Tourismvol1 PDF

EIATechnicalReviewGuidelines:
TourismRelatedProjects
VolumeI
RegionalDocumentpreparedundertheCAFTADREnvironmentalCooperation
ProgramtoStrengthenEnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Reviews
PreparedbyCAFTADRandU.S.CountryEIAandTourismExpertswithsupportfrom:
Thisdocumentistheresultofaregionalcollaborationundertheenvironmentalcooperation
agreementsundertakenaspartoftheCentralAmericaandDominicanRepublicFreeTradeAgreements
withtheUnitedStates.Regionalexpertsparticipatedinthepreparationofthisdocument;however,the
guidelinesdonotnecessarilyrepresentthepolicies,practicesorrequirementsoftheirgovernmentsor
organizations.
Reproductionofthisdocumentinwholeorinpartandinanyformforeducationalornonprofit
purposesmaybemadewithoutspecialpermissionfromtheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtection
Agency(U.S.EPA),AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(U.S.AID),and/ortheCentralAmerican
CommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment(CCAD)providedacknowledgementofthesourceis
included.
EPA/315R11003August2011
EIATechnicalReviewGuidelines:
TourismRelatedProjects
VolumeI
TheEIATechnicalReviewGuidelinesforTourismRelatedProjectsweredevelopedaspartofaregional
collaboration to better ensure proposed tourismrelated projects undergoing review by government
officials, nongovernmental organizations and the general public successfully identify, avoid, prevent
and/ormitigatepotentialadverseimpactsandenhancepotentialbeneficialimpactsthroughoutthelife
of the projects. The guidelines are part of a broader program to strengthen environmental impact
assessment(EIA)reviewunderenvironmentalcooperationagreementsassociatedwiththeCAFTADR
free trade agreement between the United States and five countries in Central America and the
DominicanRepublic.
TheguidelinesandexampletermsofreferencewerepreparedbyregionalexpertsfromtheCAFTADR
countries and the United States in government organizations responsible for the environment and
tourismandleadingacademicinstitutions,designatedbytherespectiveMinisters,supportedbytheU.S.
Agency for International Development (U.S. AID) contract for the Environment and Labor Excellence
ProgramandagrantwiththeCentralAmericaCommissionforEnvironmentandDevelopment(CCAD).
The guidelines draw upon existing materials from CAFTADR countries, other countries outside the
region, and international organizations. The guidelines do not represent the policies, practices or
requirementsofanyonecountryororganization.
The guidelines are available in English and Spanish on the international websites of the U.S.
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency (U.S.EPA),theInternationalNetworkfor EnvironmentalCompliance
and Enforcement (INECE), and the Central American Commission on Environment and Development
(CCAD): www.epa.gov/oita/ www.inece.org/ www.sica.int/ccad/ Volume 1 contains the
guidelines with a glossary and references which track with internationally recognized elements of
environmentalimpactassessment;Volume2containsAppendiceswithdetailedinformationontourism,
requirements and standards, predictive tools, and international codes; and Volume 1 Part 2 contains
example Terms of Reference crosslinked to Volumes 1 and 2 for resort/hotel/condo developments,
concessions,andcoastalandmarineprojectsrespectivelyforusebythecountriesastheypreparetheir
ownEIAprogramrequirements.
[Thispageisintentionallyblank.]
VolumeIEIATechnicalReviewGuidelines:
Tourism
TABLEOFCONTENTS
TABLEOFCONTENTS
A.
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................1
BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................................................1
APPROACH............................................................................................................................................2
OBJECTIVESOFPRIORITYSECTOREIAGUIDELINESFORTOURISM............................................................3
SCOPEANDCONTENTSOFTOURISMGUIDELINES...................................................................................3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................................................................4
B.
EIAPROCESSANDPUBLICPARTICIPATION..............................................................................................7
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
EIAPROCEDURES...................................................................................................................................7
ProjectProponents:FromProjectInitiationtotheEIAApplication.................................................................7
EIAApplication,ScreeningandCategorization................................................................................................7
ScopingofEIAandTermsofReference............................................................................................................9
PublicParticipationthroughouttheProcess....................................................................................................9
PreparationandSubmissionoftheEIADocument........................................................................................10
EIADocumentReview....................................................................................................................................10
DecisiononProject.........................................................................................................................................11
CommitmentLanguageforEnvironmentalMeasures...................................................................................11
ImplementationofEnvironmentalMeasures................................................................................................11
Auditing,MonitoringandFollowupEnforcementofCommitments.............................................................11
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
PUBLICPARTICIPATION.........................................................................................................................12
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................12
RequirementsforPublicParticipation............................................................................................................12
MethodsforIdentifyingandEngagingAffectedandInterestedPublic.........................................................13
ReportingonandResponsivenesstoPublicComments................................................................................15
C.
PROJECTANDALTERNATIVESDESCRIPTION..........................................................................................17
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................17
DOCUMENTATIONOFPURPOSEANDNEED...........................................................................................18
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
PROJECTDESCRIPTION..........................................................................................................................18
GeneralInformation.......................................................................................................................................19
OverallProjectDescriptionInformation.........................................................................................................19
ProjectScope:AllProjectPhasesandRelatedorConnectedActions............................................................21
ProjectDetails................................................................................................................................................21
Maps,Diagrams,SiteDesignandPlan...........................................................................................................22
DetailsonConstructionProcedures...............................................................................................................23
Transportation:Roads,Pathways,AirStrips,andBoatFacilities...................................................................26
Hotel,ResortandRestaurantFacilities..........................................................................................................28
MarineandCoastal.........................................................................................................................................33
CAFTADRANDUSCOUNTRYEXPERTSSUPPORTEDBYUSAIDENVIRONMENTANDLABOREXCELLENCECCADUSEPAPROGRAM
Tourism
TABLEOFCONTENTS
4
4.1
4.2
EXPECTEDRELEASESTOTHEENVIRONMENTANDDEMANDSONRESOURCES.........................................35
WaterandSanitationFacilities.......................................................................................................................35
SolidandHazardousWaste............................................................................................................................37
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
PROJECTALTERNATIVES........................................................................................................................40
IdentificationandAssessment.......................................................................................................................41
TypesofAlternativesforTourismDevelopment............................................................................................41
AlternativeEnvironmentalManagementandControl...................................................................................44
MANPOWERANDLOCALPURCHASES...................................................................................................47
CLOSURE...............................................................................................................................................47
D.
ENVIRONMENTALSETTING...................................................................................................................49
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................49
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
PHYSICALENVIRONMENT.....................................................................................................................52
GeologyandSoils...........................................................................................................................................52
WaterResources............................................................................................................................................53
AirandClimate...............................................................................................................................................56
NoiseandVibration........................................................................................................................................57
AestheticResources.......................................................................................................................................58
RiskAssessmentfromNaturalHazards..........................................................................................................58
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
BIOLOGICALENVIRONMENT.................................................................................................................58
Flora................................................................................................................................................................59
Fauna..............................................................................................................................................................60
Ecosystems.....................................................................................................................................................60
EndangeredorThreatenedSpeciesandHabitats..........................................................................................62
ProtectedAreasandSensitiveEcosystems....................................................................................................63
BaseLineandMonitoringReefforthecountriesoftheCAFTADR...............................................................64
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
SOCIALECONOMICCULTURALENVIRONMENT....................................................................................65
SocioEconomicConditionsandResources....................................................................................................65
InfrastructureSystemsandEquipment..........................................................................................................66
Cultural,Archeological,CeremonialandHistoricResources..........................................................................69
LandUse.........................................................................................................................................................70
E.
POTENTIALIMPACTS............................................................................................................................73
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................73
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
PHYSICALENVIRONMENT.....................................................................................................................74
Geology,SoilsandOceanTopography...........................................................................................................74
WaterResources............................................................................................................................................77
AirResources..................................................................................................................................................78
NoiseandVibration........................................................................................................................................79
AestheticResources.......................................................................................................................................80
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
BIOLOGICALENVIRONMENT.................................................................................................................80
TerrestrialSpeciesandAssociatedEcosystems..............................................................................................82
AquaticEcosystems........................................................................................................................................83
Marine/CoastalSpeciesandAssociatedEcosystems.....................................................................................84
EndangeredorThreatenedSpeciesandHabitatsandProtectedAreas........................................................86
ii
Tourism
TABLEOFCONTENTS
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
SOCIALECONOMICCULTURALENVIRONMENT.....................................................................................86
VulnerablePopulations..................................................................................................................................87
Infrastructure:Systems,Equipment,Capacity,Performance........................................................................88
Cultural,Archeological,CeremonialandHistoricResources..........................................................................88
LandUse.........................................................................................................................................................90
5
5.1
5.2
IDENTIFYINGCUMULATIVEIMPACTS.....................................................................................................90
IdentifyingResourcesthatHavePotentialforCumulativeImpacts...............................................................91
Regional,SectoralorStrategicAssessment....................................................................................................92
F.
ASSESSINGIMPACTS:PREDICTIVETOOLSANDCONSIDERATIONS..........................................................95
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
OVERVIEWOFUSINGPREDICTIVETOOLSFORANEIA.............................................................................95
GroundRules:BasicConsiderationsforPredictingImpacts...........................................................................95
GeographicBoundariesforAssessmentofImpacts.......................................................................................96
Baseline..........................................................................................................................................................99
EvaluationoftheSignificanceofImpacts.......................................................................................................99
DataRequirementsandSources..................................................................................................................105
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
GENERALAPPROACHESFORPREDICTIONOFIMPACTS.........................................................................105
PredictiveTools............................................................................................................................................105
GeographicInformationSystemsandVisualizationTools...........................................................................106
SelectingandApplyingQuantitativePredictiveTools..................................................................................106
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
SOILSANDGEOLOGYIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS..............................................................................108
SoilLossandErosionPotential.....................................................................................................................108
BeachErosion...............................................................................................................................................109
GeologicResourcesandHazards..................................................................................................................110
DredgeandFillOperationsandTheirImpacts.............................................................................................111
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
WATERRESOURCESIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS................................................................................112
SurfaceWaterImpactAssessmentTools.....................................................................................................112
GroundwaterImpactAssessmentTools.......................................................................................................119
CoastalWatersResourceImpactAssessmentTools....................................................................................121
AIRRESOURCESIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS......................................................................................129
NOISEIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS....................................................................................................131
AESTHETIC/VISUALRESOURCEIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS...............................................................132
8
8.1
8.2
FLORA,FAUNA,ECOSYSTEMSANDPROTECTEDAREASIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS............................133
TerrestrialResourcesImpactAssessmentTools..........................................................................................135
AquaticResourcesImpactAssessmentTools...............................................................................................135
SOCIOECONOMICCONDITIONS,INFRASTRUCTUREANDLANDUSE.....................................................136
10
CULTURAL,ARCHEOLOGICAL,CEREMONIALANDHISTORICRESOURCES...............................................138
11
VULNERABLEPOPULATIONS................................................................................................................138
12
12.1
12.2
HEALTHANDSAFETYIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS..............................................................................138
HealthImpactAssessmentTools..................................................................................................................138
PublicSafetyImpactAssessmentTools........................................................................................................139
iii
Tourism
TABLEOFCONTENTS
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
CUMULATIVEIMPACTSASSESSMENTMETHODS............................................140
ResourceandEcosystemComponents.........................................................................................................141
GeographicBoundariesandTimePeriod.....................................................................................................141
DescribingtheConditionoftheEnvironment..............................................................................................142
UsingThresholdstoAssessResourceDegradation......................................................................................143
14
CARRYINGCAPACITY...........................................................................................................................146
G.
MITIGATIONANDMONITORINGMEASURES.......................................................................................151
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................151
GENERALMITIGATIONANDMONITORINGMEASURES.........................................................................153
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
SPECIFICMITIGATIONMEASURES........................................................................................................180
SeismicEvents..............................................................................................................................................181
ProcessandWastewaterDischarges............................................................................................................181
Noise.............................................................................................................................................................183
4
4.1
4.2
PROJECTSPECIFICMITIGATIONMEASURES..........................................................................................185
GolfCourses(TableG8)...............................................................................................................................185
CruiseShips(TableG11)..............................................................................................................................189
MONITORINGANDOVERSIGHT...........................................................................................................191
6
6.1
FINANCIALASSURANCE.......................................................................................................................193
FinancialGuaranteesforMitigationandMonitoringMeasuresandRestoration.......................................193
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
AUDITABLEANDENFORCEABLECOMMITMENTLANGUAGE.................................................................194
ConstructionPractices..................................................................................................................................195
FlowReleasesandMonitoring.....................................................................................................................197
EndangeredSpeciesManagement...............................................................................................................197
H.
ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENTPLAN..............................................................................................199
I.
GLOSSARYANDREFERENCES...............................................................................................................207
GLOSSARY..........................................................................................................................................207
2
2.1
2.2
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................................223
CitedReferences...........................................................................................................................................223
AdditionalReferences..................................................................................................................................227
J.
