INFORMATION SHEET

Enabling Objectives
1.5
Unaided, the participant will correctly identify and
describe the use of optical aids.

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part i

1.5

Identify and Describe the Use of Optical Aids

Visual inspection is rarely done by the eye alone.

There are many optical aids which may be used to
assist an inspection including:
1. Magnifiers and microscopes
2. Mirrors
3. Bore scopes and endoscopes
4. Fiber optics
5. Video cameras
6. Special equipment, including imaging and
computer-based systems

MAGNIFIERS AND MICROSCOPES

Magnifiers range from I.5x magnifying glasses/lens to
the limit of optical microscopy. Hand-held magnifiers
normally cover the range up to 10 x magnification.
Above this magnification the short working distance
becomes a problem and low-powered microscopes
and macro-scopes are used. These may he ocular or
binocular, wide field and or stereoscopic.
Low-powered microscopes often have one or two
objectives to give two magnifications up to 40x.
Medium-powered microscopes may have two or more
objectives with magnification between 20x and 100x.

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High-powered microscopes have a number of

objectives, often up to six, which give a magnification
range of 50x to 2000x. With these microscopes
specially prepared surfaces, sections or replicas are
required. Often these microscopes have the facility for
polarization, phase contrast and interference
examinations.
Stereoscopic microscopes have a typical
magnification range from 7x to 150x, with a useful
upper limit of about 60x. This type of microscope
allows the specimen to be moved around and gives a
three-dimensional view.
The microscopes may be either of a transmitted light
or a reflected light type. The former is used for
transparent samples; hut opaque samples require
reflected light.
Transmitted light microscopes operate with the light
source behind the specimen with light passing
through the transparent sample. Reflected light
microscopes pass light through the objective by a light
reflector on to the surface of opaque samples which
reflects the light hack through the objective and to the
eyepiece.

Hand-held Lenses
Low-powered hand-held lenses, up to about 10x
magnifications, are used to magnify fine small detail
to enable a better assessment to be made.
The hand lens is moved close to the surface to be
inspected and then slowly moved away until the
surface is in focus. The distance from the lens to the
eye will he variable so and should be around 300 mm,
the distance for near vision. Continuous adjustment is
often required to focus specific parts of the detail.

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The uses of hand-held lenses are infinite with most

visual inspection of fine detail benefiting from their
use. They are widely used in many industries, from
metal components to fabric inspection.

Angle-poise Mounted Magnifiers

With magnification of about 10 x, the equipment often
incorporates a light source, typically a circular
fluorescent tube producing a uniform illumination in
the inspection zone.
Note: ES 5165- Guide to the selection of low-power magnifiers
for visual inspection

Components are transported to the test bench and

either manipulated on the bench with the magnifier
adjusted to produce the desired focus or manipulated
under the magnification at a fixed distance. The
working distance of the eye from the lens varies hut
with most magnifiers should be about the normal
reading distance of approximately 300 mm.
Angle-poise magnifiers would be used in a fixed
inspection station within a machine shop, test house
or inspection department. Typical inspection includes
machine tools, small components, and fabric
inspection.

Low-power Microscope
These groups of microscopes cover a large range
from low-power stereoscope of up to 20x
magnification to monocular and binocular equipment
up to 50x magnification. The majority of equipment is
bench mounted and is also portable, with some types
capable of mounting on large components. In most
cases the microscopes consist of a stage, objective
lens, eyepiece lens and a light source.

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Mode of Operation
The working distance between stage and objective
lens is restricted and may therefore require small
sections to be taken from large pieces. The sample
may require special preparation, sections from
translucent material for mounting on to glass slides for
examination by transmitted light. Opaque materials
can only be examined by reflected light and may
require some form of preparation depending on the
features requiring examination.
Once a sample is prepared it is placed on the
microscope stage, the light source switched on, the
eyepieces adjusted (binocular type) and the stage
slowly racked up by means of the coarse focus until
an image is obtained whilst viewing through the
eyepiece lens. Critical focusing is achieved by the use
of the fine focus.

Applications
These microscopes are used for routine
testing/inspection of component surfaces, structure,
metals, ceramics, plants, tissues, electronic
component materials, fabrics, liquid, fractures, fibers,
etc.

