DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology

University of the Philippines Los Baos
College, Laguna 4031 Philippines
Tel. No. (049) 536-2315 FAX 536-2315

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ChE 170 (Instrumentation and Process Dynamics and Control)

CONTROL SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION
Instrumentation study of instruments and devices for observation, measurement, and control
Basic components of a control system:
1. process being controlled
2. measuring element (sensor) usually combined with transmitter (driving element)
functions of the transmitter: signal generation and line driving (i.e. ability of the transmitter to
furnish air/current to overcome the inherent resistance and capacitance of the tubing/electrical lines
connecting the transmitter to the controller
transmitters are usually designated to be direct acting
3. controller receives the information from the sensor and decides what action should be taken
4. transducer used to convert signals from one form to another
5. final control element implements the decision of the controller
6. transmission lines used to carry the measurement signal

Analog and Digital Processing

Data representation refers to how the magnitude of some physical variable is represented in the
control loop.
analog data characterized by a smooth and continuous variation between a representation of a
variable and the value itself
digital data characterized by a smooth and continuous relation between the representation and the
variable data value is lost

Data Conversions
ADC (analog-to-digital converter) special devices used to convert analog voltages into digital
representation
DAC (digital-to-analog converter) converts a digital signal into an analog voltage

Analog and Digital Control

Analog control exists when all variables in the system are analog representation of another variable
Digital control involves the use of a computer in modern applications (DDC, Supervisory control)
Analog Data Representation the range of the variables involved is part of the specification for
measurement/control systems
There are two analog standards commonly used to represent the range of variables in a control
system:
pneumatic systems a range of gas pressure carried in pipes is used
most common standard for pneumatic signal transmission: 3-15 psig
electronic systems a range of electronic current carried in coils is used
most common standard for current transmission: 4-20 mA or 1-5 volts (VDC)

Selection Criteria for Sensors

1. measurement range (span) the required measurement range for the process variable must be
entirely within the range of performance of the instruments
span difference between the upper range and the lower range of the measuring device
2. performance depending on the application, accuracy, repeatability or perhaps some other measure
of performance is appropriate
accuracy used to specify the maximum error to be expected from a device
usually expressed as the inaccuracy and can appear in several forms:
a) measured variable
b) percentage of the measured full-scale (FS) reading
c) percentage of the instrument span d) percentage of the actual reading
repeatability signifies the agreement in the output of an instrument for a change in input for the
same process conditions
resolution least change in measurement that can be detected by use of the instrument under
specified conditions in a specified time
3. reliability
4. materials of construction the instrument must withstand process conditions to which it is exposed
(operating temperatures and pressures, corrosion, and abrasion)
5. physical access subsequent installation, maintenance personnel must have physical access to the
measuring device for maintenance and calibration
calibration the operation of making, adjusting, or checking a scale so that the readings of an
instrument or measurement system conform to an accepted standard
6. cost two aspects of cost:
initial purchase and installation (capital costs)
recurring costs (operational expense) instrument maintenance and calibration, consumables
(e.g. for automatic titrators: titrating solutions), and any other costs entailed in keeping the
measuring device in service
7. prior use
8. potential for releasing process materials to the environment
Sources of Instrument Error
Error is often caused by:
nonlinearity significant source of error prior to the availability of digital instrumentation
hysteresis predictable error resulting from the differences in the transfer function as the input
variable increases or decreases
characterized by an output result that depends on the direction of change of input which usually
results from non-ideal magnetic or electrical components
backlash mechanical equivalent of hysteresis which usually results from friction effects or gears
with play
drift characterized by a slowly changing instrument output when the input is constant which often
results from faulty or temperature-sensitive electrical components
dynamic (lag or time delay)

Sensors

A. Temperature
Type
Filled-system thermometers
Bimetal thermometers
Thermocouple
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Thermistors
Pyrometers
B. Pressure
Type
Liquid-Column Methods (manometers)
Elastic-element methods
Electrical methods
Strain gauges
Piezoresistive transducers
Piezoelectric transducers

Principle
- measures temperature through the expansion of a gas or liquid trapped in a capillary or tube
- consists of two bonded materials with grossly different thermal expansion coefficient, which, when exposed to a temperature change, will curve because of
the different expansion rates
- based on the discovery by Seebeck in 1821 that an electromotive force (emf) is produced in a continuous circuit of two different metallic wires if the two
junctions are at different temperatures
- based on the principle of metal resistance increasing with temperature
- developed from the principle of semiconductor resistance decreasing with temperature
- involves noncontact measurement of temperature which is directly related to the electromagnetic radiation emitted by an object

Principle
- involves measurement of the height of a liquid column which exerts a pressure that balances the pressure being measured
- the measured pressure deforms some elastic material (usually metallic) within its elastic limit, the magnitude of deformation being approximately proportional
to the applied pressure
- utilize resistance-wire grids for measuring small distortions in elastically stressed materials (strain results to increase in resistance)
- utilize bonded single-crystal semiconductor wafers (silicon) whose resistance varies with distortion or strain
- involves generation of a potential difference proportional to the pressure-generated stress

C. Flow
Type
Orifice meter, Venturi meter
Rotameter
Turbine meter
Vortex-shedding flowmeters
Ultrasonic flowmeters
Magnetic flowmeters
Coriolis mass flowmeters

Principle
- Involves placing a fixed-area flow restriction in the pipe carrying the fluid, which causes a pressure drop that can then be related to the flow rate
- consists of a vertical tube with a tapered bore in which a float changes position with the flow rate through the tube
- utilizes a turbine wheel placed In a pipe containing a flowing fluid, and whose speed depends on the flow rate of the fluid
- the rate of vortex formation and shedding is directly proportional to the flow rate of the fluid.
- based upon the variable time delays of received sound waves that arise when a flowing liquids rate of flow is varied
- based on Faradays law of electromagnetic inductance (the magnitude of the voltage induced in a conductive medium moving at right angles through a magnetic field is
directly proportional to the magnetic flux density, medium velocity and path length between the probes)
- utilize a vibrating tube in which the Coriolis acceleration of a flow loop can be created and measured

D. Level
Type
Float-actuated devices (float gauge, lever and shaft mechanisms, magnetically coupled devices)
Head devices
Electrical methods
Thermal methods
Sonic methods
E. Chemical Composition
Type
Chromatographic analyzers
Infrared analyzers
UV and visible radiation analyzers

Principle
- characterized by a buoyant-member that floats at the interface between two fluids
- utilize hydrostatic head as a measure of level
- based upon conductivity and dielectric constants of the material involved
- based on the difference in thermal characteristics between the fluids, such as temperature or thermal
conductivity
- based on sonic propagation characteristics (detection of liquid-vapor interface)

Principle
- involves separation and measurement of volatile compounds and of compounds that can be quantitatively converted into volatile derivatives
- involves measurement of concentration by measuring the degree of absorption of infrared radiation at specific wavelengths
- involves measurement of concentration by measuring the degree of absorption of radiation in the near-UV or visible range