EXAMPLETERMSOFREFERENCE(TOR)................................................................................................233
iv
Tourism
TABLEOFCONTENTS
LISTOFFIGURES
FigureA1:CAFTADRcountries...................................................................................................................................1
FigureB1:Theenvironmentalimpactassessmentprocess........................................................................................8
FigureC1:Infrastructuretostoresolidwaste...........................................................................................................45
FigureE1:Identifyingpotentialcumulativeeffectsissuesrelatedtoproposedaction............................................93
FigureF1:AsianDevelopmentBankrapidenvironmentalassessmentchecklistgeneral....................................102
FigureF2:SamplepagefromtheLeopoldMatrix...................................................................................................103
FigureF3:ComplexCoastalProcesses....................................................................................................................122
FigureF4:HazusMH5stepriskassessment..........................................................................................................123
FigureF5:FEMAfloodplainmappingmodelsuite..................................................................................................124
FigureF6:Conceptualframeworktoassessecosystemservices............................................................................135
LISTOFTABLES
TableB1:"Responsibility"intheEIAprocess...............................................................................................................9
TableC1:InformationtobeincludedintheEIAfortheconstructionphase.............................................................24
TableC2:ProjectdetailInformationfortransportationneeds..................................................................................27
TableC3:Projectdescriptioninformationforhotelandresortprojects...................................................................29
TableC4:Projectdetailsforconcessions...................................................................................................................31
TableC5:Projectdetailsformarine/coastaldevelopments......................................................................................33
TableC6:Waterconsumptionperguestpernight(inliters).....................................................................................35
TableC7:WaterconsumptionandwastewatergenerationinHotelsintheUnitedStates......................................36
TableC8:Projectdetailsforwaterandsanitation.....................................................................................................37
TableC9:Projectdetailsforwastemanagement.......................................................................................................38
TableC10:Largepassengercruiseshipwastegenerationanddisposal....................................................................39
TableC11:Projectdetailsforenergyfacilities...........................................................................................................40
TableE1:Potentialimpactsongeologyandsoilresourcesfromtourismdevelopment..........................................76
TableE2:Potentialimpactsonwaterresourcesfromtourismdevelopment...........................................................78
TableE3:Potentialimpactsonairresourcesfromtourismdevelopment................................................................79
TableE4:Potentialimpactsnoiseandvibrationfromtourismdevelopment...........................................................80
TableE5:Potentialimpactsonbiologicalenvironmentfromtourismdevelopment...............................................81
TableE6:Socialeconomicimpactsthatmayoccurfromtourismprojects..............................................................86
TableE7:Impactstoexistinginfrastructure..............................................................................................................88
TableE8:Impactstoculturalarchitecturalceremonialhistoricresources..............................................................89
TableF1:Dredgeandfillmodels.............................................................................................................................111
TableF2:Surfacewatermodels..............................................................................................................................116
TableF3:Groundwaterandgeochemicalcomputermodels..................................................................................120
TableF4:Hazardsanalysisandcoastalmodels.......................................................................................................125
TableF5:Airpollutionmodels.................................................................................................................................130
TableF6:Visualimpactanalysistools.....................................................................................................................133
Tourism
TABLEOFCONTENTS
TableF7:Easeofspreadofarangeofdiseaseswhichcanbetransmittedfromtravelerstohostsandtheirlevelof
impactonthehostindividual.................................................................................................................139
TableF8:Primaryandspecialmethodsforanalyzingcumulativeimpacts.............................................................145
TableF9:Carryingcapacitymodels.........................................................................................................................149
TableG1:Mitigationandmonitoringmeasuresforphysicalandbiologicalimpactscommontoconstructionof
mosttourismprojects.............................................................................................................................154
TableG2:Mitigationandmonitoringmeasuresforphysicalandbiologicalimpactscommontotheoperationof
mosttourismprojects.............................................................................................................................172
TableG3:Mitigationandmonitoringmeasuresforphysicalandbiologicalimpactscommontomostthe
decommissioningoftourismprojects.....................................................................................................178
TableG4:Mitigationmeasuresforimpactstothesocialeconomicculturalenvironment....................................179
TableG5:LegallybindingeffluentlimitsdefinedintheLBSProtocol.....................................................................182
TableG6:CompliancetimelineasdefinedintheLBSProtocol...............................................................................183
TableG7:Noiselevelguidelines..............................................................................................................................184
TableG8:Specificmitigationmeasuresforhotels,resorts,restaurantsandattractions.......................................185
TableG9:Specificmitigationmeasuresforrestaurants..........................................................................................187
TableG10:Specificmitigationmeasuresforgolfcourses........................................................................................188
TableG11:Specificmitigationmeasuresforcruiseships........................................................................................189
TableG12:Marinedevelopmentimpacts,managementandmitigation................................................................190
TableG13:NGOrecommendationsforfinancialguarantees..................................................................................194
TableH1:Componentsofanenvironmentalmanagementplan:programandplanelements..............................199
vi
Tourism
TABLEOFCONTENTS
VOLUMEIIAPPENDICES
TABLEOFCONTENTS
APPENDIXA.
WHATISTOURISM?.................................................................................................................1
1
1.1
1.2
TYPESOFTOURISM...............................................................................................................................1
LeisureTourism...............................................................................................................................................1
OtherFormsofTourism..................................................................................................................................1
COMPONENTSOFTOURISM..................................................................................................................2
APPENDIXB.
OVERVIEWOFTOURISMACTIVITIESINCAFTADRCOUNTRIES.................................................3
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................3
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
REGIONALOVERVIEW...........................................................................................................................3
EconomicImportanceofTourism...................................................................................................................3
TourismandtheEnvironment.........................................................................................................................5
RegionalInstitutions........................................................................................................................................7
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
CAFTADRCOUNTRYOVERVIEWS..........................................................................................................9
CostaRica........................................................................................................................................................9
DominicanRepublic.......................................................................................................................................11
ElSalvador.....................................................................................................................................................13
Guatemala.....................................................................................................................................................15
Honduras.......................................................................................................................................................17
Nicaragua......................................................................................................................................................19
APPENDIXC.
REQUIREMENTSANDSTANDARDSAPPLICABLEWITHINCAFTADRCOUNTRIES,OTHER
COUNTRIESANDINTERNATIONALORGANIZATIONS................................................................21
INTRODUCTIONTOENVIRONMENTALLAWS,STANDARDS,ANDREQUIREMENTS..................................22
AMBIENTSTANDARDSFORAIRANDWATERQUALITY..........................................................................25
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
HOTELANDRESORTPERFORMANCESTANDARDS:................................................................................38
HotelandResortWaterDischarge/EffluentLimits.....................................................................................38
SupplementalU.S.WaterDischarge/EffluentLimits...................................................................................41
HotelandResortStormWaterDischargePerformanceRequirements........................................................41
HotelsandResortsAirEmissionLimits.........................................................................................................42
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
MARINEANDOTHERWATERVESSELPERFORMANCESTANDARS:.........................................................43
WaterDischarge/EffluentLimitsforVessels...............................................................................................43
MarineandOtherWaterVessel:AirEmissionLimits....................................................................................45
MarineandOtherVessel:SolidWaste..........................................................................................................56
5
5.1
5.2
5.3
BIODIVERSITY/ECOSYSTEMS................................................................................................................58
ProtectionofCoralReefs..............................................................................................................................58
SpeciallyProtectedAreas..............................................................................................................................60
AquaticInvasiveSpecies................................................................................................................................60
INTERNATIONALTREATIESANDAGREEMENTS.....................................................................................60
TOURISMSECTORWEBSITEREFERENCES..............................................................................................63
vii
Tourism
TABLEOFCONTENTS
APPENDIXD.
RULESOFTHUMBFOREROSIONANDSEDIMENTATIONCONTROL..........................................65
APPENDIXE.
SAMPLINGANDANALYSISPLAN.............................................................................................79
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................79
SiteNameorSamplingArea..........................................................................................................................79
SiteorSamplingAreaLocation.....................................................................................................................79
ResponsibleOrganization..............................................................................................................................79
ProjectOrganization......................................................................................................................................79
StatementoftheSpecificProblem................................................................................................................80
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
BACKGROUND.....................................................................................................................................80
SiteorSamplingAreaDescription[Fillintheblanks.]...................................................................................80
OperationalHistory.......................................................................................................................................80
PreviousInvestigations/RegulatoryInvolvement.........................................................................................81
GeologicalInformation..................................................................................................................................81
Environmentaland/orHumanImpact..........................................................................................................81
3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
PROJECTDATAQUALITYOBJECTIVES....................................................................................................81
ProjectTaskandProblemDefinition.............................................................................................................81
DataQualityObjectives(DQOs)....................................................................................................................81
DataQualityIndicators(DQIs).......................................................................................................................81
DataReviewandValidation..........................................................................................................................82
DataManagement.........................................................................................................................................83
AssessmentOversight...................................................................................................................................83
4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
SAMPLINGRATIONALE.........................................................................................................................83
SoilSampling.................................................................................................................................................83
SedimentSampling........................................................................................................................................83
WaterSampling.............................................................................................................................................84
BiologicalSampling........................................................................................................................................84
5
5.1
5.2
REQUESTFORANALYSES......................................................................................................................84
AnalysesNarrative.........................................................................................................................................85
AnalyticalLaboratory....................................................................................................................................85
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
FIELDMETHODSANDPROCEDURES......................................................................................................85
FieldEquipment............................................................................................................................................85
FieldScreening..............................................................................................................................................85
Soil.................................................................................................................................................................86
SedimentSampling........................................................................................................................................88
WaterSampling.............................................................................................................................................88
BiologicalSampling........................................................................................................................................92
DecontaminationProcedures........................................................................................................................92
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
SAMPLECONTAINERS,PRESERVATIONANDSTORAGE..........................................................................93
SoilSamples...................................................................................................................................................94
SedimentSamples.........................................................................................................................................94
WaterSamples..............................................................................................................................................95
BiologicalSamples.........................................................................................................................................96
DISPOSALOFRESIDUALMATERIALS.....................................................................................................96
viii
Tourism
TABLEOFCONTENTS
9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
SAMPLEDOCUMENTATIONANDSHIPMENT.........................................................................................98
FieldNotes.....................................................................................................................................................98
Labeling.........................................................................................................................................................99
SampleChainOfCustodyFormsandCustodySeals.....................................................................................99
PackagingandShipment.............................................................................................................................100
10
10.1
10.2
QUALITYCONTROL............................................................................................................................101
FieldQualityControlSamples.....................................................................................................................101
LaboratoryQualityControlSamples...........................................................................................................106
11
FIELDVARIANCES...............................................................................................................................107
12
FIELDHEALTHANDSAFETYPROCEDURES...........................................................................................108
APPENDIXF.
COMPENSATORYMITIGATIONFORLOSSESOFAQUATICRESOURCES.109
ix
Tourism
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Tourism
A.INTRODUCTION
A. INTRODUCTION
TheseregionalEnvironmental
ImpactAssessment(EIA)
TechnicalReviewGuidelinesand
associatedExampleTermsof
Referencefortourismrelated
projectsweredevelopedasan
outgrowthoftheEnvironmental
CooperationAgreement
developedinconjunctionwith
thefreetradeagreements
betweentheUnitedStates,the
CentralAmericancountriesof
CostaRica,ElSalvador,
Guatemala,Honduras,and
NicaraguaandtheDominican
Republic(CAFTADR).Developed
bydesignatedexpertsfromallof
thecountries,itcanbeusedasa
basisforcountryspecific
adaptationtotheirEIAprograms.
FigureA 1:CAFTADRcountries
1 BACKGROUND
TheCAFTADRProgramtoStrengthenEnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Reviewwasinitiatedas
apriorityforenvironmentalcooperationundertakenandfundedinconjunctionwiththefreetrade
agreements.Designedtobuildonrelatedreferencesdevelopedfortheregionorforindividual
countries,theProgramincluded:a)sustainabletrainingtobuildskillsinthepreparationandreviewof
EIAdocumentsandprocessesforallparticipantsintheprocess,includinggovernmentofficials,
consultants,industryprojectproponents,academicinstitutions,NGOsandthepublic;b)development
ofEIATechnicalReviewGuidelinesandTermsofReferenceforprioritysectors:mining,energy,and
tourism;c)countryspecificconsultationtoprovidetoolsandreformstoimprovetheefficiencyand
effectivenessofEIA,includingdeploymentofEPAsGISbasedanalyticaltooltosupportEIAproject
screeningandadministrativetrackingsystems;d)recommendationsforstrengtheningEIAprocedures,
andwherenecessary,regionalandcountryEIAlegalframeworks;ande)regionalmeetingsamongEIA
Directorstodirectandsupporttheseactivitiesandshareexperiences.Workprogramsdevelopedbythe
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA)andU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID),
weredesignedtocomplementotherworkwhichhadbeenundertakenwiththeCentralAmerican
CommissionforSustainableDevelopment(CCAD)andtheUnionfortheConservationofNature(IUCN)
underagrantfromthegovernmentofSweden,whichfocusedonsmallscaleandmoderatesizedtourist
developments,excludingmarinas,piersandcruiselineoperations.
Tourism
A.INTRODUCTION
2 APPROACH
Theguidelinesweredevelopedthroughacollaborativeprocessconsistingoftworegionalexpert
meetingsfordiscussionfollowedbyseveralroundsofreviewandcommentondraftdocuments,and
alsobenefittedfromtheoverallguidanceandactiveinvolvementofcountryEIADirectors.Thework
wassupportedbyUSAIDandtheirconsultantsundertheEnvironmentandLaborExcellenceProgram
(ELE).TheoverallapproachtothedevelopmentoftheTourismSectorEIAReviewGuidelinesandTerms
ofReferencewas:
a. CreationofanexpertteamincludingthedesignationofseniorexpertsbytheMinistersofthe
EnvironmentandfortheTourismSectorfromeachoftheCAFTADRcountriesandtheU.S.
