SECTION 3:

PROJECT DESIGN

Project Design

Introduction
Proposed Project Layout
The Buguias I Mini-hydro potential has a gross head of 152 meters. A low
diversion weir will be constructed to divert the river flow into a 11 OOmm
diameter low pressure headrace approximately seven hundred fifty meters
long. A johnson type surge tank with 4 meters diameter and 10 meter high
will be used at the end of the low pressure headrace, before the beginning of
the penstock pipe.
A penstock pipe approximately 513 meters long will be laid on the mountain
slope to convey pressurized water to the turbines. The penstock, with
thickness ranging from 6 mm at the top to 16 mm thick at the bottom part,
has a general diameter of 813mm. A portion of the penstock pipe will be
buried where it traverses vegetable gardens and terraces. An asphaltic
coating will be applied on the outer surface of the steel pipe to prevent
COITOSIOn.

The power house, of concrete construction will house two (2) cross-flow
type turbine units. Its inside dimensions are 8m wide by 16meters long. It
is also equipped with a three-ton capacity overhead crane.
The two turbines will be installed driving synchronous alternators of750 kW
capacity each. At the rated head of 145 meters, for the three turbine setting,
each turbine has a rated flow of 700 liters per second (Ips) or a total
required flow of 1,400 Ips.
The step-up transformers, 0.44/23kV, with a total rated capacity of 3 x
666kVa will be installed in the open air. The proposed transmission line
tapping points for the interconnection of the proposed generating plant is
the BENECO transmission line along the Halsema National Highway.

[Buguias I Mini Hydropower Project]

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Project Design

Diversion Weir and Desilting Basin

Design Considerations
The Buguias I MHP dam or diversion weir is built primarily to raise the
water level to the required elevation to allow entrance of water into the
headrace entrance. .
The dam must be relatively impervious to water and capable of resisting the
forces acting on it. It must be statically and dynamically stable, and the
design must be such that stresses in the concrete do not exceed allowable
limits.
In selecting the dam site, the following river characteristic were observed
and considered;
The dam is located in a long uniform and straight reach of river.
The foundation is sufficiently stable to sustain the weight of the dam
and should be nearly impervious.
The river banks are firm and stable to provide good anchorage of the
dam abutments.
The site is at the narrower part of the river but sufficiently wide
enough such that the ogee spillway will have adequate capacity to
discharge the design flood at not too high level.
Suitable construction materials are available in the vicinity of the job
site.
To address the expected severe erosion at the toe of the dam, an apron will
be provided together with the formation of hydraulic jumps by providing
chute blocks.
Structural Stability
Figure below is a free-body diagram of a section of a gravity dam for the
purpose of analysis.

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Project Design

Free-Body Diagram: Gravity Dam (Spillway Section)

Horizontal Loads
Headwater (Ht):
Hflood =

m (assumed flood water level at elevation 122 masl)

Hsilt = 32m (assumed to be filled up to sluice gate level)

Tailwater (Hs)

This effect will be disregarded

Seismic Force ~)HSF = Horizontal accelerations assumed 0.5g

Vertical Loads
Weight ofDam (V 1)- The unit weight of material in the dam is determined as
accurately as possible.
Unit wt of Concrete= 2,400 kg/cu.m
Unit wt of Rubble Masonry = 2,300 kg/cu.m
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Project Design

Vertical Water Loading (V2)- Imposed on any sloping surface of the dam,
usually the upstream face, but also on the downstream for overflow dams.
Uplift (V3)- Hydrostatic forces acting within a dam
and its foundations including interstitial or pore
pressures. Drainages will be used to prevent
occurence of uplift, assuming the drainage will be
effective for the entire life on the dam, therefore
some inclusion for uplift must be included in the
design. See diagram for distribution of pressure. [k
values vary between 0.25 to 0.50 depending on
conditions.]
Seismic Force (V4)- Force acting on dam in vertical
plane.