Measuring Microscopes and Special

Microscopes
These are microscopes used to measure specific
parameters and are used for small detail which
requires accurate measuring, e.g. from surface finish
to fabrics and hardness impressions of Brinell and
Vickers hardness testing. Our illustrative example is
the Brinell microscope used to measure the diameter
of the indentation made by a steel ball on the surface
of the test piece. The microscopes incorporate a
measuring scale which can normally he adjusted to

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obtain a sharp focus of the scale of the surface to be

measured.
A light source is usually incorporated in the form of a
small tungsten filament bulb operating from a small
battery and should be checked for illumination by
switching on prior to the operation. The microscope is
then checked against the calibration scale to ensure
the measurements obtained from the test are correct
and within any specified limits. The Brinell
microscope is used to measure the ball impression
diameter in two directions after the above checks
have been made. The dimensions obtained are then
converted by means of a chart to give a Brinell
hardness number, which is an indication of the
materials hardness.

Special Microscopes and Magnifiers

Surface comparator magnifiers - used to check
surface finish.
Measuring magnifier - this is a magnifier
incorporating a measuring scale available in a range
of units.
Shop microscope - about 40 x magnification. Used
for a range of inspection from plated and painted
surfaces to defective components and surface wear.
Laboratory microscope - this is a conventional
compound microscope. A great range of
magnification, field coverage, and resolution is
available. Magnification can range from 100 to 2000
x. It is designed principally for transmitted light as it
tends to be used with transparent or semi-transparent
materials.

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Metallurgical microscope - this is very similar to a

laboratory microscope but will have vertical
illumination so that opaque samples can be viewed
using reflected light.
Brinell microscope - See example above.

MIRRORS
Inspections can be made with mirrors allowing
viewing behind or underneath objects or components
with flexibility to obtain optimum viewing angles.
Mirrors are available in various shapes, sizes and
curvature configurations (convex, concave, parabolic),
with adjustable and telescopic handles.
The use of mirrors requires a degree of practice to
reflect the light and obtain the desired reflection.

BORE SCOPES and ENDOSCOPES

The bore scope, which is a self-illuminated telescope,
originates from an early development of equipment to
explore inside human bodies without having to
operate. The original equipment was called an
endoscope, derived from the Greek words for inside
view and this is the term now used for flexible bore
scopes.
Cysto-scopes (a tube incorporating a lens and light
source) were developed for examination of the human
bladder and are the basis for bore scopes used in
visual inspection.

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Types of Bore Scopes

Rigid Bore Scopes
The rigid bore scope was originally developed to
inspect the bores of rifles and gun barrels. The image
at the eyepiece is produced by an objective lens,
prism, relay lenses and eyepiece and may have either
fixed or adjustable focusing, the latter having a
greater advantage over the fixed focus type.

Figure 1
Rigid Bore Scope

Figure 2
Rigid Bore Scope

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Figure 3
Typical Bore scope Lens System

A rigid mini-bore scope contains a single solid fiber to

replace the lenses. The fiber is about 1 mm in
diameter and the lens aperture equal to a pin-hole
camera, resulting in an infinite depth of field.
Focusing adjustments can help in overcoming and
compensating for variability in eyesight and expands
the depth of field, therefore producing sharper images

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Figure 4
Available Angles of View

The following is a list of special bore scopes used for

special examination:
Panoramic Bore Scopes - this has a scanning mirror
mounted in front of the objective lens system. This
gives a wide range of vision and allows the rapid
inspection of the 60 insides of cylinders, pipes etc.
Water- or gas-proof Bore Scopes - for hightemperature applications inside engines etc. Can be
used in liquid or gas environments.
Angulated Bore Scopes - having various bends,
permitting inspection of areas not normally accessible
by a rigid, straight bore scope.
Right-angled Bore Scopes - used for looking around
corners. Wide-field bore scopes - up to 1200 field of
view. Miniature Bore Scope - down to 1.75 mm
diameter. Periscope bore scopes - used to see above
or over objects.

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Ultraviolet Bore Scopes - used in fluorescent

inspection (e.g. magnetic particle inspection and
penetrant testing). Comes complete with UV light
source, filters etc.
Calibrated Bore Scopes - used in special
examinations. The external tube is calibrated in order
to indicate depth of insertion during tests.

Figure 5
Calibrated Bore Scope

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Figure 6
Calibrated Bore Scope

Setting Up a Rigid Bore Scope

1. Place a protractor on a board and position the bore
scope parallel to the 00 line with the lens directly over
the center mark.
2. Ensure that the protractor center is behind the lens
window between 25 to 50 mm away.
Sight through the instrument and, using marks on the
edge of the protractor, mark the field of view, left and
right hand edge and center. Readings from the
protractor give direction and field of view. The angle of
view ranges from 20 to 360.