(drawnfromU.S.EPAsseniorexpertEIAReviewersandsectorexpertsfromwithinUSEPA,the
DepartmentoftheInteriorsNationalParkService,theDepartmentofCommercesNational
OceanicandAtmosphericAdministrationparticularlythenationalmarinefisheryservice,the
U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersandPuertoRicosTourismCompany,EnvironmentalQualityBoard
andDepartmentofNaturalandEnvironmentalResources)
b. Organizationoftworegionalexpertmeetingstoreviewandguideallworkproductsdraftedwith
theassistanceofaUSAIDsEnvironmentandLaborExcellencecontractor,Chemonics
International
c. Identificationofexistingresourcematerials,standards,practices,lawsandguidelinesrelatedto
assessingtheenvironmentalimpactsfromtourismrelatedprojectswithparticularemphasison
ensuringthatwedrewfromguidelinesdevelopedfortheCAFTADRregionthroughCCAD,IUCN
andUSAIDontourismbestpracticesandfrominternationalagreements,includinginparticular
theProtocolConcerningPollutionfromLandBasedSourcesandActivities(LBSProtocol,1999)
undertheConventionfortheProtectionandDevelopmentoftheMarineEnvironmentofthe
WiderCaribbeanRegion(CartagenaConvention,1983),theInternationalConventionforthe
PreventionofPollutionfromShips(MARPOL,1973/1978),andtheConventiononthe
PreventionofMarinePollutionbyDumpingWastesandOtherMatter(LondonConvention,
1972)
d. Developmentofbaselineinformationoncurrentpractice,anticipatedgrowth,existingstandards
andguidance,norms,permitsandmitigationrequirementsrelatedtotourismintheCAFTADR
countriesandusethistoassessthelikelyimpactofadoptionoftheregionalguidelines
e. Developmentofinformationonalternativesforpollutioncontrolandenvironmentalprotection
drawnfrombenchmarkorganizations,developmentbanksandcountriesincludinginternational
practicesestablishedbyindustry,theWorldBank,theInterAmericanDevelopmentBank,the
U.S.,theEuropeanUnionandothercountriesidentifiedbytheteamofexpertsasbeingmost
relevant
f. Developmentofoptionstoachievethebenefitsofrequiringsiting,design,construction,
operation,closure/reclamation,andsitereuseapproacheswhicheliminate,reduce,and/or
mitigatetheadversedirect,indirectand/orcumulativeadverseenvironmentalimpactsrelated
totourismbasedonbestinternationalpracticethroughEIAReviewGuidelinesandTermsof
Reference
g. AdaptationoftheseGuidelinesfollowingregionaltrainingworkshopstobeheldbytheCCAD
Tourism
A.INTRODUCTION
3 OBJECTIVESOFPRIORITYSECTOREIAGUIDELINESFORTOURISM
SpecificobjectivesoftheseGuidelinesinclude:
a. Improveenvironmentalperformanceinthesector
b. ImproveEIAdocumentqualityandqualityofEIAdecisionmakingforthetourismsector
c. ImproveefficiencyandeffectivenessoftheEIAprocessforthetourismsectorbyclarifying
expectations,providingdetailedguidelinesandaligningdocumentpreparationandreview
d. TailorguidelinestoneedsofCAFTADRcountries
e. Providetechnicalguidelinesfortheidentificationofenvironmental,socialandeconomic
impactsofthetourismsectoractivities
f. Identifypotentialforavoidanceandmitigationforadverseenvironmental,socialandeconomic
impactsfromthetourismsectorinrelationtoestablishedrequirementsoflawandindustrybest
practicetoempoweroptionsforconsiderationbyindustryandgovernmentofficials
g. Encouragepublicparticipationthroughouttheprocess,aspecificpriorityandrequestofCAFTA
DRcountryofficials
4 SCOPEANDCONTENTSOFTOURISMGUIDELINES
TheGuidelinesaddress:
Threegroupsoftouristrelatedprojects:a)hotel/resortdevelopmentforthehousing,careand
feedingoftourists,b)concessionstosupporttouristrecreational/adventure/specialtyactivities
relatedtonaturalandcultural/historicsitesandareas,andc)coastalandmarinerelated
projectssuchasmarinaoperations,beachmanagement,andcruiseshipactivities.Itdoesnot
addresshighlyspecializedtypesoftourismsuchasmedicaltourism.Thisguidelinebuilds
upontheworkofIUCNtourismguidelinewhichfocusesonsmallandmediumscaletourist
developments.ItalsodrawsheavilyupontheworkoftheInternationalNetworkfor
EnvironmentalComplianceandEnforcement(INECE)tourismsupportdocument.
Thefullscopeoftourismrelatedprojects,includingsiteassessments,selectionofapreferred
site,sitepreparation,mitigationplantoprotectvaluableandsensitiveresources,construction,
operationandmaintenance,monitoringandsitemanagement,closure/reclamation,post
closurecare,andforeseeableandrelatedoffsiteactivities
Documentationoftheproposedprojectanditsalternativestosupportimpactassessmentand
improvedecisionmaking
Identifyingandevaluatingpotentialenvironmentalsocial,culturalandeconomicimpacts
Evaluatingthefullrangeofsustainableenvironmentalmeasurestoprevent,reduceand/or
mitigateimpacts
TheneedforenforceableandauditablecommitmentlanguageinanEIAtoensurethat
promisedactionswillbetakenbyaprojectproponentandthattheiradequacycanbe
determinedovertimeandaltered,asneeded,toprotectsensitiveandvaluableresources
ExampletermsofreferencefordevelopmentoftourismrelatedEIAsthatarecrosslinkedtothe
detailsprovidedintheGuidelines
TheGuidelinesareorganizedaroundeachaspectofwhatistypicallyrequiredinanEIAdocument.The
guidelinesaredividedintotensectionswithaccompanyingappendices.Thesectionsinclude:
A. Introduction
B. EIAProceduresandPublicParticipation
C. ProjectandAlternativesDescription
Tourism
A.INTRODUCTION
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
EnvironmentalSetting
PotentialImpacts
AssessingImpacts
MitigationandMonitoringMeasures
EnvironmentalManagementPlans
ReferencesandGlossaryofTerms
ExampleTermsofReferenceforTourismdevelopment,concessions,andcoastalandmarine
relatedtouristprojects(publishedinaseparateVolume1Part2)
Theaccompanyingappendices(publishedinaseparateVolume2)include:
AppendixA:WhatisTourism?
AppendixB:OverviewofTourismActivitiesinCAFTADRCountries
AppendixC:RequirementsandStandards:CAFTADRCountries,USandOtherCountriesand
Internationalorganizations
AppendixD:RulesofThumbforErosionandSedimentationControlMeasures
AppendixE:SamplingandAnalysisPlan
AppendixF:CompensatoryMitigationforLossesofAquaticResources
5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TheEIATechnicalReviewGuidelinesforTourismRelatedProjectsandassociatedTermsofReference
weredevelopedbyexpertsdesignatedbytheirMinistersfromtheenvironmentalandsectoragenciesof
theUnitedStatesandcountriesinCentralAmericaandtheDominicanRepublicthatarepartiestothe
CAFTADRFreeTradeAgreements.FollowingdevelopmentoftheregionalEIAtourismdocuments,the
CCADwillhostworkshopsineachoftheCAFTADRcountriesandtheycanadapttheseguidelinesfor
theirownuse.
USEPAUSAID/ProgramforEnvironmentandLaborExcellenceELECCAD
CAFTADRProgramTeamtoStrengthenEIAReview
U.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID)
RubnAlemn,ContractingOfficerTechnicalRepresentative,COTR,USAIDRegional
Program
OrlandoAltamirano,CAFTADRRegionalEnvironmentalSpecialist
WalterJokisch,ConsultantforELE/ChemonicsInternational,Inc.
PhilBrown,LeadExpertConsultantforELE/ChemonicsInternational,Inc.
LaneKrahl,SeniorEIAAdvisorforELE/ChemonicsInternational,Inc.
JenniferMyton,ConsultantforELE/ChemonicsInternational,Inc.
CentralAmericanCommissionforSustainableDevelopment(CCAD)
RicardoAguilar,CCAD,CAFTADRprogramcoordinator
JudithPanameo,CCAD,CAFTADR,EPAprogramcoordinator
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA)
OrlandoGonzlez,coordinator,CAFTADROfficeofInternationalandTribalAffairs
CherylWasserman,AssociateDirectorforPolicyAnalysis,OfficeofFederalActivities,Office
ofEnforcementandComplianceAssurance,ManageroftheCAFTADRProgramto
StrengthenEIAReview
Tourism
A.INTRODUCTION
RegionalExpertTeam
UNITEDSTATES
CherylWasserman,AssociateDirectorforPolicyAnalysis,U.S.EPA,OfficeofFederalActivities,and
BrittanyEricksen,legalintern
TeresaKubo,SeniorEIAReviewer,US.EPARegionX,Seattle,Washington
MariaClark,SeniorEIAReviewerforPuertoRico,U.S.EPARegionII,NewYork,NewYork
PamTeel,formercoordinator,CAFTADRprogramandShereenKandil,onpublicparticipation
PatrickCotter,coordinatorforinternationalmarinetreatiesandtheWiderCaribbeanRegion,andSean
Carpenter,intern,U.S.EPA,OfficeofInternationalandTribalAffairs
DarrylBrown,U.S.EPAOfficeofWater,OceansandWetlandsDivision
JocelynAdkins,U.S.EPAOfficeofGeneralCounsel
KerriCahillandJimBacon,NationalParkService
RalphCantralandPatienceWhitten,NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration
ThomasFerdetteandTyWamsley,U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,EnvironmentandTourismOfficials
fromPuertoRico
ExpertsfromtheGovernmentofPuertoRico:
HildaOrtizandWilliamPitre,PuertoRicoTourismCompany
ErnestoDazVelazquezandVicenteQuevedo,PuertoRicoDepartmentofNaturaland
EnvironmentalResources
OneidaDelgado,andLcda.BlanchGonzlez,PuertoRicoEnvironmentalQualityBoard
Sra.MaraNegrn,OfficeofGeneralPermitsandEnforcement,OGPE
COSTARICA
JhauryPizarroObando
RobertoEsquivelBenavides
AlbertoLopezChaves
FranciscoFernandezVargas
GustavoAlvaradoChvez
DOMINCANREPUBLIC
DomingaConcepcinPolancodeGmez
FrancisIvetteChahedeCaldern
MaribelVillalona
ElSALVADOR
EvelynCanjuraSaravia
WalterNoelRojasOrellana
HectorCardozaLeiva
HectorGaldmezManca
GUATEMALA
Dra.EugeniaCastro,DirectoradeEIA,MARN
LuisaMaraFernndezLujan,AsesoraAmbiental,MARN
JorgeMarioSamayoa
HONDURAS
DennysEdgardoCanales
MariadelosAngelesValle
XeniaCardonaLezama
JuanAntonioMeza
Tourism
A.INTRODUCTION
NICARAGUA
SuyenGabrielaPerezAburto
Lic.RaquelQuesada
MarioRodriguez
NubiaRosaAragnMiranda
COUNTRYEIADIRECTORS
MSc.UrielJuarezBaltodano,SETENA,CostaRica
LinadelCarmenBeriguetteSegura,MA,DominicanRepublic
Ing.HernnRomero,MARNElSalvador
Dra.EugeniaCastro,MARN,Guatemala
JulioE.Eguigure,SERNA,Honduras
HildaEspinoza,MARENA,Nicaragua
Tourism
B.EIAPROCESSANDPUBLICPARTICIPATION
B. EIAPROCESSANDPUBLICPARTICIPATION
ThissectiondescribesthegeneralprocessandpracticescommontoEIAproceduresinCAFTADR
countries,alongwithlikelytrendsfuturedirectionsofthoseprogramsaspartoftheevolutionoftheEIA
processthathasbeenseeninternationally.BecausetheseGuidelinesandTermsofReferencewere
developedasregionalproductsofdesignatedexpertsfromtheCAFTADRcountriestheycanbeadapted
totheuniquefeaturesineachcountrysEIAlawsandprocedures.
1 EIAPROCEDURES
Noworkmaybegin,thatisnositeclearing,sitepreparationorconstruction,beforetheEIAprocessis
completeandgovernmentagencieshaveeitherapprovedorprovidedconditionedapprovalofa
proposedproject.Earlyandfrequentconsultationwithgovernmentagenciesishighlydesirable.Alltoo
oftenconflictiscreatedwhendevelopershavegottenfairlyfardowntheroadwiththeirproject
planningwithoutappropriateconsultation.Earlyconsultationcouldhaveavoidedmanyofthose
problems.
1.1 ProjectProponents:FromProjectInitiationtotheEIAApplication
AsillustratedinFigureB1,aprojectproponentinitiatestheideaforaprojectbasedonapurposeand
needfortheaction;inthisinstancesomeanticipatedmarketforaparticulartouristdestinationand
expectedprofitsfromthe.BetweentheideaandtheapplicationforEIAtothegovernmentforapproval
asdefinedinTableB1(ResponsibilityintheEIAProcess),theprojectproponentwillbeexploring
alternativestomeetthepurposeandneedoftheproject,aswellastheeconomicandtechnical
feasibilityoftheprojectandsecuringpropertyrightsifitisnotalreadyintheirpossession.Itisduring
thisearlystagethatenvironmental,socialandeconomicimpactsshouldbeintroduced,andalternatives
developedevenbeforeanapplicationismadeforEIA.Manyproblemscanbeavoidedthroughwise
selectionoftheprojectlocation,siteandoperationsdesign,andanticipationofissuessuchasclosure
takingthewholeoftheenvironmentalsettingintoaccountearlyintheprocess.Ifenvironmental
consultantsorenvironmentalimpactexpertisearebroughtinlateintheprocess,atthestagewhenthe
proponentneedstoprepareanapplicationandanEIAdocumentforapproval,itlimitstheopportunities
tobuildenvironmental,socialandeconomicconsiderationsintotheprojectproposalasanintegralpart
ofdevelopingprojectfeasibility.Thisisuniversallyconsideredtobeashortsightedpractice.Projects
whichrequiresubstantialfinancingoftenwillhavefatalflawanalysesofallsortsperformed,including
environmental.Someoftheoutcomesofsuchanalysesalsofeedthenarrativeonprojectalternatives
andwhysomeofthealternativeswererejected.
1.2 EIAApplication,ScreeningandCategorization
EachCAFTADRcountryhasestablisheditsownEIAregulationsandguidelinesdefiningdifferent
circumstancesandproceduresforparticulartypesofprojectsandsituations.Theseregulations
distinguishthesizeandnatureofproposedprojectsorthetypesofprojectedimpactsforwhichthefull
environmentalimpactassessmentprocedureandwhichtypesofprojectsorimpactsmightjustifya
streamlinedprocedurebasedonanticipatedlowerlevelofimpactandnatureoftheproposedactivity.
Projectsusuallyfallwithinoneofthreecategories,someofwhicharefurthersubdivided:Ausuallyis
highimpact,B1andB2,mediumimpactandClowimpactbutthisvariesbycountry.Screeningisthe
processusedbygovernmentofficialstoreviewanapplicationforEIAtodeterminetheappropriate
Tourism
categorization.Forthemostpart,mostbutnotalltouristrelatedactivitiesareusuallyconsidered
amongthoseprojectswithpotentiallyhighorhighmediumimpact.
FigureB1:Theenvironmentalimpactassessmentprocess
Source:PrinciplesofEnvironmentalImpactAssessment,U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,1992.
