling body.
Medieval England
ANGLOSAXON PERIOD
NORMAN TIMES
Witan
Great Council
Advisory bodies, representative of the upper classes
HENRY I
CHARTER OF LIBERTIES
JOHN LACKLAND
GREAT CHARTER/ MAGNA CARTA [1 STEP TOWARDS DEMOCRACY]
SIMON OF MONFORDTS PARLIAMENT
EDWARD IS :MODEL PARLIEMENT
TUDOR ENGLAND
National Monarchy
Parliament: Advisory body
Control of finance
Paved the way for the Reformation
Friendly relation with the Monarch
STUART ENGLAND
Struggle between the Crown and Parliament. (political differences)
JAMES I
PEACHAN CASE: [1 Step Towards the SUPREMACY OF THE LAW &
INDEPENDENCE OF JUDGES]
CHARLES I
PETITION OF RIGHT
ELLIOTS RESSOLUTION
JOHN HAMPDEN [2 Step Towards the SUPREMACY OF THE LAW: refusal
of ship money payment]
LONG PARLIAMENT
GRAND REMONSTRANCE
CHARLES II
RESTORATION OF MONARCHY
DECLARATION OF BREDA
Restoration of Parliament
Charles II: foreign affairs
Treaty of Dover: beginning of political
parties: court party vs. country party.
JAMES II
THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION
DECLARATION OF RIGHTS
BILL OF RIGHTS: [Achievement of Constitutional Monarchy]
WILLIAM III
Beginning of the MODERN CABINET

CULTURE I

CULTURE I
THE GROWTH OF THE EMPIRE: THE OLD COLONIAL
SYSTEM
Great Britain made its first tentative efforts to establish overseas settlements in the 16th century.
Maritime expansion, driven by commercial ambitions and by competition with France,
accelerated in the 17th century and resulted in the establishment of settlements in North America
and the West Indies. By 1670 there were British American colonies in New England, Virginia,
and Maryland and settlements in the Bermudas, Honduras, Antigua, Barbados, and Nova Scotia.
Jamaica was obtained by conquest in 1655, and the Hudson's Bay Company established itself in
what became northwestern Canada from the 1670s on. The East India Company began
establishing trading posts in India in 1600, and the Straits Settlements (Penang, Singapore,
Malacca, and Labuan) became British through an extension of that company's activities.
The first permanent British settlement on the African continent was made at James Island in the
Gambia River in 1661. Slave trading had begun earlier in Sierra Leone, but that region did not
become a British possession until 1787. Britain acquired the Cape of Good Hope (now in South
Africa) in 1806, and the South African interior was opened up by Boer and British pioneers
under British control.
Nearly all these early settlements arose from the enterprise of particular companies and magnates
rather than from any effort on the part of the English crown. The crown exercised some rights of
appointment and supervision, but the colonies were essentially self-managing enterprises. The
formation of the empire was thus an unorganized process based on piecemeal acquisition,
sometimes with the British government being the least willing partner in the enterprise.
In India, the East India Company was confronted by the French Compagnie des Indes, but
Robert Clive's military victories against the French and the rulers of Bengal in the 1750s
provided the British with a massive accession of territory and ensured their future supremacy in
India.
TUDOR TIMES- XVIth C: England became a sea-power.
HENRY VII: Great voyages of discovery were held to open new routes to Asia and widen the
scope of overseas commerce.
HENRY VIII: England was too occupied with European affairs and the quarrel with the Pope to
give much attention to oceanic adventures.
ELIZABETH: England reached peace and religious stability. Thus, she fostered the first
attempts to establish a British Empire.
c) Attempts to reach Asia at the beginning of Elizabethan reign:

North-East Passage

North-West Passage (round America)

d) Unofficial War with Spain:

o Sir John Hawkins: Wealthy merchant of Plymouth who founded the
Negro slave trade.

CULTURE I
o Francis Drake: He was a pirate but later he was knighted by the
Queen He spent great part of his life attacking and destroying Spain,
e.g. Peruvian ports and Panama.
e) Sir Walter Raleigh: introduced a new strategy - a southern rather than a
northern route to North America - to advance England's fortunes in the New World.
He was Devonshire squire who spent his wealth trying to establish a colony in
America to be called Virginia, inn honour of the Virgin Queen. Although he
failed, he was the first to grasp the idea of colonization. Finally, he was executed
on the charge of treason in times of James I.
STUART TIMES: Permanent settlements were a fact
JAMES I & CHARLES I: Colonization.
Where?

When?
1607

Why?
English

Religion

colonies

in

the

It was a

Raleighs

result of

English

source

propagandists

commercial gain in the form of

private
initiative.

worked

Capitain

convince

Smith was
accompanied
by the

JAMESTOWN

youngest

(Virginia)

sons of the

[first

big

permanent

Who?
Ethnical features
Following

landholders.

public

ideas, New World would prove to be a

hard
that

a failure,

colony in America Smith

would

saved

exploitable

with

the

tobacco.

The

of

the
tobacco,

the

and representative
continent

brought

a
John

initiated

cultivation
Thus, established

merchants

nearly

Captain
it

of

instant and easily colony

the first colony.

Southern

was
but

yield discovery

wealth.

immediate

to free or inexpensive land. The

the settlement

traders settled in the

settlement]

of

the

first

government
(1619),
first

on
and

African

slaves to the colonies.

Colonies!

Anglicanism:
Church of
England
[this colony
built the first
Anglican Church
in America]

Agriculture

PLANTATION

James

OF ULSTER

1608

(in Northern

-1611

Ireland)

Northern

Ireland

was

of Presbyterianism
[which formed the
people
from the rebellion during the last third element in
the religious
Scotland to settle years of Elizabeth.
discord]
on these lands.
decided

to

send confiscated

as

result

CULTURE I
NEW

They
Founded by the

ENGLAND
(in
Massachusetts)

PILGRIM FATHERS
(they were

1620

fled

from

the

British Isle on the Mayflower

for religious persecution by
the king.

Puritanism

very hard workers:

Northern

in order to be

colonies!

successful)

Industries
Colonies that branched off New England:
1623: New Hampshire
1628: Massachusetts

1635: Connecticut (dissenters)

(orthodox authoritative)

MARYLAND

Founded by

(originally
part of
Virginia)

Lord Baltimore.

1632

Catholics who were

excluded from

Middle

other colonies.

colonies.

1636: Rhode Island (dissenters)

The colony was given by
Charles 1st to Lord Baltimore
(catholic)

as

separate

Catholicism

[This colony
colony where Catholics could granted equality
settled.(we
associate
this of status for all
regions]
colony
with
religious
toleration)

CHARLES II & JAMES II: Growth of American colonies. Leading European and imperial
power. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the crown exercised control over its colonies chiefly in the
areas of trade and shipping. In accordance with the mercantilist philosophy of the time, the
colonies were regarded as a source of necessary raw materials for England and were granted
monopolies for their products, such as tobacco and sugar, in the British market. In return, they
were expected to conduct all their trade by means of English ships and to serve as markets for
British manufactured goods. The Navigation Act of 1651 and subsequent acts set up a closed
economy between Britain and its colonies; all colonial exports had to be shipped on English
ships to the British market, and all colonial imports had to come by way of England. This
arrangement lasted until the combined effects of the Scottish economist Adam Smith's Wealth
of Nations (1776), the loss of the American colonies, and the growth of a free-trade movement
in Britain slowly brought it to an end in the first half of the 19th century. The slave trade
acquired a peculiar importance to Britain's colonial economy in the Americas, and it became an
economic necessity for the Caribbean colonies and for the southern parts of the future United
States. Movements for the end of slavery came to fruition in British colonial possessions long
before the similar movement in the United States; the trade was abolished in 1807 and slavery
itself in Britain's dominions in 1833.
There was a lot of smuggling and England pretended not to know.
Where?

When?

CAROLINA

1663

Characteristics: Who? What for?

Cotton growing.
Afterwards it was divided into North and south Carolina.

NEW YORK,
NEW JERSEY,

1669

Cosmopolitan trading centre.

Acquired from the Dutch after the 2 War with the Dutch.

DELAWARE
PENNSYLVANIA

1680

GEORGIA

1732

Its first principles were religious toleration and fair

play towards the Indians.

CULTURE I
It was raid by the English. It had been previously in

JAMAICA

1655

control of Spain. It was legally annexed to Britain under

Charles II in 1670.
Settlement of Puritans

BERMUDAS

1617

(and Anglicans

after the

Civil

War) because of tobacco and sugar, which were sources of

wealth.

CROMWELL

performed

conscious

attempt

of

colonization because he was aware of the benefits.

NORTHERN COLONIES: Mixture of Puritans and Anglican

MIDDLE COLONIES: Idea of toleration
SOUTHERN COLONIES: Mainly Puritan [except Maryland,

which

supported toleration]
1776 (July 4): Independence of the United States.