Other Loads to be Considered

Direction ofForces - The direction of resultant forces is important for
gravity and buttress dams - especially on stratified rock.
Hydrostatic Loading within the Foundation or Abutment- Faults, cracks and
joints are present in most damsites. Forces due to a dam may cause cracks to
appear in the rock upstream from the dam, this may cause jacking loads that
could cause failure. To avoid this, careful surveys should be made of the
orientation and inclination of faults, joints and cracks.

Fss=

(L:H/L:V) -tan a!

1+ (L:H/L:V)tana!

cA
s = ----

Fsf=L:H

+L:Vtan(cf>+a!)

COSO!(l-tancf>tanO!)

Stability Safeguards of a Dam

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Project Design

A gravity dam or weir must be designed to safeguard against overturning

and sliding. For the former it is usual to design the dam so that the resultant
of all forces intersects the base within its middle third. This will provide a
factor of safety in excess of 2.
The ratio of the sum of the horizontal forces to the sum of the vertical forces
is referred to as the sliding factor (Fss). This is usually about 0.75 but must
not exceed 0.90 under extreme loading. These figures represent the range of
the coefficient of static friction normally encountered at the site of a gravity
dam.
At or in the foundations, the horizontal loading will be resisted by cohesion
and friction. The ratio of the total resistance by cohesion and friction to the
horizontal load is termed the shear friction factor (Fsf). Most countries
accept 4 as a minimum value. In practice the foundation is usually prepared
in steps or is sloped upward in a downstream direction to provide resistance
to failure far in excess of the above figure.
Range of shearing resistance parameters.
Location of plane of shearing/sliding Cohesion (c) Friction tan o
mass concrete intact
1.5-3.5
1.0-1.5
mass concrete horizontal construction joint
0.8-2.5
1.0-1.5
conrete/rock interface
1.0-3.0
0.8-1.8
rock mass sound
1.0-3.0
1.0-1.8
rock mass inferior
<1.0
<1.0

Recommended shear friction factors, Fsf(USBR 1987)

Load Combination
Location of sliding plane Normal Unusual Extreme
<1.0
dam concrete, base interface 3. 0
2.0
foundation rock
4.0
2.7
1.3

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Project Design

Design of Spillway

The discharge over a spillway crest is given by the formula:

Q=C.L.H312
where Q=discharge, C=coefficient, L=length of the crest, H=effective head
of water.
I,

Crest Profile
the crest of an overfall "'
spillway is usually dimensioned to conform
to the underside of the nappe of the freefalling jet. Greater efficiency is obtained by
operating a spillway at greater than design
head, as can be seen in the figure showing
the effect of nappe profile on coefficient.

f.-----------,

0 .2

o .~

r:r~lic-

o.a o.a

1.0 1.-2 t4
l{e:sd on trl!'t1

HeQd lllot Iii'

r'IOI)~e

It is common practice to choose the design head for the nappe as 75o/o-80%
of the maximum expected head. When the spillway so designed does pass
the greater flows, pressures lower than atmosphere will occur over the crest,
causing problems associated with cavitation.
The flow over a spillway gives rise to self-excited vibration, in which three
coupled elements are involved; the jet, the overflow crest and the air cushion
between dam and jet. This can be avoided by using splitters on the crest.
The passage of flood waters from upper level to lower level will involve the
dissipation of vast energy. The velocities and pressures involved are huge
and destructive.
Flip Bucket Spillways - the purpose of this type is to throw the water well
clear of the structure. The jet of a ski jump spillway leaves horizontally
whereas the jet of a flip bucket is deflected upwards to induce disintegration
in the air. The spray produced can cause damage to the countryside and may
adversely affect nearby electrical installations.

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Project Design

SWZ>=<

B. Deflector Bucket

.............

~:;:;;;

~
~

Dissipation of energy depends upon the formation of rollers, turbulence

and/or standing waves. Dentations are provided to assist in dissipation of
energy. The blocks are subjected to highly fluctuating pressures of such low
minimum values that serious cavitation and destruction can occur.