Tourism
TableB1:"Responsibility"intheEIAprocess
4PublicParticipationthroughout
ProjectProponent
1 InitiateProject
2PrepareEIAApplication
3ScopeEIAIssues
Government
2Screening:ReviewEIAApplicationand
Categorization
3PrepareTermsofReferenceandScopeEIA
issues
5aPrepareandSubmitEIADocument
6ReviewEIADocument
5bCorrectdeficienciesandrespondtocomments
7DecisiononProject
8Incorporatecommitmentsintolegal
agreements
9Implementationofproject,environmental
measuresandfinancialassurance
10Correctviolations
10Auditing,compliancemonitoringand
enforcement
Source:Wasserman,Cheryl,U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.
1.3 ScopingofEIAandTermsofReference
ScopingisaprocessusedtoidentifytheimportantissuesonwhichtheEIAanalysisshouldfocusand
thoseonwhichitwouldnotbeinformativetofocus.AlthoughanypreparerofanEIAwouldhaveto
engageinascopingprocess,thetermoftenisusedtodescribeaprocessofconsultationwithinterested
andaffectedstakeholdersintheproject,intheareaandinfrastructurepotentiallyaffectedbythe
projectandinthepotentiallyaffectedresources.InCAFTADRcountriesofCentralAmericaandthe
DominicanRepublic,governmentofficialsissueaTermsofReferencetohelpguidethepreparationofan
EIAdocument,inessenceaformofscopingwhichusuallyincludesarequirementfortheproject
proponenttoengagethepublicandstakeholders,includinglocalgovernmentsandNGOsandtribal
leaders,beforeproceedingtopreparetheEIAdocumentjustforthispurpose.Inguidelinesissuedby
theInternationalFinanceCorporationandasapracticeintheU.S.andsomeCAFTADRcountries,the
projectproponentwouldcarryoutpublicscopingearlyintheprocessforthemostsignificanttypesof
projects,presumablytobeabletoinfluencealternativeprojectconcept,design,operationand/or
closureandinfluencetheTermsofReferenceforundertakingtheEIA.SectionB2inthissectionofthe
guidelineexpandsonpublicparticipationduringthescopingprocess.
1.4 PublicParticipationthroughouttheProcess
EIAisintendedtobeatransparentprocesswiththeopportunityforpublicinvolvementfromthe
earlieststagesofprojectdevelopment.ItiscustomaryfortheTermsofReferencetoinclude
requirementsfortheprojectproponenttoengagethepublicandtodocumenttheresultsofthis
outreachprocessintheEIAdocument.Countriesshouldrequireascopingmeetingandwillusually
provideaformalopportunityforapublichearingaftertheEIAdocumentisreviewedbygovernment
staffanddeterminedtobecomplete.TheModelTermsofReferenceincludedinthisguideline
emphasizestheimportanceofinvolvingthepublicasearlyaspossibletoensurethatopportunitiesfor
Tourism
reconcilingeconomic,socialandenvironmentalconcernscanbeconsidered.AspecialsectiononPublic
ParticipationisincludedinthisguidelineunderSectionB2.
1.5 PreparationandSubmissionoftheEIADocument
ThestructureofEIAdocumentationofanalysishasbeenfairlystandardizedoverthemanyyearsithas
beenadoptedasapractice.Itincludes:
Coversheet
ExecutiveSummary
TableofContents
ProjectDescription,PurposeandNeed
Alternatives,includingtheproposedaction
EnvironmentalSetting
AssessmentofImpacts
MitigationandMonitoringMeasures
CommitmentDocument:EnvironmentalManagementPlan,whichcontainsafacilitywide
monitoringplanandafacilitywidemitigationplan,whichaddressesmitigationfor
environmentalandsocioeconomicresources
Listofpreparers
ListofAgencies,Organizations,andpersonstowhomcopiesofthestatementaresent
Index
Appendices
IncountriesinCentralAmericaandtheDominicanRepublic,deficienciesinanEIAdocumentareusually
addressedthroughadditionalsupplementalsubmissionsofAnnexesandcorrespondence.Ifdeficiencies
aresufficientlysignificantanEIAdocumentmightberejectedandtheprojectproponentwouldrestart
theentireprocess.IntheU.S.adraftEIAdocumentissubmittedforbothgovernmentandpublicreview
andafinaldocumentisthensubmittedwhichincludestheresponsetocommentsandanyadditional
analysisthatisneeded.ARecordofDecisionfollowsthefinalEIAtoinformthegovernmentand
interestedpartieswhatalternativehasbeenselectedandthattheprojectismovingforward.
1.6 EIADocumentReview
GovernmentEIAReviewershaveanindependentreviewfunctiontodetermineifanEIAsubmittedbya
projectproponent:
a. Complieswithminimumrequirementsundercountrylaws,regulations,andprocedures,
b. Iscomplete
c. Isaccurate
d. Isadequatefordecisionmakerstobeabletomakeinformeddecisionsandchoices,including
alternativesthatmightservetoavoidadverseimpacts,andreasonablecommitmentsto
mitigationforadverseimpactsthatcannotbeavoided
e. Distinguisheswhatmaybeasignificantconcernfromthosethatarelesssignificant
f. Providesasufficientbasisforassuringthatcommitmentstoenvironmentalmeasureswillbe
met,takingintoaccountnotonlytheEIAbutanyadditionalsupportingdocumentssuchas:
EnvironmentalManagementPlan
Mitigationmeasureswhichareintegratedintheprojectdesign,operationsandclosure,
andtheirmaintenance
10
Tourism
Monitoringandreportingmeasures
Pollutioncontrolmeasuresandtheirmaintenance
Infrastructureinvestments
1.7 DecisiononProject
InthedecisionmakingprocesswhichisinformedbytheEIAanalysis,theactualdecisionontheproject
anditsrationaleareimportant,particularlyiftheEIAanalysisisnotjusttobeapaperexercise.It
thereforeisveryimportantthattheconsiderationofalternatives,impactsandtheirmitigationbe
writteninaclearandaccessiblemannertotherangeofstakeholderswhoaremakingdecisionsrelated
totheproject.Partofthedecisionprocessisengagementofstakeholderswithinandoutside
governmentinatimelyandconstructivemanner,allowingforthetypeofgiveandtakeneededto
addressandfindacceptablesolutionstodiverseinterests.
1.8 CommitmentLanguageforEnvironmentalMeasures
Countriesdifferonthevehiclestheyusetoestablishandholdprojectproponentsaccountablefor
commitmentsmadeduringtheEIAprocess,rangingfromrelianceontheEIAdocumentitselftoa
documentfromthegovernmentestablishingprojectenvironmentalfeasibilitywhichhighlights
commitments,theenvironmentalmanagementplan,amitigationplan,anenvironmentalpermit,
concessionand/orcontract.
1.9 ImplementationofEnvironmentalMeasures
TheEIAprocessobjectivescanonlybeachievedifpromisesandassumptionsmadeinanapprovedEIA
documentarefollowedinpractice.Commitmentsareusuallysecuredwithfinancialguarantees.The
commitmenttoimplementenvironmentalmeasuresrunsthroughouttheprocessfromsitepreparation
toclosure.Itistheresponsibilityoftheprojectproponenttoimplementmeasuresunlessthe
commitmentsareassignedandagreedtobyotherpartiessuchasmightbethecaseintheprovisionof
adequateinfrastructuretoaddressneedstotreatliquidandsolidwastefromasite,ortoconstructa
road.
1.10 Auditing,MonitoringandFollowupEnforcementofCommitments
CountriesemployamixofmechanismstoensurethatcommitmentsintheEIAdocumentarefollowed,
including:includingshortandlongtermmonitoringandreportinginthecommitmentsbyproject
proponents;creatingandcertifyingthirdpartyauditorsanddefiningtheirrolesintheprocess;
governmentinspection;andsometimesmonitoringbythecommunityorNGOstoassurecompliance.It
isnotsufficienttomonitorcompliancewithcommitments,andfailuretomeetcommitmentsshouldbe
followedbyenforcementforfailuretocomplyinordertocompelactionsneededtoprotect
environmental,socioeconomicandculturalinterests.Forthissystemtowork,commitmentsintheEIA
shouldbewritteninamannerwhichclearlyprovidesthebasisforanindependentauditandalsoclarity
fortheprojectproponenttoensureitisclearwhattheywillbeundertakingandwhen.Specialattention
shouldbepaidtomonitoringandnecessaryactionstoprotecthumanhealth;sensitivebiological,
watershedorcoastalresources;andsensitivecultural,historicorarchaeologicalresources.
11
Tourism
2 PUBLICPARTICIPATION
2.1 Introduction
SectionB2addressesrequirementsforpublic
participation.Includedinthischapterare:
Publicparticipationandstakeholder
1. Requirementsforparticipation;
involvementisanessentialandintegralpartof
2.
Methodsforidentifyingandengagingaffected
theEIAprocessandCAFTADRcountrieshave
andinterestedpublics;and
adoptedpolicies,regulationsandprocedures
3. Reportingonandresponsivenesstopublic
torequirethatthisoccursthroughouttheEIA
comments.
process.Reviewersshouldensurethat
minimumrequirementsaremet,thatkey
stakeholdersandimportantissueshavenotbeenignoredorunderrepresented,andthatopportunities
foreffectivelyresolvingunderlyingconflictsareprovided.Theprocessforengagingthepublicandother
stakeholdersfailsifitisundertakenasanafterthoughtorpoorlyimplementedorviewedasaonetime
event.Openinguprealopportunitiesforengagementbythepublic,localgovernments,andinterested
andaffectedinstitutionsrequiresadegreeofopennessanddisclosurewhichcanbeuncomfortablefor
somewhofearthatitmightopenthedoortounnecessarycomplication,highercostsandlossof
control.However,theclearlessonsfromfailedpublicparticipationprocessesarejustthereverse:ifthe
publicisengagedearly,andinanopenandtransparentmanner,theprocesscanhelptoavoidboth
unnecessaryconflictandpotentialfinancialhardshipduetoprojectdelaysandoccasionallyevenpermit
denial.Thischapterwillrefertopublicandstakeholderinvolvementinterchangeably,butrequirements
forandthetimingofparticipationfordifferentsubgroupsmayvary.
2.2 RequirementsforPublicParticipation
Publicparticipationrequirementsofindividualcountriesshouldbeidentifiedandfollowed.Because
thereisnoeasyformulafordescribingwhatisrequiredtobesuccessfulinagivensituation,legal
requirementsforpublicparticipationareformulatedasminimumrequirementsoflaw,andgenerallydo
notreflectbestpracticesdesignedtomeetthefullgoalsofpublicparticipationasanongoingprocess.
ToaddresstheneedtotailorapublicparticipationplantothecircumstancessomeCAFTADRcountries
requirethattheprojectproponentdevelopandimplementsuchaplan.TheEIAshoulddocumentthe
stepstakentomeetrequirementsandoverallgoalsofpublicparticipationincluding:when,whowas
involved,whatthecommentswereandhowtheywereconsidered.
12
Tourism
Publicparticipationrequirementsmayinclude:
GeneralRequirementstoincludethepublicintheEIAprocess
Public Notification: Rules about the use of media to announce the EIA process and the points of
participation for the public and requirements for the Ministry or the owner/developer to announce the
public consultations in national and local media. Public participation and consultation ideally should be
initiatedatthescopingstageoftheEIAprocess,beforestepsaretakentopreparetheEIAdocument.This
canbeaccomplishedthroughapublicnoticeofintenttoprepareanEIAforaspecificaction.Suchanotice
ofintentshouldincludeadescriptionoftheproposalanddescribehowthepublicmayparticipateinthe
process
PublicConsultation:Rulesabouttheconsultationsandobservationsthatthepublicpresents
Public Disclosure: Requirements that the Ministry or the owner/developer publish the EIA for review
duringthepublicconsultations
Public Written Comment: Requirements for the public to have the opportunity to submit written
commentstotheMinistryandtheowner/developerinadditiontotheconsultations.Requirementsmay
specifywhethersolicitationofcommentsfromthepublicmusttakeplaceinformalpublichearings,ormay
alloworencourageinformalworkshopsorinformationsessions
PublicHearings:Mostlawsonpublicparticipationprovidefortheopportunityforapublichearing.Thisis
aformallegalprocesswithlittleopportunity,ifatall,forgiveandtakediscussiononoptions,alternatives
andassumptions.Itisforthatreasonitisconsideredbymostexpertsonpublicparticipationtobethe
leasteffectivemeansforactualpublicinvolvement
ConsiderationofPublicComments:Requirementsforpubliccommentstobeconsideredinthereviewby
thegovernmentiftheyhaveasoundbasis
AllocationofCosts:Rulesaboutwhoneedstopay,i.e.theowner/developergenerallymustpayforthe
consultationswithsomeexceptionwheretheMinistrypays.
Reviewersshouldcarefullyexamine:
Wererequirementsforpublicparticipationidentifiedandcompliedwith?
Wastimingofpublicnoticesufficienttoallowmeaningfulcomment?
Whatdocumentsandinformationweredisclosedandwhen?
Arethereobviousconcernedpublicgroupsthatwerenotinvolvedandconsulted?
Wereopportunitiestoaddresspublicconcernsandinformationoverlooked?
2.3 MethodsforIdentifyingandEngagingAffectedandInterestedPublic
Successfulpublicparticipationprocessesarebuiltuponplansdevelopedandtailoredtoaspecific
projectorprogram.Thissectionaddresses:(1)theidentificationofstakeholders,takingintoaccount
thegoalsandobjectivesofthespecificprojectorprogramthatisbeinganalyzedintheassessmentand
thepotentialissuesofconcern;and(2)methods,orthetoolsandtechniquestoengagetheidentified
stakeholders,whenthosetoolsareemployed,includingrolesandresponsibilities.