Religious Ideal

Colonies

NORTHERN

Mixture of

New Hampshire /

COLONIES

Puritans and

Massachusetts,

Anglican

Connecticut / Rhode

Idea of toleration

Island
New York / New Jersey

MIDDLE
COLONIES

Pennsylvania /

SOUTHERN

Mainly Puritan

Delaware
Maryland / Virginia

COLONIES

[except Maryland,

North & South Carolina

which supported

Georgia

toleration]

Economy

Industry

Trade

Agriculture

CULTURE I
CANADA
QUEBEC (1608 founded): It had been colonized in times of Henry VIII.
There was presence of both the French and the English, thus there started a long-standing rivalry
between the two countries for the colony.
European voyages:
1524: Verrazano sailed along New York and New England: French claim
1534/35: Jean Cartier, a French sailor, sailed around Newfoundland into the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, and then into the site of the present city of Quebec. When in 1534 Jacques Cartier
landed at present-day Gasp and took possession of the land in the name of the king of France,
he brought with him the traditions of mercantile expansion of 16th-century Europe to this land
where Indians and Inuit had been living for some thousands of years. There is a debate among
historians, however, as to when the real history of Quebec should begin. Because the Province of
Quebec as a political and geographic entity was created by the proclamation of 1763, the notion
is sometimes also advanced that its real history should start with the capitulation of the French
army in 1760, although Quebec city was founded in 1608.
1603: Acadia (French): Since 1713 known as Nova Scotia (English)
1604: New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island.
1608: Samuel de Champlain reached Quebec.
1610/11: Henry Hudson reached the Bay of Hudson
1784: John Cabot reached either Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island: English claim.
British military and naval power, under the leadership of such men as Robert Clive, James
Wolfe, and Eyre Coote, gained for Britain two of the most important parts of its empire -Canada
and India. Fighting between the British and French colonies in North America was endemic in
the first half of the 18th century, but the Treaty of Paris of 1763, which ended the Seven Years'
War (known as the French and Indian War in North America), left Britain dominant in Canada.
1783: The First British Empire was made up by America and
India

VICTORIAN TIMES: England as consolidated as the main trading country overseas.

QUEEN VICTORIA: Jubilee and Commonwealth
1897-1914: Queen Victorias Jubilee (ended with the 1 World War)
1931: COMMONWEALTH With the passing of the Statue of Westminster, the Colonies were
transformed into the COMMONWEALTH: 30 independent counties kept together to foster
friendly relationships. INTERCHANGE: among its members commercial relations helped one
another with economic developments.

CULTURE I
English Colonies in North America:
Relationship between the Colonies and the Mother Country:
Colonies were valuable for the Mother Country because of their twofold
purpose:
Places where people could be sent to if they exiled from Britain, e.g.
the Catholic, dissenters, and wrongdoers.
Important places to get raw material at very cheap prices.

Way in Which England Regulated the Economic Relations of the

Colonies:
The most important products should be sent to the mother Country.
Exports should be carried out by England. England became the market
which sold these products to the other countries. (Navigation Acts)
Some products enjoyed preference.
All trade must be carried in British ships.
As a consequence the economy of other colonies was being damaged. The
Colonies became aware of their importance. So, they brought about the laws of the
American colonies:
LAWS OF THE INDIES: The entire body of law promulgated by the Spanish crown during

the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries for the government of its kingdoms (colonies) outside Europe,
chiefly in the Americas; more specifically, a series of collections of decrees (cedulas) compiled
and published by royal authorization, culminating in the Recopilacin de las leyes de los reinos
de Indias (1680). From the beginning of the colonization of the Americas, Castilian law
constituted the basic private law in the colonies, but, because special conditions prevailed there,
the Spanish crown legislated specifically for the Indies (America), in the area of public law.
Thus, an important aspect of such legislation was the adaptation of Castilian administrative and
judicial institutions to the governmental needs of the New World. The Laws of Burgos issued on
Dec. 27, 1512, by Ferdinand II, the Catholic, of Aragon, regulated relations between Spaniards
and the conquered Indians, particularly to ensure the spiritual and material welfare of the latter,
who were often severely treated. The New Laws of the Indies (1542) of Charles I, which sought
to correct the inadequacies of the previous code, met with armed resistance from the American
colonists and were reissued in a weaker version in 1552. In the same year a commercial code
was promulgated for the Casa de Contratacin (Board of Trade). In 1563 the powers and
procedures of the colonial audiencias (courts) were defined. The Ordinances Concerning
Discoveries, issued in 1573, forbade unauthorized operations against independent Indian

CULTURE I
peoples. Attempts at general codification in the 16th century proved inadequate. In 1624 work
was begun on the code, which finally emerged as the Recopilacin. In brief, the contents of the
books are: (1) church government and education; (2) the Council of the Indies and the
audiencias; (3) political and military administrationviceroys and captains general; (4)
discoveries, colonization, and municipal government; (5) provincial government and lower
courts; (6) Indians; (7) penal law; (8) public finance; and (9) navigation and commerce.
Subsequent new legislation, especially which issued in the later 18th century under Charles III
(175988) concerning commerce and administration, made the Recopilacin obsolete.
Recodification was begun in 1805 but never finished; instead, the last two editions printed in the
19th century (three were printed in the 18th century) contained only supplementary sections of
revised legislation. In this form the code was applied to the remnants of Spain's old colonial
empire (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines) until their loss in 1898.The Recopilacin has
been criticized for its many inconsistencies, periodic inexactness in phrasing, and excessive
attention to trivial and ceremonial matters and to commercial regulations, which were
virtually unenforceable, and for depriving colonials of a responsible role in government
and commerce. Yet it was the most comprehensive law code ever instituted for a colonial
empire and set forth humane (if often ignored) principles for treatment of Indians.
FROM STATE CONTROL TO LAISSEZ-FAIRE IN INDUSTRY:
i)

Reasons that led to the Struggle between the Monarch and the
Parliament in the Economic Field

ii)

Development of Capitalism and Further consolidation of the Middle

classes.

iii)

The CIVIL WAR and its economic significance

iv)

Principles of the Laissez-faire

RELIGIOUS OUTLOOK: PURITANISM. TOLERATION

1- The Hamptom Court Conference (1604)

2- The Influence of the Cronwellian Interregnum upon the Religious
field
3- Cronwells Independents
4- The Declaration of Breda (1660)
5- The Claredom Code (1661 to 1665)
6- Declaration of Indulgence (1672)
7- Test Act (1689)

CULTURE I

TUDOR AND STUART ABSOLUTISMS

TUDORS
De spoti c

and

MONARCHS be cause

the y

TRAITS

STUARTS

(XVI t h C )

ove r-pow e rful Strong,

we re

absol ute

and

we al thy de spoti c. The y di d not have

and had the suppor t of the the suppor t of the N ati on.
N ati on .
I MPLI CI T suppo rt of the di vi ne EXPL I C I T

POLITICS he re di tary ri ght of the C row n .

Eme rge nce
be cause
SOCIETY

(XVII th C)

of

the y

Monarc hs

of

the

di vi ne he re di tary ri ght of the

C row n .
N ati on Achi e ve me nt of C onsti tuti onal

the
we re

supporte d

suppo rt

stron g Mona rch y.

by

the more

Parl i ame nt

pow e rful

turne d

than

the

HMC . The y both had the same Mona rch.

i nte re sts.
Me rcanti l i sm
ECONOMY

Me rcanti l i sm (state control )

(conse rvati ve

atti tude )
L ai sse z

fai re

w as

supporte d

by Parl i ame nt.

Sup porte rs of the C hurch of
RELIGION Re formati o n (mi d- posi ti on)
MONARCH
&

Engl an d.

(N o

change s

Frie ndl y re l ati onshi p.

i ntro duce d by monarc hs)

Stru ggl e
be twe e n
the :

C ommuni ty of i nte re sts:

Di ff e re nt i de as, posi ti ons and

PARTN ER S
GLO RI O US/

GO L DEN

CULTURE

Pe ri od

stabi l i ty,

MONARCH

prog re ss, expansi on of trade . and e conomi c fl uctuati o n

Pe opl e i de nti fi e d the mse l ve s Pe opl e
di d
not
li ke

PARLIAMENT

&
SOCIETY

w e re

of

i nte re sts: EN EMI ES

PERI O D: Pe ri od of i nte rnal
pe ace , di sorde r,

wi th the Tudors. Tud ors w e re Stuar ts

the symbol s of the N ati on .

pe dantry .

re li gi ous

be cause

pol i ti cal
confl i cts,

of

the
the i r

CULTURE I

ANTECEDENTS
(rise of science)

XVIIth C : THE AGE OF EXPERIMENT

XVIIth C

COPERNICUS: (1473 1543)

Polish astronomer who proposed that
the planets have the Sun as the fixed
point to which their motion s are to
be referred; that the Earth is a planet
which, besides orbiting the Sun
annually, also turns once daily on its
own axis; and that very slow, longterm changes in the direction of this
axis account for the precession of the
equinoxes. This representation of the
heavens is usually called the
heliocentric,
or
Sun-centred,
system. Copernicus's theory had
important consequences for later
thinkers of the scientific revolution,
including such major figures as
Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, and
Newton.
KEPLER: (1571- 1630) German
astronomer who discovered three
major laws of planetary motion.
Kepler himself did not call these
discoveries laws. He regarded them
as celestial harmonies that reflected
God's design for the universe.
Kepler's discoveries turned Nicolaus
Copernicus' Sun-centred system into
a dynamic universe, with the Sun
actively pushing the planets around in
noncircular orbits. And it was
Kepler's notion of a physical
astronomy that highly influenced
Newton.
GALILEO: (1564 1642) Italian
natural philosopher, astronomer, and
mathematician
who
made
fundamental contributions to the
sciences of motion, astronomy, and
strength of materials and to the
development of the scientific method.
His formulation of (circular) inertia,
the law of falling bodies, and
parabolic trajectories marked the
beginning of a fundamental change in
the study of motion.. Finally, his
discoveries with the telescope
revolutionized astronomy and paved
the way for the acceptance of the
Copernican heliocentric system, but
his advocacy of that system
eventually resulted in an Inquisition
process against him.