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Figure 7
A Rigid Bore Scope Set-up

ENDOSCOPES or FIBERSCOPES
Endoscopes are flexible systems using fiber optics,
which are used in a similar manner to bore scopes.
They are used extensively in medicine and many
engineering applications.

FIBER OPTICS
Fiber optics use very thin flexible glass fiber filaments
between 9-30 microns in diameter. These filaments
are capable of transmitting light within the boundaries
of the fiber by internal reflections, the light following
the path of the fiber irrespective of its shape. This
property allows the light or image to he transmitted
around bends and curves without additional optical
equipment.
The fiber consists of a core of high quality optical
glass with a case of glass of different refractive index,
which acts as a mirror. The fibers are very small in
cross-section and transmit very little light; therefore
the fibers are grouped together in bundles, many
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thousands at a time, to produce the required level of

illumination.
Max
Dia.
(mm)
4.10

Working
length
(mm)
292
333
76
161
247
333
121
207
292
379

5.48

14

290
440
590
290
440
590
290
440
590
740

Direction
of view
(DOV)
Lateral
(90)
Direct (0)
Direct (0)

Direct (0)

Field of
view
(FOV)
50
60

Depth
of
field
(mm)
2 Infinity
4 - Infinity

,10
,30
or ,60
80
30 or
50

10 FOV 80
Infinity
30 FOV 20
Infinity
60/50
FOV
(direct)
Infinity 4- 4
60/50
FOV
(Lateral)
2 Infinity
FOV 2- 80
Infinity

Direct (0) 55
Foreoblique
(45)
Lateral
(90)

5 - Infinity

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7.98

240
440
650
240
440
240
340
440
550
760
960
1280
340
340

9.98

240
440
440
240
340
440
550
760
960
340

11098

340

Direct (0)

Infinity

Foreoblique
(45)
Lateral
(90)

Infinity

Retro
(110)

Infinity

30
10 - Infinity
55 5 - Infinity

Direct (0) 55

5 - Infinity

Foreoblique
(45)
Lateral
(90)

Lateral
(90)

330 10 Infinity
330
Infinity

The application of transmitting light and receiving

images requires the use of two separate bunches of
fiber, one to transmit (the light guide) and one to
receive (the image guide). The fiber filaments for light
guides are about 30 micron in diameter, and are used
in bundles, the light guide bundle. The fibers for the
image guide have a diameter of about 9-17 microns,
smaller than the light guide fibers, because the
diameter of the fibers is one of the factors which will
affect the resolution. An objective lens is attached to
one end of the fibers to focus the picture, which is
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transmitted by fiber optics to the eyepiece and can

then be adjusted to produce a sharp image.
The many variants of the bore scope are used to
inspect the internal condition and integrity of
pipework, combustion chambers, gas cylinders, small
tanks, chambers and vessels where unaided visual
inspection is not practical.
Bore scopes are widely used in the automotive
industry, to examine engine cylinders without having
to take the engine apart. In machine shops, they are
used to test the internal surface conditions of many
components. They are used in the nuclear and
chemical industries for remote observation, so that an
inspector can remain in a safe area while examining a
more dangerous environment. This is particularly
important in tube inspection in power stations,
chemical plants, etc.
As remote inspection requirements become ever
more complex and demanding, the systems design
engineer seeks more sophisticated solutions to
inspection problems. This often leads to the use of
video systems, using either real or virtual images. A
real image is composed of real light waves, which can
be projected onto a screen or captured on film or
video tape. A virtual image is only an apparent image
and so cannot be directly captured, but the
sophisticated electronics in a video application of bore
scopes and endoscopes system allows the virtual
image to be converted into a real picture.
Video systems work on the principle that a picture can
be thought of as being composed of a large number
of very small dots (picture elements or pixels). These
dots can be any shade of brightness from white
(brightest) through shades of grey to black (darkest).

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Figure 8
Video System

When observing the screen from normal viewing

distance, these dots merge to form a continuous
picture. This technique is used in television, where
information on the degree of brightness of each pixel
is sent from the transmitting end to the receiving end,
where a reproduction of the original scene is formed.
The basic equipment required for a video system is
the video camera, a TV monitor and cables to relay
electrical information between them. Additions to the
system can include light sources, a control unit, and
signal processing/analyzing equipment. An analyzer
makes it possible to store or to freeze images. Stored
images can be processed to improve upon the real
image in order to enhance inspection and detection of
discontinuities in the object inspected.