2.3.1 StakeholderIdentification
Projectproponentsandtheirconsultantsshouldmakeadiligentefforttoidentifyandengageindividuals
andgroupsbothwithinandoutsideofgovernmentwhomighteitherbeaffectedbyorinterestedina
proposedprojectanditspotentialimpacts.Thegeographicscopeshouldincludetheareasinand
aroundtheproject,fromtheperspectiveofbothpoliticalandnaturalresourceboundaries,inother
words,thefullgeographicscopeofeachofthenaturalandhumanresourcespotentiallyaffectedbythe
proposedaction.Identifyingthespecificissuespresentedbyaproposedprojectorprogramwillhelpto
revealthekeystakeholders,andthestakeholdersalsowillhelptoidentifyissuesforanalysis.Additional
13
Tourism
stakeholderswillbediscovered
throughouttheentire
assessmentprocessandshould
beincludedinsubsequentpublic
participationactivities.
Potentialstakeholderstobeconsidered:
Personslivingandworkinginthevicinityoftheproject
o individualcitizenswithspecificinterests
o localresidentsandpropertyowners
o localbusinessesandschools
Local,provincial,tribal,andnationalgovernmentalagencies,
includingregulatorsandthoseresponsibleforinfrastructuresuchas
roads,water,solidwaste
Citizen,civic,orreligiousgroupsrepresentingaffectedcommunities
NGOswithspecificinterests
Environmentalistsandconservationgroupsinterestedinprotection
andmanagementofsensitiveecosystemsandprotectedareas
Recreationalusersandorganizations
Farmers,fishermen,andotherswhoutilizeapotentiallyaffected
resource
Industrygroupssuchasfisheries,forestry,andmining
Technicalexperts
Lowincome,minority,peoplewhomaybedisproportionately
affected
Indigenouspeoples
2.3.2 EngagementMethodsand
Timing
Avarietyoftoolsandtechniques
canbeutilizedduringthepublic
processdependinguponthelevel
ofpublicparticipationsought,
whichcanrangefrommerely
providinginformationtoworking
inacollaborativerelationship.
Althoughlawsandregulations
mightonlyrequireaformal
publichearing,"talkingatthe
public"isnotasubstitutefor
activelistening.Thatiswhy
publichearingsarehistoricallypoorwaystoengagethepublic,anditisbesttoaugmentformal
procedureswithotherprocessestoenablethegiveandtakeofdialogueanddiscussion.Cultural
nuancesmaymakeothertypesofoutreachhelpfulandinformative,suchashomevisitswitheldersor
peoplewhodonottrustpublicmeetings.
Threeconsistentlessonslearnedforeffectivepublicparticipationprocessareto:
Adapttheprocesstomeettheneedsofthecircumstances
Reachouttoandunderstandtheaudience
StartearlyintheEIAprocess
Tobeeffective,publicparticipationshouldbetailoredtotheparticularaudiencesandmeetthegoalsof
thespecificpublicengagementorcommunication,andthosegoalsshouldbeclear.Communications
whichareearly,clearandresponsivebothtoinformationprovidedandconcernsraisedareessentialto
buildtrust.Theselectionandtimingofmethodsusedtoengagestakeholdersandthebroaderpublic
shouldresultin:a)encouragementtoofferinformationimportanttoassessingimpactsanddeveloping
alternatives,b)transparencyaboutwhatisproposed,itspotentialimpactsandmeansofaddressing
them,andc)aclearmessagetoallmembersofthepublicthattheirinputisimportantanduseful
throughouttheEIAprocess.
14
Tourism
ScopingoccursearlyintheEIAprocess
toidentifykeyissues,andtofocusand
specifytheassessmentprocess.Manyof
theCAFTADRcountriesrequireproject
proponentsandtheirconsultantsto
engagethepublicduringthisphase,
beforebeginningworkontheEIA.
Scopingtypicallyisconductedina
meetingorseriesofmeetingsinvolving
theprojectproponent,thepublic,and
theresponsiblegovernmentagencies.
Thestructureofthemeetingsmayvary
dependingonthenatureandcomplexity
oftheproposedactionandonthe
numberofinterestedparticipants.
Smallscalescopingmeetingsmightbe
conductedlikebusinessconferences,
withparticipantscontributingininformal
discussionsoftheissues.Largescale
scopingmeetingsmightrequireamore
formalatmosphere,likethatofapublic
hearing,whereinterestedpartiesare
affordedtheopportunitytopresent
testimony.
Othertypesofscopingmeetingscould
include"workshops,"withparticipantsin
smallworkgroupsexploringdifferent
alternativesanddesigns.Meetingsmay
needtoincludeinterpreterstotranslate
informationforpeoplewhodonotspeak
thelanguageinwhichthemeetingisbeingconducted,asisthecasewithallproceduralandanalytical
stagesoftheEIAprocess.
PublicparticipationtoolsoftenusedinanEIAprocess:
Publicmeetings
Publichearings
Smallgroupmeetingsorworkshops
Communityadvisorypanels
Newsreleases,newsletterswithpubliccommentforms,
factsheet,flyers
Mediafeaturestories,interviews,publicservice
announcements
Project/programwebsites
Publiccommentperiodssolicitingwrittencommentletters
Informationrepositoriesorclearinghouses
Speakersbureaus
Surveys
Mailinglists
Briefingsbyandforpublicofficials
UseofsocialnetworkingsuchasFacebook,Twitter,etc.
Thereareseveralguidelinesthathavebeendevelopedbythe
CAFTADRcountries(e.g.Guatemala)andinternational
organizationsconcerningtheplanningandimplementationof
publicparticipationwhicharenotedinthereferencelist.
PublicParticipationToolKitsareavailablefromEPAin
differentlanguagesat
http://www.epa.gov/international/toolkitandfromthe
InternationalAssociationforPublicParticipationat
http://iap2.affiniscape.com/associations/4748/files/06Dec_T
oolbox.pdfAlsosee
http://www.epa.gov/care/library/community_culture.pdf
2.4 ReportingonandResponsivenesstoPublicComments
Publicinputshouldbereflectedinchangesintheassessment,theprojectorprogram,orto
commitmentsformitigation.Projectproponentsshoulddocumentspecificstepstakentoengagethe
publicandotherstakeholders,andthetimingofthoseengagements,bothbeforepreparingtheEIAand
duringitsdevelopment.IncludedintheannexesoftheEIAshouldbeasummaryofpublicoutreach
activities,audience,numberofpersons,organizationsinvolved,concernsraised,responsesto
commentsand,ifrequired,actualcopiesofwrittencommentsreceived.Reportingoncomments
obtainedthroughanyofthemethodsidentifiedaboveshouldbesufficientlycleartoenableanEIA
reviewerandthepublictoassessresponsivenesstocomments,includingwhethertheywere
understood,whethertheywerefoundtobeappropriateornotandwhy,andifappropriate,what
actionsweretakentorespondtothemandwhetherthoseactionsaresufficienttofullyaddressthe
concerns.Severalapproachesmightbeacceptabletosummarizeorincludeactualtranscriptsand
15
Tourism
copiesoforalandwrittencommentsandtodemonstrateresponsivenessthroughnarrative,tablesand
crossreferencestospecificchanges.
16
Tourism
C.PROJECTANDALTERNATIVESDESCRIPTION
C. PROJECTANDALTERNATIVESDESCRIPTION
1 INTRODUCTION
EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentstartswiththe
descriptionoftheproposedprojectwithsufficient
detailtosupportacredibleassessmentofimpacts
forboththeproposedactionsandreasonableand
feasiblealternatives.Thissectioncontainssomeof
themostimportantinformationintheEIAsinceit
providesthecoredataforforecastingpotential
environmentalimpacts,andforreducing,
eliminating,mitigatingorinlimitedcircumstances
compensatingforthoseimpacts.
Themainelementsofthedescriptionofthe
proposedprojectandalternativesshouldinclude:
Purposeandneed:Aclearstatementwith
supportinginformationontheproject
objectivesandjustificationontheproject
objectivesandjustification(SeeC2)
Descriptionoftheproposedproject
detailing:
Howitmeetsthepurposeandneed
(SeeC2)
PROJECTDESIGN
Whetheraresort,hotel,marina,dock,or
concession,theappropriateenvironmental
practicesforconstructionandoperationbeginwith
appropriatefacility,engineeringandsitedesigns.
Thisdesigntakesintoaccount:
Typeoffacilities,sizeandcapacity
Location(Siting)andsiteplan
Erosioncontrolanddrainageplans
Constructionandareaofdisturbance
Sizeoftheprojectfootprint
Transportationandsiteaccess
Emissions,effluentsandotherwastesresulting
fromconstructionandoperations
Supportfacilitiesandservicesrequired
Useoflocalinfrastructureandmanpower
Closureandrestorationplans,ifapplicable
Projecteduseanddemandonlocaltourist
attractions
Theultimategoalofthedesignistoprovidea
blueprintfortheconstructionandoperationofan
environmentallyandeconomicallydesirable
project,fromstarttofinish.
Facility,siteandengineeringdesignin
Mapsandplanviewsmustbedevelopedtoshow
sufficientdetailtosupportanaccurate
thelayoutoftheprojectandproximityofsensitive
receptorsofenvironmentalimpacts.Thedesign
identificationandassessmentof
mustalsodescribesizeandcapacityaswellas
impacts(SeeC3)
demandsonresourcesandforinfrastructure.
Coverageofallphasesoftheproject
bothinchronologicaltimefromsite
preparationtoconstructiontooperationtocompletiontomonitoringandsitemanagement
andalsophasesifthereareplanstoincreasethecapacityoraddfacilitiesandamenitiesat
laterpointsintime(seeC4)
Expectedreleasesintotheenvironment(SeeC4)
Expecteddemandsonresources(e.g.water,energy,disturbedandpermanentchangesto
landcover)andinfrastructure(e.g.transportation,drinkingwatertreatmentanddelivery,
solidwaste,wastewatercollectionandtreatment,energyandcommunications
infrastructure)(SeeC4)
Alternatives:anidentificationofalternativesformeetingthepurposeandneedwhichare
economicallyandtechnicallyfeasible,andsufficientdetailforthemostappropriatealternatives
topermitcomparativeassessmentofimpacts.Thiscanincludemodificationstotheproposed
project,itsdesign,location,siteconfiguration,scopeand/oroperations,orentirelydifferent
projectstomeetthepurposeandneed.(SeeC5)
Documentationoftheeconomicviabilityoftheproposedproject.
17
Tourism
2 DOCUMENTATIONOFPURPOSEANDNEED
Thedescriptionofaproposedprojectbeginswithdescriptionandsupportinganalysisoftheunderlying
purposeandneedfortheproject,sometimesreferredtoastheobjectivesandjustificationforthe
project.Indescribingtheunderlyingpurposeandneed,theEIAshouldbemorespecificthanassertions
thatmoretourismandeconomicdevelopmentmightbeneeded.Theassessmentofimpactswillbe
differentbasedontheresponsestoseveralquestionsthatneedtobemadeclearintheEIA:
Whatisdrawingtouristactivitytotheproposedlocation?
Whoisservedbythetourismrelatedproject(s)andforwhatpurpose(s)?
Whatarethedemographicsofthetargettouristsandsourcesofinformation?
Whereisthetourismrelatedactivityneededandwhatformmustittake?
Howdoestheproposedprojectadvancenationalandlocalpoliciesandplansforattracting
touristactivityand/orprotectingsensitiveecosystemsandculturalresources?
Howmuchsupportfortourismisneededandwhenaredifferentquantitiesandqualityof
experienceneeded?
Whatarethelevelsofuncertaintyintheassessmentofneeds?
Willlocalresidentsbedisplacedbythetourismdevelopment?
Thepurposeandneeddescriptionalsoshouldhelptoexplainwhethertheproposedprojectisanew
project,anexpansionorareplacement/maintenanceofanexistingproject;whether,howandwhythe
projectmightbephasedinovertime.Itshouldalsoidentifywhoistheintendedaudience,i.e.willitbe
forlocaluseorforvisitorscomingtothearea?Willitbeuseddomesticallyorservethosetravelingfrom
othercountries?Finally,asnotedaboveinthequestions,theprojectjustificationshouldelaborateon
theconsistencyoftheproposedprojectwithanynational,regionalorlocallanduseoreconomic
developmentplansandrelatedtourismsectorincentives.
ThepurposeandneedfortheprojectwillhelptodefinethescopeforpurposesoftheEIA.Forexample,
ifaharborisbeingbuilt,itisnotnecessarilyatourismproject,butifaharborisbeingexpandedorrelied
uponforcruiseshipswhichwillbeameansofaccesstothetouristdestination,thenitsimpactwouldbe
includedinthetourismrelatedEIApreparation.
3 PROJECTDESCRIPTION
Informationontheproposedprojectandalternativesshouldbesufficientnotonlytodescribehowit
meetsthepurposeandneedbutasabasisforidentifyingandassessingitsimpacts.Thisproject
descriptionshouldincludethenaturesizesandtypeofprojectandallrelatedfacilitiesandactivities,its
design,construction,operation,sitedesignandlandarea,subsequentanticipatedexpansionand
decommissioningorfutureuseaswellastheprofileofdirectreleasesintotheenvironment,
employment,resourceandwastestreams,relatedtransportationandthelikeandusageofsurrounding
touristattractionswhichareelaboratedbelowfortourismfacilitiesandactivities.
18
Tourism
3.1 GeneralInformation
Theproposedproject,generalinformationwilltypicallyinclude:
Projectproponents
Projectteam,includingthosefinancing,constructingandoperatingtheprojectaswellasthe
teampreparingtheEIAdocument
o Names,contactinformation
o Professionsandexperience/certifications
o Experiencewiththistypeofproject
o DemonstratetheappropriateinterdisciplinarymakeupoftheEIAteam
Legalandregulatoryframeworks:informationshouldincludedetailsabout:
o Landownership(includingifappropriate,anygovernmentauthorizations,permits,leases,
andmapsshowingtheareaboundaries)
o Applicablelaws(includinglanduserequirementsdemonstratingconformityandcompliance
withapplicablelanduseplans,applicabletourismstrategiesandplans
o Applicableenvironmentalstandards,normsandrequirementssetforthattheinternational,
national,regionaland/orlocallevelsIn
o Requiredregulatoryapprovalsand/orpermitsforallstagesandtheirstatus
o Applicablelanduserequirements(demonstrateconformityandcompliancewithapplicable
plans)
o Applicabletourismstrategiesandplansnational,regional,andlocal
o Applicablenaturalresourcemanagementorprotectedareamanagementplansand
responsibleagency(ies)(demonstrateconformityandcompliancewithallapplicableplans)
Voluntarycertificationprogramsrelatedtobestpracticesforwhichtheprojectwillbedesigned
tocomplywithrequirementsforcertificationandplansfordoingso
Financialviabilityoftheproject
3.2 OverallProjectDescriptionInformation
Theoverviewoftheproposedactivitiesshouldincludeageneraldescriptionofbackgroundinformation
toplacetheproposedtourismprojectincontext.TypicallybythetimeanEIAisstartedmuchofthe
preliminarydesignworkhasbeencompletedbytheprojectproponenttoproveeconomicfeasibilityand
supportbankabilityoftheproject.Thedesignsandconstructionplansmaynotbeentirelycompletebut
mostifnotallofthedetailsrequiredforenvironmentalimpactassessmentasnotedaboveshouldbe
available.