BACON Francis(15611626) and the Inductive Method:

He inspired the foundation of the Royal Society. Bacon
attempted at the logical systematization of the scientific
procedure to acquire knowledge of nature.
Bacon fostered men to reach Truth in Natural Sciences.
Theory of idols: Idols were bad habits of the mind,
obstacles in the process of acquiring Truth.
Languages were used to acquire reality/Truth. They were
obstacles in obtaining it.
The Empiricism of Francis Bacon flourished about the turn of
the 17th century. Advocate of a vast new program for the
advancement of learning and the reformation of scientific
method. Bacon conceived of philosophy as a new technique
of reasoning that should re-establish natural science upon a
firm foundation. In the Advancement of Learning (1605) he
charted the map of knowledge: history, which depends upon
the human faculty of memory; poetry, upon that of
imagination; and philosophy, upon man's reason. To reason,
however, Bacon assigned a completely experiential function.
His enduring place in the history of philosophy lies, however,
in his single-minded advocacy of experience as the only
source of valid knowledge and in his profound enthusiasm for
the perfection of natural science.
ROYAL SOCIETY: (founded in 1660). The newly restored
Charles II granted a charter to the Royal Society of London for
the Promotion of Natural Knowledge. Largely composed of
Puritan sympathizers and adherents of Francis Bacon, the
Royal Society received little more than moral support from
the crown, unlike academies on the European continent. The
stimulus of free expression provided an impetus to scientific
thought and developments in England. By the 18th century,
the achievements of the Royal Society were internationally
famous. Its publication, Philosophical Transactions, begun in
1665, was one of the earliest periodicals in the West. Isaac
Newton was elected to the society in 1671.In 1919 the
society sent an expedition to photograph the solar eclipse of
May 29 from Principe Island in the Gulf of Guinea, which
verified Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity and
helped make Einstein famous.
This society was created to:
To promote experimentation on Physics and Mathematics.
DRYDEN & LOCKE: expanded it to the study of other fields.
NEWTON Sir Isaac: (1642 1727) English physicist and
mathematician, who was the culminating figure of the
scientific revolution of the 17th century. In optics, his
discovery of the composition of white light integrated the
phenomena of colours into the science of light and laid the
foundation for modern physical optics. In mechanics, his
three laws of motion, the basic principles of modern physics,
resulted in the formulation of the law of universal gravitation.
In mathematics, he was the original discoverer of the
infinitesimal calculus.

CULTURE I

PERIOD OF SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS(2 half of XVIIth C)

Improvements in MEDICINE: Life expectancy increased and death rate decrease. These
developments paved the way to the Industrial Revolution.

NEWTON became the president of THE ROYAL SOCIETY: Period devoted to

experimentation. He removed all traces of Animism from all sciences with the laws
of gravitation (the belief that plants, objects and natural things such as the weather have a living
soul)

ANIMISM: Presence of God was necessary for the world keeping moving and being in
order.

MAN: Having command over Nature by applying his knowledge. The immediate
consequence was that when men found out that the Earth was no longer the centre of
Universe, they felt unprotected and felt their futile position.
That tension that men felt at that t period was reflected on Arts (contrast, e.g. darkness
vs. light)

THE BEGINNING OF ENGLISH EMPIRICISM:

BACON Francis (15611626) and the Inductive Method:

He inspired the foundation of the Royal Society. Bacon attempted at the logical
systematization of the scientific procedure to acquire knowledge of nature. Bacon fostered
men to reach Truth.
The Empiricism of Francis Bacon flourished about the turn of the 17th century. Advocate of a
vast new program for the advancement of learning and the reformation of scientific method.
Bacon conceived of philosophy as a new technique of reasoning that should re-establish
natural science upon a firm foundation. In the Advancement of Learning (1605) he charted
the map of knowledge: history, which depends upon the human faculty of memory; poetry,
upon that of imagination; and philosophy, upon man's reason. To reason, however, Bacon
assigned a completely experiential function. His enduring place in the history of philosophy
lies, however, in his single-minded advocacy of experience as the only source of valid
knowledge and in his profound enthusiasm for the perfection of natural science.
Theory of idols: Idols were bad habits of the mind, obstacles in the process of acquiring
Truth.
Languages were used to acquire reality/Truth. They were obstacles in obtaining it.
HOBBES Thomas (15881679) and Materialism: The English political philosopher was
acquainted with both Bacon and Galileo. With the first he shared a strong concern for
philosophical method, with the second an overwhelming interest in matter in motion.
He produced one of the most systematic philosophies of the early modern period - an
almost completely consistent description of nature, man, and civil society according to the
tenets of mechanistic Materialism. Hobbes's account of what philosophy is and ought to be
clearly distinguished between content and method. As method, philosophy is simply
reasoning or calculating by the use of words as to the causes of phenomena. When a man
reasons forward from causes to effects, he reasons synthetically, and, when he reasons from
effects backward to causes, he does so analytically. (His strong deductive and geometric
bias favoured the former.) Hobbes's dogmatic metaphysical presupposition was that the
basic reality is matter in motion. The real world is a corporeal universe in constant
movement, and the phenomena are either the mutual action of bodies or the appealing
effects of bodies upon minds. Bacon's general emphasis upon experience also had its
analogue in Hobbes's sensationalist theory of knowledge: the notion that all knowledge has
its origin in sense impressions and that all sensations are caused by the action of external
bodies upon the organs of sense. Empiricism has been a basic and recurrent expression of
British mentality, and its nominalistic and sensationalist roots were already clearly evident in
both Bacon and Hobbes.
LOCKE John:

(1632 1704):

CULTURE I
English philosopher who was an initiator of the Enlightenment in England and France, an
inspirer of the U.S. Constitution, and the author of, among other works, An Essay Concerning
Human Understanding, his account of human knowledge, including the new science of
his dayi.e., modern science.

CULTURE I

THE CONTRACTUAL STATE: HOBBES AND LOCKE

Hobbes and Locke were political thinkers that belonged to the middle-classes and were against the divine hereditary right of the Monarch. Both were strong
followers of Bertrand Russells idea that all men were born equal

HOBBES (1588 - 1679)

LOCKE
He was the father of the liberal ideology and father of
empiricism.

REASON FOR A CIVIL

BEFORE
GOVERNMENT

GOVERNMENT

* HOBBES was a determinist and against the

Petition of Rights

1 TREATY: Criticism on the Divine Inheritance of the Monarch (=

Hobbes)
2 TREATY: Explanation of the origin of the civil government.
TREATISE ON GOVERNMENT

Before the creation of government, man lives

in a state of nature characterized by war
and chaos. This chaos is reflected in mans
desire to preserve his liberty and acquire
dominion over others. Both desires are dictated
by the impulse of self-preservation.

Man is guided by the fear of the

consequences that this desire may bring about.
As it is a war of all against all, man needs to
put an end to this state of disorder by
uniting communities under a central
authority.

- Before government is created all men live in a state of peace &

order. Because men are guided by a Natural state and law of
Reason.
- NATURAL STATE: men living together according to reason, without
any superior on earth, with authority to judge between them, is
properly the state of nature.
- NATURAL LAW or LAW OF REASON: Though man in that state of
nature has liberty to dispose of his person and possessions, he has not
liberty to destroy himself or others. The state of nature has a law of
nature to govern it: being all equal and independent no one ought to
harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions.
- Each of the men who abide by the law would try to defend their
properties and rights. Besides, not all men live according to this law of
nature. So, there is the need of a common judge.
- The reason for the creation of a civil government, i.e. the aim of men
uniting into a commonwealth and putting themselves under government
is the preservation of property.
- The beginnings of a political society depend upon the consent of the
individuals to join and make one society.

OF THE RULERRIGHTS AND DUTIES

THE GOVERNMENTELECTION OF

CULTURE I

P
R
O
P
E
R
T
Y

Members of the community join and agree to

give power to one central government thought a
SOCIAL CONTRACT. This contract is
celebrated between the members of the
community to hand over all power to the chosen
sovereign. The minute the people agree to
choose a sovereign their political power comes
to an end.

- This civil government emerges through a SOCIAL CONTRACT or

COVENANT between the ruler and the ruled (the governor and the
governed)

This central authority is over-powerful, not

limited because he is not one party or one
members of a party.
The sovereign (a monarch or an assembly)
was a mortal god or LEVIATHAN. He would
be absolutely powerful and therefore, not
checked by anyone. Despotism is better than
ANARCHY (chaos). Hobbes was a royalist, so he
favoured an ABSOLUTIST MONARCHY.
There is no right of rebellion because the
ruler is not bound by any contract.
Resistance to the sovereign is only justified in
self-defence. Resistance in defence of others is
always to blame.

- The ruler belongs to a party, so he has rights and duties to comply

with. The government is part of the contract. Thus, he can be justly
resisted if it fails to fulfil its duties.
- Power is limited by the division of power into the JUDICIAL,
LEGISLATIVE and EXECUTIVE , so that abuse of power can be avoided.
This idea fosters democracy. In this case, a CONSTITUTIONAL
MONARCHY.
- Against the Divine Right of Monarchs: the power of the Monarch never
extends beyond the common good.
- Against Absolutism: An absolute monarch is not a form of civil
government because there is no neutral authority to decide disputes
between the monarch and the subjects.

Laws of propriety are entirely subject to the

- The supreme power cannot take from any man any o his property
sovereign, so propriety is created and controlled
without the formers consent.
by government as it pleases.

CULTURE I
S
U
C
C
E
S
S
I
O
N

The succession is to be determined by the

sovereign.

- The contract lasts as long as the government acts properly. But it has
to be renewed by common decision.