Sluice Gates
The Buguais I MHP diversion or weir will be installed with sluice gate to
rid the upstream of the dam from accumulated silt and bed load periodically.
The gates will be manually operated.

General Information on the Diversion Weir:

Length of Spillway
Height of Weir
Profile type
Length of Apron
Sluice Gate

30 meters
2 meters
Ogee Type Profile
20 meters
Mechanically Raised
1.5m x 1.5m

Estimation of design flood

There are two methods now commonly used;

The statistical analysis of past floods with extrapolation to estimate

the magnitude and probability of occurence of future floods, and;
The estimation of probable maximum precipitation on to the particular
catchment under the worst meteorological conditions likely to occur
over the catchment, followed by an estimation of the run-off that
would result from such a storm.
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Project Design

The determination of probable maximum precipitation for a particular

drainage basin requires comprehensive study of major storms on record and
is a job for experts. One is limited by the lack of data, records usually do not
go back more than 50 years, which makes prediction of more than the 100
year flood impossible. As it is, 50 years of data will predict a 100 year flood
to within 25%, and 115 years will predict it to 10%.
The Engineer is fa~ed with conflicting requirements in terms of safety and
economy, he is therefore obliged to use to the best advantage the data and
procedures that are available;
Statistical analysis of past flow records at the site - and extrapolation;
As above, but with extension of the flow records by correlation with
flows from adjacent catchments;
Statistical analysis of rainfall records and extrapolation;
As preceeding, but with extension of data by correlation with other
stations;
Correlation studies including both rainfall and flow records;

[Buguias I Mini Hydropower Project]

Page 3-8

Project Design

Low Pressure Headrace

Design Considerations

The conveyance system shall be designed with a capacity of 1.5 cu.m per
second flow. A design slope of 111000 shall be adopted to minimize
headloss.
The full length of the low pressure conveyance system will involve a steel
p1pe conveyance.
Headrace Total
Length
Diameter
Slope

750m
1.2m
1:1000m

Thickness:
6mm thkMS

Due to the utilization of a surge tank the hydraulic conveyance shall fall
under the Full Flowing pipe.
Outcropped Steel Conveyance

The whole portion of the Buguias I MHP conveyance line is an outcropped

conveyance steel closed conduit type The moderately sloped geologic
feature of the mountain side from that point to the proposed desilting basin
to the surgetank site allows construction of benches on which the circular
type steel conduit will be laid.
Pipe Sleepers and Coatings

Where the steel conduit pipes are exposed and unprotected from excessive or
corrosive condition, pipe sleepers or block carrying the pipe off the ground
shall be employed to prolong life of steel pipe materials. Where the steel
pipes will be subject to harsh conditions or will be subject to be buried, a
bituminous coating will be applied on the external surface of the steel pipe.

[Buguias I Mini Hydropower Project]

Page 3-9

Project Design

Other Water Conductor Structures

Where topography is unfavourable other types of water conductor structures

may be required. In such cases the engineer will have to develop more
detailed layouts in accordance with the relevant standards and guidelines.
Hydraulic Designs .

Trash rack Looses:

(~ .16 )

/(

I,
/f

---v

.l

//

-'I

il

/I

t( .

I_____

1~.~--------------~!

l!.l .s
0

'== 2.4 .8

f- = heacloss :m11)

J~

tl

,,

~
1.7 1.0 0.8

= ba 1ickn~ss lmm)
b :: V'tidt betwee ba"S (
V =aJoroac JelcCJty 11.s)
g = gravi aliCtlal ctt~s'a I
cp =a<g ~ of inc rratior 'O'TT oizoltal

Figure- 2-4 Lo<>s coefficiE-nts fo1 trash racks

Loss due to contractions:

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Project Design

(~-, . 11"
')
For a ratio up to dD = 0.76. Kc approximately follmvs. the furmtlla:-

(2.18)