Theprojectshouldbedescribedintermsofitslocation,size,layout,basicactivities,andprojectlifecycle
schedule(design,construction,operation,andclosurestages)andpreconstructionlanduseswith
actionsthatwillbetakentoconvertfromaprevioustoanewlanduse.Overviewinformationincludes:
Projectlocationandaccess(shownonanoverviewmap)
Ageneraldescriptionoftheoverallprojectincludingprojecttype
Identificationofeachcomponentincludingsupportfacilitiesandinfrastructurewithsitelayout,
siteplan,andschematicdrawings
Initialconstructionsequencing,monitoringandmanagementassessment,andlifeofthe
operationthroughclosure
ProjectFacilitiesdescription,including:
Size
19
Tourism
Planvieworblueprintdrawingsofbuildingstobeconstructed,theirdimensionsand
buildingmaterials
Howeachwillbebuilt,manpower,sourcesofmaterials,storageonoroffsite
Employmentfortheproject,whereitwillbecomingfrom,levelofskills
Accessrights
Dimensionsandlandareaaffected
Designonthesitewithmapsandgeospatialinformation(longitudeandlatitude)
ProjectOperations:Thedescriptionshouldelaborate:
Energy(fuelandrenewable)sources
Processingofenergysourcestoproduceelectricityasappropriate
Technologiesemployedandtheirprofileofairandwaterreleasesandwastestreams
Infrastructureplanstomanagewater,airandwasteandresultinglevelsofreleaseintothe
environment
Emissions,effluents,wastesandotherphysicalfactorsresultingfromconstructionand
operationofthepowerplantortransmissionline
Initialconstructionsequencingshouldbepresented,includingtheschedulingofconstructionfor
thevariouscomponentsofthetourismproject.Thisshouldincludeconstructionof:
Roads
Repairshops
Warehousesandothersupportfacilities
Powersources
Pollutionreductionandcontrolsystems
Transmissionlinestobeaccessedorbuilt
Watersourcesandconveyances
Materialhandlingsystems
Quantitativeandqualitativeinformationonthedegreeofsiteclearingandvegetation
removedfromthesiteatanypointintime,plansforsequencingsiteclearingandresulting
changesinplantcover,collection,storageanddisposalofresultingdebris
Protectionofsensitivehabitatsandbiologicalresources
Protectionofcultural,historical,orarchaeologicalresources
Extentandlocationofdisturbedareasandanynonpermeablesurfacesthroughoutthe
project
Theprojectanditsgeographic,ecological,social,andtemporalcontextincludesanyoffsite
investmentsthatmayberequired,forexample:
Dedicatedandsharedpipelines
Roads,airstripsorairports,wateraccess,parkinglots,andpowergenerationfacilitiesfor
theoperation,includingproperlydesigneddredgingplansandproperlylocateddredged
materialdisposalsites
Watersupply,includingdrinkingwatertreatmentsystemsanddrinkingwatertreatment
systems,andifnecessary,desalinationofseawateranddischargeofthedesalinationbrine
Housing
Rawmaterialandproductstoragefacilities
Wastewatercollectionandtreatment,locationofwastewaterdischargesintoanywater
bodiesaswellaspotentialwastewaterreuseopportunitiesonthesite(i.e.,landscaping,golf
course,toilets,etc.)
Stormwaterandnonpointsourcerunoffcontrols
Wastemanagement,includinganyplanstoreduce,reuse,recycleand/orreducesolid
wasteandanyplansforwastethatcouldbecomemarinedebris
20
Tourism
Storageoffuelsandhazardousmaterials
Resettlementplanorindigenouspeoplesdevelopmentplan
Detailedmapswithsitedesignanddetailedtopographicalandspecialmappingrelatingthe
proposedprojecttothegeologyoftheprojectarea:Thiswillofcoursebeanimportantelement
oftheEnvironmentalSettingsectionoftheEIA.Informationpresentedshouldinclude,but
notnecessarilybelimitedto:
Localandregionalgeology
Soilcharacterizations
Geotechnicalzone
Terrestrial,watershed,coastal,andmarinehabitats,includingsensitivehabitatsthatmaybe
essentialtoendangeredorthreatenedspecies,ornurseryareasforterrestrialoraquatic
species
Thisinformationwillbecriticalforsuperimposingonthebaselineenvironmentlaterto
estimateorpredictthenetenvironmentalandsocioeconomicimpact,whichmayultimatelybe
positive,negativeorneutral.
TransportationInformationincludingthemodeoftransportlocationandtheintensityof
transportfromautomobiles,bus,boat,rail,,ships,etc.,including
Transportofrawmaterialsandsupplies
Transportofthetourists
Transportoftheemployeesduringconstructionandoperations
Detailsonarchitecturalandengineeringdesign
3.3 ProjectScope:AllProjectPhasesandRelatedorConnectedActions
Alltourismprojectsincludethefollowingphases:
Sitelocation
Sitepreparation
Construction
OperationsandMaintenance
Closure:restoration,abandonmentorreuse
Allphasesanddetailsaboutthemshouldbeprovided.
AllrelatedorconnectedactionsshouldbeaddressedintheEIA.Theremaybedifferententitiesand
projectproponentsresponsiblefordifferentaspectsofproposedprojectsandalternatives.Evenifthere
aredifferententitiesinvolvedthetestiswhetheraproposedtourismprojectXwouldstillbeproposedif
anotherprojectYwerenotalsoproposed.Forexample,aresortisproposedforalocationnearthe
coastwithnobeachandincludesplansforcreatingapocketbeach.Thepocketbeachwillbesupplied
withsandbydredginganadjacentbeach.So,thetwoprojectsshouldbeassessedatthesametime
eitherbycrossreferencinginseparateEIAdocumentsorwithinasingle,integrateddocument.
3.4 ProjectDetails
Projectdetailsshouldbeprovidedfortheproposedprojectandthealternativesthatareincludedinthe
EIA.Theprojectdetailsshouldfurnishsufficientdetailtogiveabriefbutclearpictureoftheelements
andmainactivitiesthatwilltakeplaceduringeachstageintheprojectlifecycle,andshouldcontainthe
followinginformationontheproposedprojectandalternatives(seeSectionC.5):
21
Tourism
Thelocationoftheprojectshouldbepresentedusingmapsshowinggenerallocationand
specificlocation,elevationplan,projectboundary,andprojectareaofinfluence.
Eachprojectcomponentshouldbedescribed,andshownonadiagramand/ormap,including
projectlayout,permanentandtemporarystructures,andmajoronsiteandoffsiteproject
elementssuchasaccessroads,powerandwatersupply,staffhousing,storagefacilities,etc.
Detailofsizeofeachcomponent,includingtemporarystructuresandsupportfacilities,ofthe
proposeddevelopmentshouldbeprovided.Asabove,thesemaybestbedescribedondiagrams
andmaps,withshortwrittendescriptionsthatrefertothevisualaids.
Descriptionofstandardbestpracticestobeincorporatedintotheproject.Thisshouldbe
consistentlycarriedthroughinthecalculationsofenvironmentalreleases,resourceand
infrastructuredemandsandimpactassessmentandtheenvironmentalmanagementplanand
canbeamoredetailedandactivityspecificdiscussionofthebackgroundinformationprovided
above.
Expectedresourceuseduringconstructionandoperation,includingrawmaterialinputs,
emissions,andwastedischarges.Thisshouldbeprovidedforpermanent,temporary,and
supportfeatures.
Proposedscheduleforapprovalofallrequiredpermits,andforconstructionandproject
implementation.
Relationshipsamongthetechnical,economic,social,andenvironmentalfeaturesofthe
proposal.
Expectedvisitationanduseoftheproposedfacilitiesandresourcesandexpectedseasonal
fluctuationsshouldbedescribed.Thedemandmaybedeterminedbyguestroomsifthe
developmentisprimarilyahotel;butifitprovidesotheramenities,adiscussionofdailyuseand
othertypesofpatronageshouldbeincluded.Ifthecarryingcapacityisexpectedtofluctuateby
season,thisshouldbedescribed,andnumbersofvisitorsestimated.
Theaboveinformationshouldbeprovidedinenoughdetailforimpactpredictionandformitigation
measurestobeunderstoodoradditionalmeasurestobedeveloped.Notallthedetailedengineering
informationdevelopedfortheprojectneedstobeincludedintheEIAsprojectdescription.Theamount
ofdetailisdependentontheextentofthedevelopment,andtheinformationthatisneededtoconduct
anaccurateenvironmentalreview.Moredetailshouldbeprovidedonthosekeyaspectslikelytocause
environmentalimpactsaswellasparametersthatwillguidetheanalysisofthenature,significanceand
extentofimpacts.
Ifthereisneedforanyresettlement,itshouldbeexplainedanddescribed.Thisshouldbelinkedtothe
informationonlanduse,landownership,resettlementpolicy).
3.5 Maps,Diagrams,SiteDesignandPlan
Whereverappropriate,maps,flowdiagrams,andothervisualaidsshouldbeusedtosummarize
information,andtokeepdescriptionsconcise.Schematicrepresentationsofdrawingsfromthe
feasibilitystudymaybereproduced,buttheyshouldbedrawingsthatwillcontributetoEIAreviewers
understandingoftheprojectandpotentialenvironmentalimpacts.
Theactualnumberlargelydependsonthesize,extent,andmagnitudeoftheproject.Thedescriptionof
theproject((a)above),shouldincludeatleastanoverviewmapandadetailedsiteplan.
Thegenerallocationofthedevelopmentshouldbepresentedonanoverviewmap,with
detailedplanviewdrawingsofthepropertywhichplacestheactivityinitsgeographiccontext.
22
Tourism
Ashortdescriptionofthelocationshouldcomplementthemap.Onthesamemap,thespecific
location,elevations,projectboundary,andprojectareaofinfluencemaybeshown.(Note,
SectionFdefinesareaofinfluence).
Asiteplanadetaileddiagram,orforsmallerscaledevelopments,ahanddrawnschematic
coulddoshouldbeusedasthebasisfordescribingtheoverallactivity:projectcomponents,
accesspoints,andancillaryfeatures.Ifthereisnoexistingsiteplan,oneshouldbeprepared
whichshowsthelayoutofthedevelopmentandimportantfeatures.Ifthisisanexpansionofan
existingtourismdevelopment/facility,thisshouldclearlybenoted,andexistingstructuresand
proposedstructuresshouldbeshownontheplan.Dependingonthesizeandcomponentsof
theproject,onesiteplanmaysufficeor,forlargerdevelopmentsseveralwillbeneededto
adequatelydisplayprojectcomponents.
Theoverviewmapandthesiteplanshouldbepresentedatascalethatallowsthereviewerto
understandeachcomponentinrelationshiptotheothercomponents.Theoverviewmapandthesite
planshouldshownaturalfeaturessuchastopography,existingstructuresandcommunities,water
bodies,wetlands,floodplains.Thiscontexthelpsinassessingtheplacementofproposedfacilitiesand
potentialalternatives.
Especiallyforlargerscaledevelopments,asummarytableshowingthetype,quantity,andsizeofeach
componentcanalsobeusefulforunderstandingthegenerallayout,footprint,andcontextofthe
development.
3.6 DetailsonConstructionProcedures
TheProjectDescriptionshouldpresentacondenseddescriptionoftheconstructionphase.Thissection
shoulddescribewhen,how,andbywhomthefacilitiesaretobeconstructed.Aconstructionschedule
andconstructionsequencingshouldbeincludedintheProjectDescription;thisisimportantfor
determiningtheextentofenvironmentalimpacts.Elaborationofconstructiondetailsandsite
preparationareparticularlyimportanttoanticipateandaddressissuesrelatedtolossofhabitat,
mudslides,erosion,contaminationofstreamandriversegments,negativeimpactstoendangeredor
threatenedspeciesandtheirhabitats,andnegativeimpactstosensitiveecosystems.
Informationontheconstructionphaseshouldcontainabriefdescriptionofconstructionplansforall
physicalfeaturestobeconstructedorrenovated,includingtemporary,ancillary,andpermanent
structuresandtheirlocationrelativetokeynaturalfeaturesonandoffsite.Itshouldinclude:
Thetypeofconstructionmaterialtobeused.
Thetypeofmachineryrequiredandwhereitwillbehousedandhowthesitewillbeaccessed.
Locationsfromwhichfillmaterialwillbesourced.
Locationswherefillmaterialwillbeplacedonsite.
Locationswherefillandotherconstructionmaterialwillbetemporarilystockpiled/stored.
Keyareas(relatedtoenvironmentalsensitivity/importance)thatwillremainundisturbedduring
construction(waterways,wetlands,forestedareasandothergreenspace,etc.).
Temporarydiversionsforwaterways,erosioncontrolbarriers,andotherbest
practice/mitigationmeasures.
Fortemporarystructures(storageareas,constructionemployeehousingincludingwater,
sewage,andpowerconnections,waterdiversions,erosioncontrolbarriers,temporaryaccess
roadways),thedecommissioningprocess,includingmeasuresforreturningtheareatopre
constructionfeatures.
23
Tourism
Disposal,recyclingordispositionofdebris,i.e.vegetationorothermaterialsremovedfromthe
sitetoprepareforconstruction.