- Locke was a limited democrat because only those possessing property

were considered citizens. Besides, women and the poor were not
included. However, hes considered the Father of Democracy.

CULTURE I

DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION: THE CHARITY SCHOOLS

HIGHER EDUCATION: decreased (end XVIIth C beg XVIIIth C) The University of Oxford and
Cambridge did not participate actively in scientific research because it was carried out by the Royal
Society.
PRIMARY SCHOOL: improved with the Charity Association and the Education of the Poor.
Schools were set up and run by members of different religious congregations (mainly Anglican and
Puritans) joined for educational purposes.
LITERACY improved. With the Puritan spirit (industrious, hardworking and selfsacrifice) schools provided education to children of lower-middle classes.
LITERATURE improved. Influence of the journalistic style, which was simple bear
language. Newspapers increased in London and the provinces.
THE ARTS:
ARCHITECTURE:
Classical and Baroque Architecture
PAINTING:
Characteristics of the Baroque Portraiture.
The Introduction of the New Genres: Landscape and Animal Painting

CULTURE I

HANOVERIAN ENGLAND
(XVIIIth C)
ACT OF SETTLEMENT (1701) Act of Parliament that, since 1701, has regulated the succession to
the throne of Great Britain.
Queen Anne had just lost her only surviving child; and abroad the Tories, supporters of the exiled king
James II, were numerous and active. The need for the act was obvious. It:
Settled the crown, since it decreed that the crown was to pass to Sophia, electress of Hanover and
granddaughter of James I, and to the heirs of her body being Protestants. The act was thus
responsible for the accession of the House of Hanover in 1714.
Contained some important constitutional provisions:
(1) All future monarchs must join in communion with the Church of England;
(2) If a future monarch is not a native of England, England is not obliged to engage in any war for the
defence of territories (e.g., Hanover) not belonging to the crown of England;
(3) Judges were to hold office during good behaviour rather than at the sovereign's pleasure, though
they are subject to impeachment by both houses of Parliament;
(4) Impeachments by the House of Commons are not subject to pardon under the Great Seal of England
(i.e., by the sovereign).
WHIG OLIGARCHY (50 years of power): With the Act of Settlement, the Whigs were supported (for
the first time) by the Queen and England came to be governed by a minority.

GEORGE I
(171427)
EMERGENCE OF THE CABINET AND THE PRIME MINISTER
George I was German (like George II) and did not speak English. For this
reason, he began to depend on the advice of the leading members of the Cabinet:
SIR ROBERT WALPOLE. This marks the beginning of the figure of the Prime
Minister.
CABINET: The cabinet system of government originated in Great Britain. The
cabinet developed from the Privy Council in the 17th and early 18th centuries
when that body grew too large to debate affairs of state effectively. The English
monarchs Charles II (reigned 166085) and Anne (170214) began regularly
consulting leading members on the Privy Council in order to reach decisions
before meeting with the more unwieldy full council. By the reign of Anne, the
weekly, and sometimes daily, meetings of this select committee of leading
ministers had become the accepted machinery of executive government, and the
Privy Council's power was in inexorable decline. After George I, who spoke no
English, ceased to attend meetings with the committee in 1717, the decisionmaking process within that body, or cabinet, as it was now known, gradually
became centred on a chief, or PRIME MINISTER. This office began with Sir
Walpole. The prime minister must put together a cabinet that represents and
balances the various factions within his own party (or within a coalition of
parties). Cabinet members must all be members of Parliament, as must the prime
minister himself. The members of a cabinet head the principal government
departments, or ministries, such as home affairs, foreign affairs, and the
Exchequer (treasury).
Election: In Great Britain today, the Cabinet consists of about 15 to 25
members, or ministers, appointed by the prime minister, who in turn has been

CULTURE I
appointed by the monarch on the basis of his ability to command a majority of
votes in the Commons.
Common agreement: Cabinet members can freely disagree with each other
within the secrecy of cabinet meetings, but once a decision has been reached, all
are obligated to support the cabinet's policies, both in the Commons and before
the general public. Despite the need for consensus and collective action within a
cabinet, ultimate decision-making power rests in the prime minister as the leader
of his party.

GEORGE II (Whig oligarchy)

(1727 - 1760)
Although he possessed sound political judgment, his lack of self-confidence caused
him to rely heavily on his ministers, most notable of whom was Sir Robert Walpole. Upon
his accession as George II, he would have dismissed Walpole from office had not Caroline
intervened on the minister's behalf. During the first two decades of his reign George II
followed foreign and domestic developments closely. He supported Walpole's policy of
peace and reduction of expenditure and allowed the minister to use crown patronage to
build up his majority in Parliament.
He was little more than an observer of the events of the Seven Years' War (175663)
against France, for it was Pitt who devised the brilliant strategy that eventually brought
about a British victory.
George died suddenly and was succeeded by his grandson (son of Frederick Louis) King
George III. Throughout his life George II maintained a passion for anything military. He
displayed courage while fighting the French at the Battle of Dettingen in 1743the last
time a British king appeared on the battlefieldand he organized each day with the
precision of a drill sergeant. His other major interest was music; he loved opera and was a
patron of the German composer George Frideric Handel.
Jacobite Rebellion (1745): a JACOBITE was a supporter of the exiled Stuart king James II (Latin
Jacobus) and his descendants after the Revolution of 1688. The political importance of the Jacobite movement
extended from 1688 to 1745. The Jacobites, especially under William III and Queen Anne, could offer a feasible
alternative title to the crown, and the exiled court in France (and later in Italy) was often frequented by
discontented soldiers and politicians. After 1714 the Whigs' monopoly of power led many Tories into intrigues
with the Jacobites. The movement was strong in Scotland and Wales, where support was primarily dynastic, and
in Ireland, where it was mainly religious. Roman Catholics and Anglican Tories were natural Jacobites. The Tory
Anglicans had doubts about the legality of the events of 168889, whereas the Roman Catholics had more to
hope for from James II and James Edward the Old Pretender, who were firm Roman Catholics, and Charles
Edward, the Young Pretender.Within 60 years after the Revolution of 1688, five attempts at restoration were
made in favour of the exiled Stuarts:
a) 1689: James II himself landed in Ireland, and a parliament summoned to Dublin acknowledged him as king.
But his Irish-French army was defeated by William III at the Battle of the Boyne (1690), and he returned to
France.
b) 1708: A second French invasion misfired completely.
c) 1715: The Fifteen Rebellion, the third attempt, was a serious affair. John Erskine, ex-supporter of the
Revolution, raised the Jacobite clans and the Episcopal northeast for James III and VIII (the Old Pretender).
James arrived too late to do anything but lead the flight of his chief supporters to France.
d) 1719: The fourth Jacobite effort was a west Scottish Highland rising, aided by Spain, which was quickly
aborted at Glenshiel
e) 1745: Forty-five Rebellion, the final rebellion, was, in retrospect, the most romanticized but also the most
formidable. The number of Scottish Highlanders prepared to turn out was smaller than in 1715, and the lowlands
were apathetic or hostile; but Charles Edward (later called the Young Pretender), and the absence of the
government troops (who were fighting on the Continent) produced a more dangerous rising. Within a few weeks
Charles was master of Scotland; though he won another battle before retreating to the Highlands. The end came
when William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, defeated the Jacobite Army. Rebels were executed; many driven
into exile, and Charles escaped to the Continent. Jacobitism thereafter declined as a serious political force but

CULTURE I
remained as a sentiment. The king over the water gained a certain sentimental appeal, especially in the Scottish
Highlands; and a whole body of Jacobite songs came into being. By the late 18th century the name had lost
many of its political overtones; and George III even gave a pension to the last pretender, Henry Stuart, Cardinal
York.

GEORGE III
(1760 - 1820)
He was king of Great Britain and Ireland and then king of Hanover (181420), during a period when Britain
won an empire in the Seven Years' War but lost its American colonies, and then, after the struggle against
Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, emerged as a leading power in Europe. During the last years of his life
(from 1811) he was intermittently madhis son, the future George IV, acting as regent.

Adam Smith Figure in the history of economic thought. He was known primarily for a single work, An
Inquiry into the nature and causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), the first comprehensive system of
political economy. The Wealth of Nations may be seen not merely as a treatise on economics but also
as a partial exposition of a larger scheme of historical evolution.

GEORGE IV
(1811- 1837)

He was previously the sovereign de facto from 1811, when he became regent for his
father, George III, who had become insane. George III became permanently insane, and
shortly afterward the prince became regent under the terms of the Regency Act (1811).
In February 1812, when the restrictions of that statute expired, George decided to retain
his father's ministers rather than appoint survivors from among his old Whig friends. His
decision benefited the nation, because leading Whigs were prepared to abandon the war
with France and leave Napoleon the master of the European continent. As it was, Great
Britain and its allies finally triumphed over Napoleon in 1815.
George IV's character was in part redeemed by his linguistic and other intellectual
abilities and especially by his astute judgment in the arts; he patronized the architect
John Nash, and he sponsored Sir Jeffry Wyatville's restoration of Windsor Castle. George
IV's most famous effort was the exotic Royal Pavilion at Brighton with its Mughal Indian
and Chinese decorations, designed by Nash.