Loses due to friction:

Empirical formulae
O.~r

the ye~ many empirical formulae. ba!>M on accumulated expenence-. have been de.-e'loped.
They are. generally. nor based on sound phy!>ics principles and eeu. occasionally. lack dime-mional
coherence. but are innutiYely ba->ed on rhe lx-lief that the friction on a dosed full pipe is:
l. Independent of the water pres!>llr<:'
1

Linearly proponional to iB length

3. Inversely proportional to a certain power of it!> diameter

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Project Design

-t Proportional m a cerrnu1 exponent of rh~ wat~r wlocity

In turbulent t1ows it ~~ influenced by the wall roughn~s
One of these furmuL1e . ,,idely u-;ed m estun.1te the tlo\Y in open channels. but al<;e applicabl e to
closed pipes. 1!> that de.-eloped by ~1all1llllg (n.~sp. Stnckler):
~

Q=..:...
!I

-~

( l.-1 :
.)

(2 . 13)

p: ~

u is the fanrung roughness coeffictenr (s nu ~- Ks-:rd.L!r=l n)

P is the wetted perimeter (m)
A 1s cross-<>ectional area of the pipe (tn: l. and
S if> the hydraulic gradient or head loss br linear meter h L).
Applying the abow fommlae to a full do!>Cd cu-cular cross section pipe :
1i Q~
s' = 10.29D.,...
"
2

(2.1-1-)

(2 .1-1-a)

In Table ~.2 the

~L-uwing

coeffiClent n for se-..eral commeraal p1pes 1s sho\\n:

Tab)(> 2-2 :\Ianning C'O(>fficiPnt n for '>f'n>ral comm(>rcial pipf">

Kmdofpi~u

w elded '>ted
Polyethylene (PE)
PYC
Asbestos cement
Ductile iron
Ca'it iron
V/ood-staw (new)
Concrete (steel forms smooth fuush)

[Buguias I Mini Hydropower Project]

0.012
0.009
0.009
0.011
0.0 15
0. 01-t
0.012
0.01-t

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Project Design

Surge Tank and Penstock

Design Considerations

Surge tanks
Surge tanks are required to protect long penstocks from excessive water
hammer pressure rise, to control excessive generator runaway speeds and
to contribute to system speed regulation. Alternatives to surge tanks
providing some of the benefits of surge tanks, include:
-addition of extra machine inertia (typically by adding a flywheel to a
horizontal axis unit or extra mass to a vertical axis generator).
- installing turbine bypass valves.
- pressure relief devices.
A preliminary design methodology for surge tanks is outlined below. It is
conservative.

Cross-section area of surge tank (As) =1.6AU2gcHo (m 2)

Where:

A = cross section area of upstream pipe (m2)

L =length of pipe surge tank to reservoir (m)
c =head loss factor as hi= cV2 (m-l.s2)
Ho= steady state head on turbine

Highest up-surge:
In order to dimension the surge tanks it is also necessary to know the
maximum and minimum water levels that can be expected. An approximate
method is shown below that is based on Parmakian' s method for balanced
design (Parrnakian - 1960). This method provides equations relating the
following parameters from which the maximum and minimum surge levels
can be calculated:

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Project Design

QO =initial steady state flow (m3/s)

As =cross-section area of surge tank (m2)
g =acceleration due to gravity(= 9.8 ms-2)
L =length of pipeline between forebay reservoir and surge tank (m)
A= cross section area of pipeline (m2)
SA= upswing (m)
SB =downswing (m)
HO =steady state w~ter level in surge tank (m)
Hs = static water level in surge tank (m)
Hf and bo as defmed below:

For maximum upsurge calculate:

Hf = pipe friction loss + minor losses + Vo2/2g
Bo =Hf/Qe

* (Asg/(L/A))"0.5

Sb = l.OSb"-0.89

* Hf

Maximum W .L. in surge tank= Ho- Hf + Sa

Lowest down surge:

For lowest downswing calculate

Hf =pipe friction losses+ minor losses+ Ve"212g

(where Qe = flow demanded by turbine)
Bo = Hf I Qe * (Asg/(L/A))"0.5
Sb

0. 88bo"-O. 91

* Sf

Minimum W.L. in surge tank= Hs - Hf- SB

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Project Design

Penstocks
Penstock Intake
The concrete volume of a typical penstock intake is approximately 15 .QP rm
and net cost can be estimated as:

CI = 15.Qp.fi
Where:

Qp= plant flow (m3/s)

fl =unit price of reinforced concrete (Php/m3)
C 1 = cost of intake (P).
The penstock intake should be protected with trash racks but gates can be
omitted for mini-hydro plants.

Penstock
Check head /length (H/L) ratio of the proposed penstock layout, if HIL > 5 a
surge tank or turbine bypass valve may be required. Exceptions to these
requirements are:
-Mini hydro plants with load controller.
- High head plants with Pelton turbines

If BIL > 5, then calculate maximum length of penstock:

Lmax = 3.14 Hn* TeN (m)
Where:
Hn= net head on turbine (m)
Te = effective governor closure time, max = 6.0 sees
V =flow velocity in penstock (m/s)
[for penstocks with varying diameters Aequiv = VEAi!Li and V = Q/ equiv].

H L< Lmax, no surge tank is required.

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Project Design

The economic diameter of a penstock can be estimated as below:

D = 3.55 (Q"2 I 2gH) AQ.25

or
D = ( 4/pi)AQ.5

* Q/3.0

(Sarkaria's Equation)

based on V = 3.0 m/s

Use the lesser of the two values.

[Buguias I Mini Hydropower Project]

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Project Design

Powerhouse
Design Considerations

The power house shall be of the conventional type concrete and steel
construction to house and protect the generating units and other control and
auxiliaries are located on the ground floor with the turbines. The draft tubes
are cast integrally with the substructure when it is poured in, with steel liners
serving as forms.
A working bay is provided at one end of the power house where equipment
maybe unloaded and repaired.
An overhead crane, with a capacity large enough to lift the heaviest piece of
equipment over other machinery, is installed to lift and move the heavy
equipment to and from the repair bay for replacement into their positions.

Tailrace

The tailrace is designed taking into consideration the maximum gross head
that can be utilized. Due to the proximity of the power house to the
discharging stream, a wide tailrace is selected to minimize tailwater
elevation rise resulting in decrease of gross head for the plant, particularly
during flood flow conditions.
To unwater draft tubes for repairs, stoplogs or sectional gates will be
installed between the tailrace piers to shut off water from the draft tube
during unwatering. A hoisting mechanism shall be provided for the gates or
stop logs.

[Buguias I Mini Hydropower Project]

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Project Design

Electro-Mechanical Equipment
Selection

The criteria for the selection of the electro-mechanical equipment will be

based mainly on the optimisation of the resource and economy. The cost of
each alternative is computed including the associated civil works particularly
on the power house aspect as required by each equipment configuration and
are compared against each other on the basis of the lowest specific cost per
kilo-watt-hour produced. Another aspect to be considered will be the ease of
transportation of the bulk components particularly at the site. Large
machinery components which cannot be disassembled into smaller parcel
will be hard to transport without constructing an extensive transportation
system.
Figure: Turbine Selection Chart
S'n
-o _

...~

'~D

~....

'h.
't>

.,

~~
:::::.

S'aPo

~_,o

~?<-

"

i
5 -

J
-1

.I

CROSSFL<>jW
TURBINE

sa

I'

;oo

I
500

I
!COO

0Jscitorg<>

[Buguias I Mini Hydropower Project]

I '

sooo
I/ s

raooo

Page 3-18

Project Design

Based on available selection charts, available choices of turbine includes

pelton type turbines, turgo impulse turbines or francis type turbines.
Turbine type will be selected primarily on the economic and financial basis.

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