Neworexistingroads,oralternativetransportationtotransportconstructionmaterial,to
disposeofconstructiondebris,and/ortransportconstructionworkers(elaborationinsection
3.7).
Oftencomponentsoftourismdevelopment(oranyconstructionproject)aredescribedashavinga
footprint.Aconstructionfootprint,intermsofanEIA,istheareaofdisturbance.Forexample,a
roadwaymaybeonly4meterswide,buttheentireareadisturbedmaybe8meterswide.Afootprint
canbedescribedintermsoftemporary(shortterm)disturbanceandpermanentdisturbance.
Temporarydisturbanceisusuallytheareadisturbedduringtheconstructionphase,someofwhichmay
bereturnedtopreconstructionfeaturesonceconstructioniscomplete.Thepermanentfootprintisthe
areathathasbeenpermanentlyconvertedtoitsnewuse,usuallyasubsetofthetemporaryfootprint.
Bothoftheseareimportantforimpactassessmentandprediction,andshouldbeclearlydescribedin
theProjectDescriptionsection.Measuresforrestoringpreconstructioncontour,soil,vegetation,and
othernaturalfeaturesshouldbedescribed.Asummaryofdetailsrequiredfortheconstructionphaseof
aprojectisprovidedinTableC1.
TableC1:InformationtobeincludedintheEIAfortheconstructionphase
COMPONENT
SiteClearing
Sedimentand
WaterControlFacility
TemporaryPondsand
Permanent
Impoundments
Culverts,Dikesand
Diversions
Groundwater
Management
Landscaping:
Hardscapingor
Vegetation
PROJECTDESCRIPTIONINFORMATION
Landareaclearedandlocationofanyclearanceactivity
Protectionofsensitiveterrestrial,aquaticormarinehabitatsandspeciesresources
Protectionofcultural,historicalorarchaeologicalsites
Equipmenttobeusedandmanpowerrequirement
Storage,removalanddispositionofdebris
Descriptionsedimentandstormwatercontrolpracticestobeincorporatedintotheproject.
Temporarydiversionsforwaterways
Erosioncontrolbarriers
Stormwaterandnonpointsourcerunoffcontrol
Location
Designcriteria
Spillwayandinletdesigns
Constructedwetlandsforwastewaterornonpointsourcewatermanagement
Location
Size
Designcriteria
Numberofwells
Location
Design
Pumpingrates
Drawdown
Potentialforsaltwaterintrusion
Greenspaces/landscaping
Vegetationtypes
Avoidnonnativeinvasivespecies
Vegetativemanagement
Irrigation(includinggreywatersystemsifapplicable)
Fertilization
Pestcontrol
Fencing
24
Tourism
COMPONENT
ConstructionCamp
FuelandChemical
Storage
ConstructionMaterial
andSuppliesStorage
WorkerHousing
WorkerParking
Excavations
EquipmentStorage
andMaintenance
ConstructionWaste
Management
Environmentally
SoundSourcesand
Suppliers
Dredging
Construction
Techniques
Descriptionofthecampincludingbutnotlimitedto:
Amapshowingallfacilitiesatalegiblescaleappropriatetothesizeoftheproject
Buildingsbytype(use)andsize
Roads
Electricaltransmissionlinesand/orsubstation
Drainage
Watersupplyanddistribution
Distributionsystem
Use(m3/day)
Rights
Sources
Includeaninventoryofchemical,toxicorhazardoussubstances,activeelements,sitesandstorage
means,safetyaspectsregardingtransportationandhandlingandanyotherrelevantinformation
Giveacompletelistoftherawmaterialsandconstructionmaterialstobeused,indicatingthe
amountsperday,month,andthestoragemeans
Numberofroomsby:
Structure(ifmorethanonestructurewillhouserooms)
Numberandtypesofbeds(singleordoubleoccupancybeds)
Inroomorsharedbath/toiletfacilities
Otherinroomfacilities(kitchens,kitchenettes,pools,Jacuzzis,etc.)
Locations,sizesandtypesofcommonbath/toiletfacilities
Cafeteria
Energygenerationanduserequirements
Closureortransitionfromconstructioncamptoonsiteemployeehousing
Sanitation
Location,size,surface,transportationrequirements
Locationsfromwhichfillmaterialwillbesourced
Sizeanddepthofexcavations
Locationswherefillmaterialwillbeplacedonsiteandtransported
Locationswherefillandotherconstructionmaterialwillbetemporarilystockpiled/stored
Borrowandspoildisposal
Preservationofgroundwaterresources
Transportationmobilizationandmobilizationfrequency
Machineryandequipmentmobilizationroutestobeused,aswellasthefeaturesofthewayson
whichtheywillbetransported,includingamapofroutes,asapplicable,andmobilization
Location
Distancetolandfill
Truckingrequirements
Trafficcontrol
Excavationmaterial
Locationsfromwhichfillmaterialwillbesourced
Locationswherefillmaterialwillbeplacedonsite
Locationswherefillandotherconstructionmaterialwillbetemporarilystockpiled/stored
Dredgingoperationsanddredgedmaterialdisposalsites
Location(onlandoroffshore)
Descriptionofdisposalsite(neworexisting,approvedsite)
Quantityofmaterialsdredgedandmethodsused
Location,capacityanddistancetolandfillordisposalsite
Transportationrequirements
Locationofpylonsquantityandlocationforbuildings,docks,andpiers
Useoftechniquesforclimatechangeadaptionsuchasstilts
UseofGreenconstructiontechniques
25
Tourism
COMPONENT
SmallHarboror
Marina
Oceanographicconditions,watercirculationandtidalflushingintheharbor/marina
Portreceptionfacilitiesforwastes(oil,trash,hazmat,etc.)
Recyclingfacilitiesforwaste
Locationofsensitivemarineorcoastalhabitats
Actionstobetakentoavoiddamagetogroundwaterresources
Oilspillplans
3.7 Transportation:Roads,Pathways,AirStrips,andBoatFacilities
Transportationtoresortscanbevialand,seaorair.DetailsintheEIAshouldbegiventheproposed
locations,methodsoftransportation,andfacilities.Ofprimaryimportanceareroads.Accessroadsand
internalroadsaretobeincludedinthesiteplanssubmittedwiththeEIA,andifaccessroadsneedtobe
constructedorrehabilitated,detailsareneededonthematerials,methodsanddesigns.Insomecases,
thetourismdevelopmentmayincludeaninternalroadwaysystem.Forroadstoconstructed,the
engineeringdesignshouldincludemapsandspecificdesigninformationincluding:
Timingofconstruction
Roadsurfaceandshoulderwidthandbarriers
Gradespecifications
Constructionmethodsincludingclearingandgrubbing
Constructionmaterials(ifwasterockwillbeused,includegeochemicalspecificationsitmust
meet,e.g.,netneutralizingpotentialtoacidgeneratingpotentialmustbeatleast3:1)
Compactionspecifications
Streamcrossingsandassociateddesigns
Sedimentationanderosionpreventionstructuresandpractices
Stabilizationmethodsforcutsandfills
Operationsprogramwithtrafficvolume,operatingspeedsandtriptimes
Typicalelevationsshouldbeprovidedforeachtypeandsituationofroaddisplayingconstruction
materials,levelsofcompactionanderosionandsedimentationfeatures.Thissectionshouldalso
includethefollowinggeneralinformationabouttheroadsystem:
Dustcontrolmeasuresforconstructionandoperation
Maintenancemeasures
Rosterforconstructionandmaintenanceequipment,specifyingtypeandquantityby:size,
motorsize,andfuelrequirementsforeachtypeofequipment
Theextentofinformationneededisaffectedbythetypeofenvironmenttheroadtraverses.However,
eventemporaryroadwayscancreatesignificantandpermanentenvironmentaldamage.Inalreadybuilt
orotherwisealreadydisturbedareas,thissectionwouldbelessdetailedthanforroadrehabilitationor
constructioninareasthatareundisturbedorthatcontainimportantenvironmentalfeatures.However,
trucknoiseanduseofroadsmayhaveadverseeffectsontheirstructureandonthenearby
communities,sothisdetailisimportant.Asummaryofinformationrequiredforothermodesof
transportationisprovidedinTableC2.
26
Tourism
TableC2:ProjectdetailInformationfortransportationneeds
COMPONENT
General
OnsiteWalkways
PublicRoads
Upgrades
RailExpansionwith
Feederline
AirService
Upgrades
Waterways
Upgrades
OnSite
Transportation
HubsConstruction
ParkingLots
Taxi/BusStopsor
TransferStations
FuelStations
RentalCarLots
AirportorAirStrip
Siteclearing
Protectionofsensitiveterrestrial,aquaticormarinehabitatsandspeciesresources
Protectionofcultural,historicalorarchaeologicalsites
Equipmenttobeusedandmanpowerrequirement
Storage,removalanddispositionofdebris
Sedimentandwatercontrolfacility
Temporarypondsandpermanentimpoundments
Locationanddesigninformation
Provisionforbeachaccess
Locationanddesigninformation
Primarymaterialofconstruction(wood,brick,stone,etc.),layoutanddimensions.
Designdrawingsshouldbeprovidedforeachfacility,including:Plan(overheadview)
Elevations(frontview),Profiles(sideview)andSections.
Routes
Trafficcontrol
Utilities
Design
Widthsandlayout
Surfacematerial
Lighting(ifapplicable)
Erosioncontrol
Identifyallnewandexistingwaterwaystobeused(includingfilledandclosedcanalsandother
waterwaysthatwillbereopened,ifapplicable),trafficvolume,boatorbarge(e.g.disposalofdredge
material,operatingspeedsandtriptimes,closedwaterwaythatwillbereopened
Detailedinformationonanyaccess,onsiteandrecreationalactivitywaterwaystobeconstructedor
upgraded:Location,timingofconstruction,constructionmethodsincludingclearingandgrubbing,
dredgingandassociateddesigns,animalcrossings,disposalofdredgedmaterials,sedimentationand
erosionpreventionstructuresandpractices,locationandsize(areaandvolumeofmaterial)ofcanals
andwaterways,lighting(whereapplicable),operation,closureplan(ifapplicable)
Maintenance
Tightestcurves
Trackconstructionmaterials
Turnoutsandsidings
Railroadcommunicationsandsignaling
Locations
Sizes
Lighting
Stormwatermanagement
Location,design,constructionandoperationofdocks
Rostersofboats,specifyingtypeandquantityby:size,motorsize,andfuelrequirements
MaintenanceandDredgingschedules
Breakwaterneeds
Fuelstoragetanksandleakpreventionplans
Spillandoilcontainment
Locations
Sizes
Lighting
Fightnumbers,schedules,seasonalfluctuations
Locations
Sizesandcapacity
Design
27
Tourism
COMPONENT
SmallHarboror
Marina
Oceanographicconditions,watercirculationandtidalflushingintheharbor/marina,portreception
facilitiesforwastes(oil,trash,hazmat,etc.),recyclingfacilitiesforwaste,locationofsensitivemarine
orcoastalhabitats,avoidanceofdamagetogroundwaterresources,oilspillplans
3.8 Hotel,ResortandRestaurantFacilities
AccordingtotheIUCN(2009),mostoftheimpactthattourismbusinesseshaveonbiodiversityoccur
duringthecompanysoperationsphase.TheEIAshouldpresentacompletedescriptionoftheoperation
ofthehotel/resortandmanagementofinlandandcoastalactivitiesanddevelopmentsdesignedto
protectnotonlybiodiversitybutalsothecoastalandinlandenvironment.
3.8.1 HotelandResortOperations
Thefollowinggivesabriefdescriptionofinformationthatshouldbeincludedduringtheoperation
phaseoftheproject:
Descriptionofhowtheprojectwouldoperate(seasonally,monthly,daily,hourly,as
appropriate)
Operationinformation
Rosterofequipmentandmachinerytobeusedduringoperation,specifyingtype
andquantitybysize,weight,motorsize,andfuelrequirementsforeachactivity
Operationplansandconservationmethodstobeusedforwater,solidwaste
managementincludingrecycling,andenergy
Laborduringoperation
Numberandtypeofemployees(bylocalhireandnonlocalhire)byfieldof
expertise
Daysperweek
Hoursperday
Shiftsperday
Rawmaterialstobeusedforoperation
Listoftherawmaterialstobeused,indicatingtheamountsperday,month,and
thestoragemeans
Inventoryofchemical,toxicorhazardoussubstances,activeelements,sitesand
storagemeans,safetyaspectsregardingtransportationandhandlingandany
otherrelevantinformation
Additionalprojectdescriptioninformationtypicallyrequiredforhotelsandassociatedlandbased
facilitiesarepresentedinTableC3.
28
Tourism
TableC3:Projectdescriptioninformationforhotelandresortprojects
COMPONENT
General
HotelsandLodges
SwimmingPools
GolfCourses
AthleticComplexes
(Tennis,Basketball,
Soccer,etc.)
Restaurants
BoutiquesandShopping
Areas
Estimateandlocationsofdisturbedacreage
Detailedsitemap
Expectedlifeofoperations
Anticipatedusageseasonal,monthly
Locationanddesigninformationforprincipal
projectfacilities
Primarymaterialofconstruction(wood,
brick,stone,etc.)
Layoutanddimensions
Designdrawingsshouldbeprovidedforeach
facility,including:Plan(overheadview),
Elevations(frontview),Profiles(sideview)
andSections
Numberofroomsby:
Locations
Sizes
Drinkingwaterusage
Typesofbath/toiletfacilities(commonor
private,components)
Wastewatertreatmentandwaterreusefor
landscaping
Receptionarea
Hallways,causeways,stairs,elevators,etc
Size(dimensions,watercapacity)
Watertreatment
Bath/toiletfacilities
Numberofholes
Length,widthandlayoutofeachfairway
(includedmaintainedruff)
Sizeandlocationofeachtee,greenandhazard
Vegetation(tees,fairways,roughs,greens,
landscaping,undisturbed[natural])
Cartpaths
Vegetativemanagement(irrigation,fertilization,
pestcontrol,etc.)