VICTORIA
(18371901)
She was the last of the House of Hanover and gave her name to an era, the Victorian Age. During her reign
the English monarchy took on its modern ceremonial character. She and her husband, Prince Consort Albert of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, had nine children, through whose marriages were descended many of the royal families of
Europe.
Although she hated pregnancy and childbirth, detested babies, and was uncomfortable in the presence of
children, Victoria reigned in a society that idealized both motherhood and the family. She had no interest in
social issues, yet the 19th century in Britain was an age of reform. She resisted technological change even while
mechanical and technological innovations reshaped the face of European civilization. Most significantly, Victoria

CULTURE I
was a queen determined to retain political power; yet unwillingly and unwittingly she presided over the
transformation of the sovereign's political role into a ceremonial one and thus preserved the English monarchy.
When Victoria became queen, the political role of the crown was by no means clear; nor was the permanence of
the throne itself. When she died and her son Edward VII moved from Marlborough House to Buckingham
Palace.

HANNOVERS
George I

George II

George III

PRIME MINISTERS
Sir Robert Walpole: Remained in power for 22 years. He was a country
gentleman with interest in business. As a Whig he believed in the supremacy of the
Parliament. His aims were:
Keep the new dynasty safe.
Preserve the Whig ideal of a Monarchy limited by Parliament.
Please both parties in Parliament:
a) Levied low land-taxes to please the Tory squires.
b) Fostered commercial prosperity to support the Whig merchants.
Ensured the support of Parliament by resorting to the PATRONAGE,
i.e. he gave dissenters posts in government.
Sir Robert Walpole: Opposition to George and Walpole grew when George IIs
son, prince of Wales, became a leader of an antiadministration faction. By 1742
these dissidents forced Walpole to resign.
John Carteret (later Earl Granville) His arrogant ways proved unpopular in political
circles. Carteret and George II brought England into the War of the Austrian
Succession (174048). In 1744 George bowed to parliamentary pressure and
accepted Carteret's resignation.
William Pitt (later earl of Chatham): Fifteen months later the king's ministers, by
resigning (temporarily) en masse, forced George to accept into office Carteret's
chief opponent. During the last decade of his life George II's interest in politics
declined.
William Pitt (The Elder) Twice virtual prime minister (175661, 176668). Secured
the transformation of his country into an imperial power because won the war
against Napoleonic regime and expansion.
Charles Rockingham (1765 to July 1766) He led the parliamentary group known
as Rockingham Whigs, which opposed Britain's war (177583) against its colonists
in North America._
Lord Frederick North (1770-1781)) George III a congenial Tory and chief minister.
He had to defend measures against Edmund Burke and Charles James Fox. The
most important events of his ministry were those concerned with the American
Revolution. Underestimating the colonists' powers of resistance, he attempted to
combine severity and conciliation. He faced war and was easily defeated. In 1783
he formed a famous coalition with the prominent Whig Fox (much to George III's
disgust) and became Secretary of State.

George IV
Victoria
IMPORTANCE OF HANNOVERIAN ACCESSION:
Confirmed the triumph of all LIBERAL IDEAS (of the Whigs):
1.

Strengthened the PARTY SYSTEM.

2.

Creation of position of PRIME MINISTER.

3.

SEPTENNIAL ACT (1716): The Whigs passed this act, which allowed general
elections to occur at seven-year intervals instead of every three years, as mandated by the
Triennial Act of 1694. The intention was to reclaim the electorate, which during Anne's reign
had shown itself to be more inclined to vote Tory than Whig.

CULTURE I
AGRARIAN REVOLUTION
(1760-1820 / end of XVIIIth C)
CAUSES:
1. Increase in population: Food supply was the first aim of landholders.
2. Desire of big landowners to get richer.
3. Overt disadvantages of the Open Field System: Enclosures of the
fields/lands were fostered as methods to improve the methods of
production. They became an economic necessity to produce more corn to
feed the largely-growing population. The ENCLOSURES were necessary to
apply new machinery, fertilizers and chemicals to increase production. The
landed aristocracy was for the fencing.
CONSEQUENCES:
SOCIAL
With ENCLOSURES:
1. The landed aristocracy consolidated as the leading social
group.
2. The small land-holders could not afford fencing, so they sold
their lands to the big land-holders.
3. Some ex-small land-holders remained in the countryside
working as free labourers.
4. Some others moved to the cities to work in the factories as
wage-earners.
The exodus to cities was enormous so it resulted in cheap
industrial labour force: exploitation of labourers.
Three rural social classes came into existence:
Grand landowners
Tenant farmers
Wage-earners
Landless free labourers
* Disappearance of yeomen
ECONOMIC With enclosures, new machinery and chemicals food supply
increased to supply with the needs of the English population.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
(1760 )

Definition:
It was an economic process that implied the introduction of new machinery to increase production to
satisfy a large home population and foster market abroad.
It was the result of economic and social changes that had been developing
from early times. Yet, these changes grew so quick and sharp that it came to be

CULTURE I
known as a revolution. This quick technological and industrial evolution first took
place in England.

What factors made England the pioneer in the Industrial Revolution?

GROWTH OF POPULATION: The (i) period of peace and stability and (ii)
scientific discoveries mainly on medicine lead to increase in life expectancy and
decrease in the death rate.
GROWTH OF THE FACTORY SYSTEM: With the growth of population it was
necessary to satisfy all needs. Yet, the Domestic System was not enough. An
acceleration of production was achieved through machinery. The Domestic
System collapsed and was superseded by the Factory System.
SCALE PRODUCTION was introduced to satisfy the growing populations
needs.
CAPITALISM had already consolidated since money had gained importance.
BANK OF ENGLAND had emerged [in times of Williams III to wage the war
against France]
EXISTENCE OF ENTREPENEUR: Middle class which was acquainted with
technological knowledge.
RESOURCE MATERIALS. It got large natural sources of coal and iron on the
island.
COMMUNICATIONS & TRANSPORTATION improved. England had water
resources, too.
PERIOD OF INTERNAL PEACE AND ORDER: Abroad, Britain's involvement in
the War of the Spanish Succession had been satisfactory. It had acquired new
colonies in Gibraltar, Minorca, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson's Bay, as
well as trading concessions in the Spanish New World. By contrast, Britain's
rivals, France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic, were left weakened or war-weary
by the conflict. As a result Britain was able to remain aloof from war on the
Continent for a quarter of a century after the Hanoverian succession, and this
carried out peace crucial to the new dynasty's survival and success.
POWERFUL AND IMPERIALIST COUNTRY. With the existence of colonies,
England:
o Provided herself with raw material.
o Fostered the trade of surplus.
Movement from freer industry and external trade.
INTERNAL MIGRATION: Countrymen migrated to towns to get job
opportunities.
PROTESTANTISM:
o Encouraged loans
o Promoted hard work.
o Upheld honesty as one of its principles.
AGRARIAN REVOLUTION (antecedent of the Ind. Rev.)

PERIODS:
1: 1760 1830: Growth in population.
Introduction of new
machinery for Road Making and Canal Construction.
2: 1830 1850: Glorious period of railway development. Increase in
industrial production.

CULTURE I

IMPROVEMENTS:
a) TEXTILE INDUSTRY:
Inventions came into existence to counterpart shortage of hand. They
were introduce to speed weaving and spinning.
1730s: Kays flying shuttie (waving)
1730s: Wyatt and Pauls spinning roilers (spinning)
1760s: Harvgreaveres spinning Jenny (spinning)
1770s: Comptons mule (spinning)
1780s: Cartwrights power loom (waving)
1760s: Arkwrights water frame: To improve spinning: Water begun to be applied to produce
energy. This invention indicates the beginnings of the factory system.
WINDMILLS: Areas with water were necessary to settle factories, thus textile factories were
settled in the South carrying about redistribution of labourers.
b) THE IRON AND COAL INDUSTRIES:
Inventions to replace shortage of fuel. Developments in these industries
grew together:
(a) New power to drive machinery: Steam was used as motive force, thus coal was
necessary to drive machines and to melt iron. The old tools were not strong enough to
resist steam. Thus,
(b) New material to manufacture machinery: Iron appeared to manufacture machinery.
England had both natural resources to enable industries to function.
DRY MACHINERY: The Iron and Coal Industries implied a redistribution of industries and
population, a shift to Midlands and the North, because iron industries settled near coal mines.
c) REVOLUTION IN TRANSPORT
Roads were created to improve internal and external market. Roads
dated from roman times but large quantities of raw material were to be
transported. Iron and coal were heavy materials which needed hard
roads to be transported.
Government undertook the building of roads by hiring local companies to build and maintain
the roads:
TURMPIKE SYSTEM: (XVIIIth C) Trustees were in charge of building and maintaining roads.
Users were levied TOLLS. [This system marks the beginnings of private enterprises.]
Rivers: Artificial waterways were needed to connect navigable rivers to
facilitate the carrying of raw materials. They were cheaper, thus, very
much used that roads. Private enterprises were in charge of canal
constructions, too.
CANAL CONSTRUCTION (XVIIIth C): Gradually declined with the appearance of railways, but
it continued existing.
Railways: They were created to transport both the raw material and
manufactured goods. Railways encouraged the development of other
industries:
(a) Engineering industries: shipping industry.