TELEVISION CAMERA
The optical image of the scene to be televised is
focused, via a zoom lens, onto the target of the
camera tube. The target is coated in photo
-conductive or photo -emissive material, and this
generates a pattern of electrical voltages at the back
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of the target, with the voltage at any point being

proportional to the brightness of the corresponding
image point.
The target is scanned by an electron beam generated
in the camera tube - moving left to right across the
target and rapidly back to left again, then left to right
and rapidly back and so on. The beam starts at the
top of the target and works down to the bottom, and
returns rapidly to the top and begins the process
again.
As the target (videcon) is being scanned the voltages
representing detail in the image are transferred to the
output terminal of the camera tube.
A video camera operates in the same way as a TV
camera, but is usually of a much simpler construction.

Photos & Tables courtesy of Olympus C6 series

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Figure 9
Olympus Videoscope

Articulation Brake Left & Right

Another method of televising an image is by the use
of a semiconductor pick-up device in place of the
tube. Each small chip contains thousands of silicon
photodiodes, with each diode storing a degree of
charge dependent upon the amount of light falling on
it. Each diode represents a pixel and can be
electronically read and converted to corresponding
image in a picture tube.

Picture Tube - Cathode Ray Tube

A cathode ray tube is used to convert the signals from
the camera hack to an image. The tube contains an
electron beam, which is fired at a screen coated in a
material, which emits light when struck by electrons.
The beam density is controlled at each point by the
picture signal input from the camera, i.e. the voltages
representing each point of the scene determine the
electron density hitting the screen, and therefore the
brightness, at the corresponding point on the screen,
and so a reproduction of the original image is built up
on the screen.

Image Quality
The television camera tube is a very important
component in the system since it must produce highresolution pictures. As mentioned above, any image
can be regarded as a series of very small dots or
elements. The best resolution is obtained with the
highest number of image picture elements as
possible, therefore the higher the number of pixels,
the better the resolution on the target. The quality of
the picture on the screen is governed by scattered
and reflected light within the tube, all of which reduce
image contrast. The visual interpretation of the
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images/pictures on the screen is governed by

contrast, brightness and the resolution or number of
lines in the picture. The greater the number of lines,
the better the resolution. Therefore with the screen
size, number of lines in the picture and the
magnification, it is possible to calculate the smallest
resolvable detail.

Effect of Magnification
An increase in the size of the image, which is then
projected electronically onto a screen, improves the
resolution of the smallest detail without having to
resort to improving the resolution of the monitor. The
disadvantages are that increasing magnification of the
test-piece also magnifies any movement in the
camera system and may also affect the depth of field
available.

Depth of Field
Depth of field is the range over which the camera/lens
produces satisfactory definition which is in focus. It
can he expected that the depth of field will decrease
with increase in magnification.

Applications
Cameras can operate in a range of diverse
applications. They can be used alone, with zoom and
telescopic lenses, or in conjunction with optical fibers
to produce very small endoscopes. Video cameras
can also he fitted to visual equipment such as
magnifiers, microscopes etc.
Inspection of pipe work and vessels which may
appear difficult, if not impossible, can now be
performed by remote control video equipment
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employing small cameras and lighting systems. The

equipment is complex, usually consisting of a video
endoscope incorporating a camera, fiber optic lighting
and control systems, all of which are controlled from a
distance. The cameras can be front view, wide angle
or side view or a combination of these kinds.
Fiber optics are used to transmit light to the working
head from a remote source. In general, cable lengths
are limited to 30 meters since electronic problems
occur with longer lengths.
The camera is only a small part of the total system,
which requires control systems, energy and light
sources, monitoring systems and recording systems,
the latter often 80 being a video recorder. The
camera system can be, pushed through a tube, pulled
through a tube or lowered into a tube. If pushed, the
cable must be able to carry all the systems to operate
the camera and rigid enough to push the system, and
yet it has to he flexible enough to negotiate bends up
to about 450, Cable reels with hand cranking systems
are used to pull inspection systems through pipe
work.
Cables for camera systems require sheaves and
guides at all changes in section in order to avoid
damage or sticking.

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