CULTURE I
(b) Iron industries.
(XIXth C) Wagons used to carry goods and cartridges to transport passengers.
Government had to intervene to regulate the use of railways:
a) To revise rates.
b) To limit profits.
c) To require that each railway should run at last one train a day to each station.
CONSEQUENCES:
England became an industrial country: Up to now she was chiefly an
agricultural country since land was the source of wealth. Now industry and
Economic overseas commerce became the main pillar of the English economy and
agriculture came to occupy a second position since the availability of fertile
soil decline with the net of roads and railways.
England changed her economic policy: Now, instead of being selfsufficing as regards food, she orientated towards being acquisitive of new
markets for English manufactured goods in exchange for food and raw
material.
The Factory System emerged: It was the predominant for of industrial
organization that started with the creation of the water-frame.
(a) Important changes affecting the position of workers and a transformation
of the character of employers. Wage-earners became dependent on capitalists
for the provision of raw materials and tools. Artisans and craftsmen were not
able to work at home. They were paid a wage. There was a complete
deterioration of the working class.
(b) Employers became deeply concerned about processes of production. They
did no longer need gifted or skilful men.
Consolidation of the Capital System: Before merchant capital bought
raw material, industrial capital bought raw material and means of production.
Merchant capital was used to buy raw material, now industrial capital became
important to:
a) buy raw material
b) buy machinery
c) pay wages
d) manufacture, and
e) Set up factories.
Increase in production and national wealth.
Laissez faire in working conditions: The re was no state control at all.
This led to abuses on the part of the capitalists (exploitation of children, bad
schooling, bad sanitary conditions, long working hours, and low wages).
Government felt that they should intervene in order to stop these abuses. Their
aim was to regulate working hours and conditions.
HOME INDUSTRY
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
State
industry

intervention

in

because

deploring international field (mid XIXth C).

of

home

Free trade achievement in the

working conditions. Laissez faire * 1849: Navigation Acts were revoked.

proved to be inefficient.

* 1846: Corn Laws were repealed:

This move from laissez faire to state Liberals were against the Corn Laws, while
Conservatives were for them because they were

CULTURE I
intervention was reflected on

mainly capitalist landowners.

FACTORY ACTS:

* High tariffs on import decreased little

* Improvement of working conditions by little.

The new social class (capitalists/
for women and children.
* (end XIXth C & beg XXth C) bourgeoisie) were the responsible for
this repealing. They fought for their
Improvement on wages.
This state intervention was not

right, especially when they got seats on

Mercantilism because it did not imply the Parliament.

protectionism, it only meant
regulation.
# Emergence of two urban social classes:
a) Industrial capitalists (proletariat)
b) Wage-earning class. (bourgeoisie)
#

Beginnings of trade unions: Wage- earners became a class-conscious

working class. They were aware of their identity as a group within society.
Trade Unions were fostered since workers did not longer work in their homes,
but all together in the same place. Thus, agreement on conditions grew
Social

necessary.
# Population

mobility: After the Industrial Revolution, the North was the most

populated area. Together with the mobility of population, the distribution of

seats in Parliament changed, too.
a) To the South: after the Agrarian Revolution, to work in textile industries.
b) To Midlands and the North: to work in coal and iron industries, near coal
mines
#

Political

Continuous growth of population

FIRST GREAT ERA OF REFORM (1830s 1840s)

1789: French Revolution: Revolt against the established order (aristocratic,

absolutist, conservative and undemocratic). Its leading figures were:
Cruseau, Voltaire, Monte Spaire. The French Revolution gave rise to ideas of
equality, liberty and fraternity to foster popular sovereignty. By XVIIIth C,
Constitutional Monarchy was set up in France, thus the English politicians
were ready to carry out reforms, mainly in the political field. There grew a
more humanitarian attitude: EVANGELICALISM/ METHODIST MOVEMENT.
SOCIAL LIBERALISM Liberal principles begun to be expanded to other
classes.
There were two tendencies as regards the French Revolution:

CULTURE I
a) BURKE: Against.
b) PAINE: In favour: Beginnings of RADICALISM. England experienced the
emergence of radical clubs, whose aim was to spread these ideas of
fraternity, liberalism and equality. They wanted to permeate Government
with these ideas.
1832: REFORM ACT: Capital owners became enfranchised.

ENFRANCHIZING PROCESS (in the XVIIIth C)

1832 Capitalists enfranchised
1867 Urban workers enfranchised
1884 Rural workers enfranchised
1833: FACTORY ACTS: Government forbade children under 9 to work and it also prohibited

under-13-year olds to work more than eight hours. This act implied the appointment of
INSPECTORS to control that these rights were carried out. [Beginnings of bureaucracy:
Administration of the law by paid officials].
1833: ABOLITION OF SLAVERY: Slavery was abolished in British colonies.
1834: FIRST GOVERNMENT GRANT FOR EDUCATION: Elementary education was not in the

hands of the State in those days. It was in charge of Charity Schools run by the Anglican
Church and Non-conforming groups. Government granted money to voluntary associations for
the building of new schools. In 1939 governmental control over education increased, thus
IINSPECTORS were sent to monitor the correct expenditure of money.
1835: MUNICIPAL CORPORATION ACT: Settled the election of the Council. Town Councils

were to be built to replace Corporations.

1839: LORD DURHAM36S REPORT ON CANADA: Established the possibility of colonies to

have their own responsible self-governments.

1 > Unification of upper (Ontario) and lower (Quebec) Canada under British sovereignty.
2 > Britain gave a certain degree of responsible government as regards local affairs.
Gradually, this led to self government (Liberalism), and later became one of the origins of the
Commonwealth. In

36

1776 American colonies had already got their independence.

Durham was the first person to voice the process.

CULTURE I
FRENCH REVOLUTION (1787 and 1799):
It was a revolutionary movement that shook France that reached its first climax in 1789.
Hence, the conventional term Revolution of 1789 denotes the end of the ancien rgime in
France.
CAUSES: Although historians disagree on the causes of the Revolution, the following reasons are
commonly adduced:
(1) France had the largest population in Europe and could not feed it adequately,
(2) The rich and expanding bourgeoisie was excluded from political power more systematically
than in any other country,
(3) The peasants were acutely aware of their situation and were less and less inclined to support
the old-fashioned and troublesome feudal system,
(4) The Philosophes, who advocated social and political reform, had been read more widely in
France than elsewhere,
(5) French participation in the American Revolutionary War had completed the ruin of the state's
finances.
CONSEQUENCES: The year 1789 is the great dividing line in the history of modern France. The fall
of the Bastille -the French state prison- symbolizes for that nation, as well as for all other nations,.
It meant:
(1)

The decay of the ancien rgime (old regime), a locution that came into

its own during the Revolution. The end of the premodern era characterized by an organicist and
religiously sanctioned traditionalism.
(2)

The institutionalization of secularized individualism in both social life and

politics; individualism and rationality found expression in parliamentary government and written
constitutionalism.
Its leading figures were: Cruseau, Voltaire, Monte Spaire. The French Revolution gave rise to ideas
of equality, liberty and fraternity to foster popular sovereignty. Immediately after the
Revolution, there was a state of chaos and anarchy. In England the French Revolution was received
with flaw. At the beginning, these ideals were eagerly accepted, but later, with fear of a possible
state of chaos, Parliament delay in taking certain decision. By XVIIIth C, Constitutional Monarchy
was set up in France, thus the English politicians were ready to carry out reforms, mainly in the
political field. David Thomsom wrote that there was a new spirit among the English politicians, a
more humanitarian one: EVANGELICALISM/ METHODIST MOVEMENT

SOCIAL LIBERALISM Liberal principles began to be expanded to other classes.

In England, there were two tendencies as regards the French Revolution:

c)

BURKE: Against.

CULTURE I
d)

PAINE: In favour: Beginnings of RADICALISM. England experienced the

emergence of radical clubs, whose aim was to spread these ideas of fraternity,
liberalism and equality. They wanted to permeate Government with these ideas.

CULTURE I

FIRST GREAT ERA OF REFORM (1830s 1840s)

1832: REFORM ACT: Capital owners became enfranchised. Thus, more seats were given to capitalists
outside the South-Eastern area. Seats were geographically redistributed to reflect economic changes.
People used the phrase pocket and rotten borrowed to imply the corruption of landowners who used
to control seats.
REFORM BILL clarified two basic principles of Cabinet Government:
(2) That a cabinet should be composed of members drawn from the party or political faction that
holds a majority in the House of Commons;
(3) That Cabinet's members are collectively responsible to the House of Commons for their conduct
of the government. Therefore no Cabinet could maintain itself in power unless it had the support of a
majority in the Commons. Unity in a political party proved the best way to organize support for a
cabinet within the House of Commons, and thus the Party System developed in England along with
Cabinet Government.
Sir Robert Peel: British prime minister (183435, 184146) and founder of the Conservative Party, who was
responsible for the repeal (1846) of the Corn Laws that had restricted imports.

ENFRANCHIZING PROCESS (in the XVIIIth C)

1832 Capitalists enfranchised
1867 Urban workers enfranchised
1884 Rural workers enfranchised
1833: FACTORY ACTS: reflected a humanitarian attitude. Its purpose was to deal with employment of
children and women in factories. Government forbade children under 9 to work and it also prohibited
under-13-year olds to work more than eight hours. This act implied the appointment of INSPECTORS
to control that these rights were carried out. [Beginnings of bureaucracy: Administration of the law by
paid officials].
1833: ABOLITION OF SLAVERY: Slavery was abolished in British colonies.
1834: FIRST GOVERNMENT GRANT FOR EDUCATION: Elementary education was not in the
hands of the State in those days. It was in charge of Charity Schools run by the Anglican Church and
Non-conforming groups. Government granted money to voluntary associations for the building of new
schools. In 1939 governmental control over education increased, thus IINSPECTORS were sent to
monitor the correct expenditure of money.
1835: MUNICIPAL CORPORATION ACT: Settled the election of the Council. Town Councils were to
be built to replace Corporations.
1839: LORD DURHAM S REPORT ON CANADA: Established the possibility of colonies to have
their own responsible self-governments.
1 > Unification of upper (Ontario) and lower (Quebec) Canada under British sovereignty.
2 > Britain gave a certain degree of responsible government as regards local affairs. Gradually, this led
to self government (Liberalism), and later became one of the origins of the Commonwealth.
37

In 1776 American colonies had already got their independence

37

Durham was the first person to voice the process.

CULTURE I
POLITICAL THINKING:
Burke

Paine

Expresses open opposition

to the French Revolution. Fir
him, the revolution had
been a European
catastrophe. Thus, England
should ally with other
countries to attack France.
He was against reformers,
i.e. Radicalism.

Active supporter of the French

Revolution. He inspired American
independence. He view the
necessity of universal suffrage.
Denied monarchy and aristocracy
as he rendered them archaic
institutions.
RADICAL CLUBS were created to
extend Paines ideas, to imbued
English politicians with his ideas.
He stated that all groups should
be represented/enfranchised. He
defended popular sovereignty:
equality of law and universal
suffrage:
ENFRANCHIZING
PROCESS (in the XVIIIth C)
1832 Capitalists enfranchised
1867 Urban workers
enfranchised
1884 Rural workers
enfranchised
SOCIAL
LIBERALISM
Liberal
principles began to be expanded to other
classes.

CULTURE I

CONSEQUENCES

ANTECEDENTS

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
ECONOMIC
# Capitalist country
# Industries, commerce, banking system
consolidated.
# Iron & coal were vast natural
resources
# Communication
and transport
increased.
# Agrarian Revolution grew as an
antecedent
# Colonies fostered the expansion of the
market.

SOCIAL

POLITICAL

# Growth of population.

# Imperial policy

# Higher demand of food and goods.

# National peace

# Lack of labourers.

# Ascendancy of the Wigs in Parliament

(for a long period)

# Internal peace and tolerance.

# Improvements in science

Industrial

country (factory system and Redistribution of population

1830s First Great Era of Reform (all
industrial capital)
acts)
Grater growth of population.
New Colonial System
Home industry: from laissez faire to
some State intervention.
First steps towards national system of
education
International trade: Towards free
trade.
Different social classes:
RURAL
URBAN
+Landowners + Industrialists/ Capitalists
+Wage-earners + Working class

CULTURE I

ECONOMIC POLICIES
XVIth C
TUDOR
Home
Industry

Mercantilism
(protectionist)

Internation
al Industry

Mercantilism

XVIIth C
STUART
Laissez Faire

XVIIIth C
HANOVERIAN
Triumph of
Laissez Faire

XIXth C
VICTORIAN
(after Ind. Rev)

State Intervention
[mercantilism but
not protectionist)
Free trade
[1830: Achieved with the
repeal of the Corn Laws]

THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE AMERICAN COLONIES

Britain's victory over France in the Great War for the Empire had been won at very great cost.
British government expenditures, which had amounted to nearly 6,500,000 annually before the
war, rose to about 14,500,000 annually during the war. As a result, the burden of taxation in
England was probably the highest in the country's history, much of it borne by the politically
influential landed classes. Furthermore, with the acquisition of the vast domain of Canada and
the prospect of holding British territories both against the various nations of Indians and against
the Spaniards to the south and west, the costs of colonial defense could be expected to continue
indefinitely. Parliament, moreover, had voted Massachusetts a generous sum in compensation for
its war expenses. It therefore seemed reasonable to British opinion that some of the future burden
of payment should be shifted to the colonists themselveswho until then had been lightly taxed
and indeed lightly governed. The prolonged wars had also revealed the need to tighten the
administration of the loosely run and widely scattered elements of the British Empire. If the
course of the war had confirmed the necessity, the end of the war presented the opportunity. The
acquisition of Canada required London officials to take responsibility for the unsettled western
territories, now freed from the threat of French occupation. The British soon moved to take
charge of the whole field of Indian relations. By royal proclamation (1763) a line was drawn
down the Appalachians marking the limit of settlement from the British colonies, beyond which
Indian trade was to be conducted strictly through British-appointed commissioners. These steps
were not in time to prevent a serious uprising under the Ottawa chief Pontiac, however; and the
proclamation, which sprang in part from a respect for Indian rights, caused consternation among
British colonists for two reasons. It meant that limits were being set to the prospects of
settlement and speculation in western lands, and it took control of the west out of colonial hands.
The most ambitious men in the colonies thus saw the proclamation as a loss of power to control
their own fortunes. The tax controversy George Grenville, who was named prime minister in
1763, was soon looking to meet the costs of defense by raising revenue in the colonies. The first
measure was the Plantation Act of 1764, usually called the Sugar, or Revenue, Act, which
reduced to a mere threepence the duty on imported foreign molasses but linked with this a high
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CULTURE I
duty on refined sugar and a prohibition on foreign rum (the needs of the British treasury were
carefully balanced with those of West Indies planters and New England distillers). The last
measure of this kind (1733) had not been enforced, but this time the government set up a system
of customs houses, staffed by British officers, and even established a vice-admiralty court.
Sitting at Halifax, N.S., the court heard very few cases, but in principle it appeared to threaten
the cherished British privilege of trials by local juries. Boston further objected to the tax's
revenue-raising aspect on constitutional grounds, but, despite some expressions of anxiety, the
colonies in general accepted it without complaining. Parliament next affected colonial economic
prospects by passing a Currency Act (1764) to withdraw paper currencies, many of them
surviving from the war period, from circulation. This was not done to restrict economic growth
so much as to take out currency that was thought to be unsound, but it did severely reduce the
circulating medium during the difficult postwar period and further indicated that such matters
were subject to British control. Grenville's next move was a stamp duty, to be raised on a wide
variety of transactions, including legal writs, newspaper advertisements, and ships' bills of
lading. The colonies were duly consulted and offered no alternative suggestions. The feeling in
London, shared by Benjamin Franklin, was that, after making formal objections, the colonies
would accept the new taxes as they had the earlier ones. But the Stamp Act (1765) hit harder and
deeper than any previous parliamentary measure. As some agents had already pointed out,
because of postwar economic difficulties the colonies were short of ready funds. (In Virginia this
shortage was so serious that the province's treasurer, John Robinson, who was also speaker of the
assembly, manipulated and redistributed paper money that had been officially withdrawn from
circulation by the Currency Act; a large proportion of the landed gentry benefited from this
largesse.) The Stamp Act struck at vital points of colonial economic operations, affecting
transactions in trade. It also affected many of the most articulate and influential people in the
colonies (lawyers, journalists, bankers). It was, moreover, the first internal tax levied directly
on the colonies by Parliament. Previous colonial taxes had been levied by local authorities or had
been external import duties whose primary aim could be viewed as regulating trade for the
benefit of the empire as a whole rather than raising revenue. Yet no one, either in Britain or the
colonies, fully anticipated the uproar that followed the imposition of these duties. Mobs in
Boston and other towns rioted and forced appointed stamp distributors to renounce their posts;
legal business was largely halted. Several colonies sent delegations to a Congress in New York in
the summer of 1765, where the Stamp Act was denounced as a violation of the Englishman's
right to be taxed only through elected representatives, and plans were adopted to impose a
nonimportation embargo on British goods. A change of ministry facilitated a change of British
policy on taxation. Parliamentary opinion was angered by what it perceived as colonial
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CULTURE I
lawlessness, but British merchants were worried about the embargo on British imports. The
Marquis of Rockingham, succeeding Grenville, was persuaded to repeal the Stamp Actfor
domestic reasons rather than out of any sympathy with colonial protests. The repeal was passed,
however, on the same day as the Declaratory Act, which declared that Parliament had the power
to bind or legislate the colonies in all cases whatsoever. Parliament would not have voted the
repeal without this assertion of its authority. The colonists celebrated the repeal of the act,
jubilant at the repeal of the Stamp Act, drank innumerable toasts, sounded peals of cannon, and
were prepared to ignore the Declaratory Act as face-saving window dressing. John Adams,
however, warned in his Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law that Parliament, armed with
this view of its powers, would try to tax the colonies again; and this happened in 1767 when
Charles Townshend became Chancellor of the Exchequer in a ministry formed by Pitt, now Earl
of Chatham. The problem was that Britain's financial burden had not been lifted. Townshend,
claiming to take literally the colonial distinction between external and internal taxes, imposed
external duties on a wide range of necessities, including lead, glass, paint, paper, and tea, the
principal domestic beverage. One ominous result was that colonists now began to believe that the
British were developing a long-term plan to reduce the colonies to a subservient position, which
they were soon calling slavery. This view was ill-informed, however. Grenville's measures had
been designed as a carefully considered package; apart from some tidying-up legislation,
Grenville had had no further plans for the colonies after the Stamp Act. His successors developed
further measures, not as extensions of an original plan but because the Stamp Act had been
repealed. Nevertheless, the colonists were outraged. In Pennsylvania the lawyer and legislator
John Dickinson wrote a series of essays that, appearing in 1767 and 1768 as Letters from a
Farmer in Pennsylvania, were widely reprinted and exerted great influence in forming a united
colonial opposition. Dickinson agreed that Parliament had supreme power where the whole
empire was concerned, but he denied that it had power over internal colonial affairs; he quietly
implied that the basis of colonial loyalty lay in its utility among equals rather than in obedience
owed to a superior. It proved easier to unite on opinion than on action. Gradually, after much
maneuvering and negotiation, a wide-ranging nonimportation policy against British goods was
brought into operation. Agreement had not been easy to reach, and the tensions sometimes broke
out in acrimonious charges of noncooperation. In addition, the policy had to be enforced by
newly created local committees, a process that put a new disciplinary power in the hands of local
men who had not had much previous experience in public affairs. There were, as a result, many
signs of discontent with the ordering of domestic affairs in some of the coloniesa development
that had obvious implications for the future of colonial politics if more action were needed later.

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CULTURE I
The loss of Britain's 13 American colonies in 177683 was compensated by new settlements in
Australia from 1788 and by the spectacular growth of Upper Canada (now Ontario) after the
emigration of loyalists from what had become the United States. The Napoleonic Wars provided
further additions to the empire.
Canadian settlements in Alberta, Manitoba, and British Columbia extended British influence to
the Pacific, while there were further British conquests in India.
19th century marked the full flower of the British Empire.
Administration and policy changed during the century from the haphazard arrangements of the
17th and 18th centuries to the sophisticated system characteristic of Joseph Chamberlain's
tenure (18951900) in the Colonial Office. That office, which began in 1801, was first an
appendage of the Home Office and the Board of Trade, but by the 1850s it had become a
separate department with a growing staff and a continuing policy; it was the means by which
discipline and pressure were exerted on the colonial governments when such action was
considered necessary.
The greatest 19th-century extension of British power took place in Africa. Britain was the
acknowledged ruling force represented by the Royal Niger Company. By the end of the 19th
century, the British Empire comprised nearly one-quarter of the world's land surface and more
than one-quarter of its total population.

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CULTURE I

Lord Durhams Report on Canada (1839)

The idea of limited self-government for some of Britain's colonies was first
recommended for Canada by Lord Durham in 1839. This report proposed
responsible self-government for Canada, so that a cabinet of ministers chosen
by the Canadians could exercise executive powers instead of officials chosen by the
British government. The cabinet would depend primarily on support by the colonial
legislative assembly for its tenure of ministerial office. Decisions on foreign affairs
and defence, however, would still be made by a governor-general acting on orders
from the British government in London. Through this system some colonies were
allowed largely to manage their own affairs under governors appointed by the
mother country spread rapidly. In 1847 it was put into effect in the colonies in
Canada, and it was later extended to the Australian colonies, New Zealand, and to
the Cape Colony and Natal in southern Africa. These colonies obtained such
complete control over their internal affairs that in 1907 they were granted the new
status of dominions.

THE CANADIAN CONFEDERATION

1867: BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT

38:

Act of Parliament of the United

Kingdom by which three British colonies in North America -Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, and Canada - were united as one Dominion under the name of
Canada under the condition that the other colonies and territories of British
North America might be admitted. It also divided the province of Canada into
the provinces of Quebec and Ontario and provided them with constitutions.

The British North America Act conferred on the new dominion a

constitution similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom. The

executive government was vested in Queen Victoria and her successors.

Canada would have parliamentary and cabinet government. The

legislature was to consist of a Senate, its members appointed for life from
the regions of Canada, and a House of Commons elected from the
provinces on the principle of representation by population.

The act provided for a union in which the federal government had

general and overriding powers, while the provinces had particular and
restricted ones.

38

The act served as Canada's constitution until 1982, when it was renamed the Constitution Act, 1867, and became the basis of Canada's
Constitution Act of 1982, by which the British Parliament's authority was transferred to the independent Canadian Parliament.

50

CULTURE I
The act provided no process of amendment. Amendments were made by the
imperial Parliament in London at the request of the Parliament of Canada.
RELIGIOUS OUTLOOK: DEISM AND METHODISM
DEISM: Emphasis on REASON. God is considered the Creator, the primer mover, the
responsible for stating the Universe in motion. God is the first cause, but not necessarily
present. It is an approach to religion through reason supported among the members of the
Church of England.
Deism is an unorthodox religious attitude that found expression especially among a group of
English writers beginning with Edward Herbert (first half of the 17th c) and ending with
Henry St. John (middle 18th c). In general, it refers to what can be called natural religion,
the acceptance of a certain body of religious knowledge that is inborn in every person or
that can be acquired by the use of reason, as opposed to knowledge acquired through either
revelation or the teaching of any church.
The proponents of natural religion were strongly influenced by three intellectual concerns:
1) a growing faith in human reason,
b) a distrust of religious claims of revelation that lead to dogmatism and intolerance, and
c) an image of God as the rational architect of an ordered world.
Deists argued that behind the vast differences in modes of worship, piety, and doctrine of
the world's religions and the Christian churches lay a common rational core of universally
accepted religious and moral principles. The early Deists asserted that superficial
differences of ritual and dogma were insignificant and should accordingly be tolerated.
By the turn of the 17th century, however, a number of Deists (Toland, the Earl of
Shaftesbury, Tindal, Woolston, and Collins) rejected the elaborate liturgical practices and
complex institutional procedures of Roman Catholicism as analogous to ancient pagan
superstition.
Borrowing upon the general prestige of Isaac Newton's vision of the universe as a
mechanism obeying stable rational laws, they advocated variations on the classic argument
from design wherein the existence of a rational creator is inferred from the evidence of the
rational ordering of the world.
By the end of the 18th century, in addition to becoming a dominant religious attitude among
English, French, and German intellectuals, Deism had crossed the Atlantic to shape the
religious views of upper-class Americans. The first three presidents of the United States all
subscribed to Deist beliefs.

METHODISM: John Wesley regularly used the Anglican Book of Common Prayer and
adapted it for use in the United States.
Methodism was a movement founded by John Wesley in the 18th century, allegedly to revitalize
the Church of England. The movement survives in the form of the modern Methodist churches
worldwide. In 1738 Wesley, an Anglican clergyman, attended a religious meeting where, as he
relates in his Journal, he felt his heart strangely warmed and experienced an assurance of
personal salvation he had not known before. Soon he was cooperating with George Whitefield
in open-air preaching among the outcasts of societythose who felt themselves neglected by the
Church of England.
The Methodists formed a society within the Church of England. Wesley never wished them to
leave the church, but after years of strained relations, the formal break with the Church of
England came in 1795, four years after Wesley's death.
Methodism was especially successful in the expanding industrial areas, where it helped the
working people to overcome economic depression by spiritual means and often, by encouraging
thrift and simple living, to raise their economic status as well. In America the Methodist
Episcopal Church was constituted as an autonomous body in 1784 under the guidance of Francis
Asbury and Thomas Coke, who organized the American church according to Wesley's principles
but adapted them to the needs of both the settled communities and the frontier.
It was the unique Methodist institutions, however, that made Methodism so dynamic an element
in American Protestantism. Methodists were organized locally into classes which enforced
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CULTURE I
discipline, while a hierarchical structure with a strong central authority efficiently organized and
supervised the itinerant preachers.
The Methodist advance was temporarily halted in 1844 by the church's division into Northern
and Southern branches over the issue of slavery. After the Civil War, both branches continued
their rapid increase in numbers and in material resources.
Despite wide variations in belief, practice, and status, Methodists share an emphasis on those
doctrines that:
a) indicate the power of the Holy Spirit to confirm the faith of the believer and to transform one's
personal life an insistence that the heart of religion lies in one's personal relationship with God;
b) a simplicity of worship and a partnership of ordained ministers and laity in the worship and
administration of the church;
c) a concern for the underprivileged and the betterment of social conditions;
d) the formation of small groups for mutual encouragement and edification;
e) a connectional system of government (by which all ministers are in connection with the
central authority of the church, and the agencies of the church are centrally administered)
RELIGIOUS EQUALITY ATTAINED
After the Reformation, Roman Catholics in Britain had been harassed by numerous
restrictions. In Britain, Roman Catholics could not purchase land, hold civil or military offices
or seats in Parliament, inherit property, or practice their religion freely without incurring civil
penalties. A Roman Catholic in Ireland could not vote in Parliamentary elections and could be
readily dispossessed of his land by his nearest Protestant relative.
By the late 18th century, however, Roman Catholics had ceased to be considered the social
and political danger that they had represented at the beginning of the Hanoverian
succession.

a) 1688: GLORIOUS REVOLUTION:

Toleration Act (1689): [Achievement of religious toleration.] Dissenters were given

freedom to worship their gods, but they were not allowed to be elected in official posts.

b) 1760/1820: GEORGE III:

Conservatism came back to power. There was a division among the two parties whether
to give Catholics official posts: Whigs were for Catholic emancipation and Tories
(conservative) were against. Finally, the conservative government was forced to repeal the
Corporation Act (all members should be of the Church of England) and the Test Act
(disbelief of Catholicism). [Thus, now members of other Protestant groups were able to
occupy official posts.]

First Relief Act (1778) enabled Roman Catholics in Britain to acquire real property, such
as land.
Relief Act (1793), which granted Irish Roman Catholics the franchise and admission to
most civil offices. Further emancipatory measures following the Act of Union (1801), which
united Great Britain with Ireland, foundered in the face of resistance from the bitterly antiCatholic George III and from powerful Irish Protestants and British Tories who feared Roman
Catholic participation in Britain's public life.
In the next two decades, Daniel O'Connell formed the Catholic Association to this end in 1823.

Emancipation Act (1829) O'Connell's ensuing triumphant election compelled the British
prime minister, the Duke of Wellington, and Sir Robert Peel to carry this act. This act admitted
Irish and English Roman Catholics to Parliament and to all but a handful of public offices.
Universities Tests Act (1871), which opened the universities to Roman Catholics,
Catholic Emancipation in the United Kingdom was virtually complete.
c) 1889: VICTORIA (18371901)
Catholic Relief Act: [Meant the equality of religious ideas.] Catholics could be elected

in official posts, except three: Sovereign, Regent and Lord Chancellor.

52

CULTURE I
FIRST STEPS TOWARDS A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

53