Onsitesupportfacilities(clubhouse,cartstorage,
cartrepair,equipmentstorage,toilets)
Waterreuseforirrigationandlandscaping
Types,numbersandsizes
Surfacematerial
Fences
Seatingcapacity
Hoursofservice
Kitchenfacilities
Quantitiesofrawmaterialsandwaste
Wastewatertreatment,greaseremoval,and
discharge
Methodsoftransportationtobeusedfordelivery
ofrawmaterialsandcollectionofwaste
Numberandsizeofstoresorbooths
Locationsandsizesoftoiletfacilities
Hallways,causeways,stairs,elevators,etc.
INFORMATIONREQUIREMENTS
Floodplainmaps
Mapsshowinglocationsofsensitive
habitats,cultural/historical/
archaeologicalresources
Erosionandsedimentcontrolplans
Drainages
Depthtogroundwater
Seasonalvariationinclimate
Watersourcesandwastewaterdischarge
facilities
Mapsshowingrunoffcontroland
sedimentcontrol
Useofvegetation(lawnsandgardens)
Mapsshowingpathwaysandroads
Watersourcesandwastewater
management
Sensitiveareaprotection
Drainage
Erosionandsedimentcontrol
Wastewatermanagement
Watersupply
Watersupply
29
Tourism
COMPONENT
OutdoorVenues
Theatre,Concert,
Wedding,etc.
Laundryand
Housekeeping
EmployeeHousing
Support(maintenance,
shopandchemical
management)
SeatingCapacity
Parking
Toiletfacilities
Supportconcessions
Waste/LitterManagement
Daily/PeakUsageestimates
ParkingRequirements
Quantityofwater,waterconservation,energy,
andsuppliesrequired
Onoroffsiteservice
Upgraderequirements
Sewerage(location,design,pipingsize)
Type
Dischargequantityandlocation
Pretreatmentandgreaseremoval
Numberofroomsby:
Structure(ifmorethanonestructurewill
houserooms)
Numberandtypesofbeds(singleordouble
occupancybeds)
Inroomorsharedbath/toiletfacilities
Otherinroomfacilities(kitchens,
kitchenettes,pools,jacuzzis,etc.)
Locations,sizesandtypesofcommonbath/toilet
facilitiescafeteria
Shopdesignandplacement
Location,size,andnumberofmachines
Chemicalstorage
INFORMATIONREQUIREMENTS
Watersupply
Watersupply
Mapsshowingrunoffcontroland
sedimentcontrol
Useofvegetation(lawnsandgardens)
Mapsshowingpathwaysandroads
Spillcontrol
3.8.2 GolfCourseOperations
Golfcoursedescriptionsneedtoinclude:
Siteclearing
Plantingsandspeciesthatwillbeused
Waterdemandsorwastewaterreuseforwatering
Sourceofwaterforwaterholes,meansofsupply,andhabitatmaintenance
Maintenance,includingwatering,properuseoffertilizers,chemicalpesticidesandherbicides
Supportfacilitiessuchasclubhouses
Golfcartstorageandmaintenance
Energyrequirements,supplyofelectricityforchargingbatteriesofgolfcarts
Alterationtotopography
Drainageanderosioncontrols
Shouldagolfcoursebeconstructed,detailswillbeparticularlyimportantonwaterusagerequirements
forirrigationandotherrequirements.Golfcoursescanconsumemorewaterthantherestofthe
facilitiescombined.
3.8.3 SupportforActivities/Concessions
Concessions:Fortheoperationofaconcessionmuchofthesameinformationpresentedabovefor
hotelsandrestaurantsisrequired.Additionalinformationshouldalsobepresented.
Hoursandseasonsofuse,limitationsonaccess,expectedcapacityanddemand
30
Tourism
Maintenanceproceduresandschedulesfortrails,golfcourses,campgrounds,andsanitation
facilities
Educationalbrochures,programs,andhandouttobegiventohikers,golfers,aswellasworkers
toprotectbiodiversityandtheenvironment
Remediationmeasurestotakeplaceifanaturaldisasteroccurssuchasaflood,fire,hurricane,
volcano,orearthquake/tsunami
Penaltiestobeenforcedshouldoperationalrulesofagolfcourse,hikingarea,offroadvehicle
use,campgroundorotherfacilitybebroken
Litterandsolidwastecontrolmeasuresanyplanstoreduce,reuse,recycle
InformationrequirementsforconcessionsaresummarizedinTableC4.
TableC4:Projectdetailsforconcessions
COMPONENT
GeneralConsiderationsfor
allConcessionsandSmaller
Facilities
Trails
Ziplines
Campgrounds,Cabinsand
TrailHuts
Locationanddesign
Primarymaterialofconstruction(wood,brick,stone,etc.)
Layoutanddimensions
Designdrawingsshouldbeprovidedforeachfacility,including:Plan(overheadview),
Elevations(frontview),Profiles(sideview)andSectionsStorageareasandwarehouses
Parkinglots
Repairshops
Fuelstations
Electricalenergy
Watersupply
Wastehandlinganddisposal
Sewers
Wastewatertreatmentanddisposal
Solidwastecollection,treatmentanddisposal
Stormwaterandnonpointsourcerunofftreatmentanddisposal
Roads
Targetgroup
Widthsandlayout
Surfacematerial(natural,groomed,andsurfacing)
Erosioncontrol
Daily/peakusageestimates
ParkingRequirements
Protectionofsensitiveterrestrialandaquatichabitat
Protectionofsensitivecultural,historical,orarchaeologicalresources
Startpoint,endpointandroute(forcanopywalks)
Endpoint
Toiletfacilities
Parkingrequirements
Number,type(tentorrecreationalvehicle)andsizesofsites
Siteamenities(tables,benches,barbeque,firepits,electricalhookups,etc.)
Commonfacilities,includingwastewaterandgreywaterfacilities
Number,locations,capacityperlocationandlayout
Siteamenities(tables,benches,barbeque,firepits,etc.)
Bath/toiletfacilities
Watertaps
Solidwastemanagement
Parkingrequirements
31
Tourism
COMPONENT
RemoteConcessionActivity
Areas
GuidedToursPointsof
Origin
Kayak/Canoe/RaftGarages
andPutinPoints
HorsebackRiding
OffRoadVehicles
LakeBasedRecreation
SportFishing
WaterSports
Descriptionofactivity
Sitefacilityneeds(storage,vendoroffice,toilets,watersupply,parking,wastemanagement,
etc.)
Sizeandamountofmaterialsofferedandwastegenerated
Deliveryofsupplies,means,access,frequency
Descriptionofactivity
Sitefacilityneeds(storage,vendoroffice,toilets,watersupply,parking,wastemanagement,
etc.)
Putinandtakeoutlocationsandrelatedequipment/facilities
Campingorpicnickingsites
Toiletfacilities
ParkingRequirements
Trails(Widthsandlayout,Surfacematerial,Erosioncontrol)
Stables(Location,Dimensions,Animalwastemanagement,Toiletfacilities)
Pastures(Location,Dimensions,Feedsources)
ParkingRequirements
Types,number,sizesandfuelsofvehicles
Trails(Widthsandlayout,Surfacematerial,Erosioncontrol)
Vehiclestorage
Vehiclefuelingandrepairfacilities
Toiletfacilities
ParkingRequirements
Typesofuses
Dock
Developedbeach
Onsitefacilities(equipmentstorage,toilets,etc.)
Typesofservicesandequipmentprovided
Facilities
Divingoperationscontrolstoprotectsensitivecoastalandmarinehabitats:
Depths
Instructororcertifiedguides
Locationsofdives
Transportationtodivesitestopreventdamagetosensitivecoralreefhabitatfrom
improperdiveractivities
Controlstoprotectsensitivecoastalandmarinehabitatssuchasbeaches,seagrassbeds,
coralreefs,lagoonsandfish/shellfishnurseryareas
Controlstoprotectshorelineandunderwatercultural,historicalandarchaeological
resources
32
Tourism
3.9 MarineandCoastal
Againmuchofthesameinformationaspresentedaboveisrequiredtobepresentedfortheoperation
ofmarineandcoastaldevelopment.Inaddition,thefollowinginformationistobepresented.
Marinaandportmanagementprocedures,operationalrules,andrequirements
Penaltiestobeassessedshouldoperationalrulessuchasnowakezonesbebroken
Maintenanceandmanagementproceduresfordocks,marinas,navigationchannels,and
associatedfacilities
Remediationmeasureswhichwillbetakenshouldanaturaldisasteroccurs
Nodischargezonesforsewageorshipgeneratedtrash
Portreceptionfacilitiesforwastesofallkinds
Reduce,Reuse,Recycle
InformationrequirementsformarineandcoastaltourismdevelopmentsaresummarizedinTableC5.
TableC5:Projectdetailsformarine/coastaldevelopments
COMPONENT
General
WaterSports
CruiseShipPorts
Marinas
DevelopedBeaches
Ifneeded,breakwatersandshorelineerosionprotectionneeds
Substrate,adjacentprotectedareas
Dredgingschedulesanddisposalarearequirements
Protectionofsensitiveterrestrial,aquaticormarinehabitatsandresources
Protectionofsensitivecultural,historical,orarchaeologicalresources
Natureandkindofwatersports
Watersupplyandtoiletfacilities
ParkingRequirements
Putinandtakeoutlocationsandrelatedequipment/facilities
Campingorpicnickingsites
Typesofservices(lifeguardstations,etc.)
Shipsizesdrafts,etc.
Dailyusage/schedules
Passengerdisembarkments
Supportfacilities
Solidwastemanagementfacilities
Watersupplyfacilities
Wastewaterdisposalfacilities
Slipnumbersandsizes
Supportfacilityneeds(fuelingneeds,repairshops,chandlery,grocery,etc.)
Beachuses
Onbeachstructures
Beachaccessforlocalresidents
Legalsourceoflocalsand
Protectedhabitatareas
33
Tourism
COMPONENT
OverwaterVillasand
Cottages
BeachbasedClubhouseBars
andRestaurants
ArenasandEntertainment
Venues(IndoorandOutdoor)
General
CruiseShipPorts
Marinas
Docks
WaterSports
DevelopedBeaches
OverwaterVillasand
Cottages
BeachbasedClubhouseBars
andRestaurants
Numberofrooms
Pilingsandotherspecialconstruction
Seatingcapacity
Hoursofservice
Kitchenfacilities
Sizeandseatingcapacity
Locationsandsizesoftoiletfacilities
Ifneeded,breakwatersandshorelineerosionprotectionneeds
Substrate,adjacentprotectedareas
Dredgingschedulesanddisposalarearequirements
Protectionofsensitiveterrestrial,aquaticormarinehabitatsandresources
Supportfacilityneeds
Slipnumbersandsizes
Supportfacilityneeds(fuelingneeds,repairshops,chandlery,grocery,etc.)
Watercirculationassessmenttopreventanoxicconditionsfromdevelopinginthemarina.
TypesofDockuses
Onsitefacilities(equipmentstorage,toiletsconcessions)
Numbersandtypesofsupportfacilitiesincludingtoiletsandwastewaterfacilities
Typesofboatstobeuses(motorizedornonmotorized)
Fuelingfacilitieswithspillpreventionandcontrol
Delineateddivingareas
Locationofsensitivecoastalandmarinehabitatssuchasbeaches,seagrassbeds,coral
reefs,lagoonsandfish/shellfishnurseryareas
Locationofshorelineandunderwatercultural,historicalandarchaeologicalresources
Beachuses
Onbeachstructures
Beachaccessforlocalresidents
Legalsourceoflocalsand
Protectedhabitatareas,includingavoidanceofsmotheringofsensitivenearshoremarine
habitatifbeachnourishmentisrequired.
Numberofroomsby:
Pilingsandotherspecialconstruction
Seatingcapacity
Hoursofservice
Kitchenfacilities
34
Tourism
4 EXPECTEDRELEASESTOTHEENVIRONMENTANDDEMANDSONRESOURCES
Projectdetailsshouldleadtocredibleandwellsupportedestimatesofthereleasestowater,air,and
land,togenerationofdemandforwaterandotherrawmaterials,transportation,energy,
communicationsandpublichealthinfrastructureandtoimpactsstemmingfromsitedesignandlocation
andtolocalsocioeconomicculturalimpactsrelated,forexample,tochangesinemployment,landuse,
andaccess.
4.1 WaterandSanitationFacilities
TheEnvironmentalSettingsectionshouldincludedescriptionsof:
Existingcapacityfordrinkingwater(use,treatment,delivery,desalination)
Waterconservationandreuse
Wastewatercollection,treatment,anddischarge
Waterneedsandplansfor:landscaping,fountains,swimmingpools,watersport/vehicle
washing,laundry,andfirefighting
Managementofnonpointsourcerunoffgeneratedbytheprojectduringconstructionandthe
lifeoftheproject.
TheProjectDescriptionneedstoaddressthedemandsfortheseservicesorresources,howitwas
calculatedandplansforprovidingthemforthetourismproject.
Thequantityofwaterconsumedbytheproposedprojectdependsonthetypeofinfrastructure
installed,aswellasthepracticesimplementedduringtheoperationsphase.Waterconsumptionin
hotelsaroundtheworldrangesbetween2001000litersperguestpernight.TableC6showsthe
internationalbenchmarkforhotels(shownastheGOODcategory).Thisreferenceisbasedonactual
datagatheredinhotels.
TableC6:Waterconsumptionperguestpernight(inliters)
HOTELSIZE
GOOD
ACCEPTABLE
REGULAR
POOR
<50rooms
<439
439507
507583
>583
50150rooms
<583
583678
678806
>806
>150rooms
<666
666856
856980
>980
Source:IUCNTourismGuidelineInternationalHotelsEnvironmentalInitiative,Water
EfficiencyBenchmarks
Forwastewatermanagementpurposes,intheUnitedStatesitisassumedthatestimatedthatatleast90
percentofthewaterconsumedinguestrooms,restaurantsandbarsisreturnedaswastewater.Table
C7showsaveragehoteldailywaterconsumptionandwastewatergenerationinhotelsintheUnited
States.
Incontrast,inEurope,consumptionvariesbetween500litersperguestpernightinDenmarkand200in
theNetherlands.Europeanyouthhostelsaveragebetween93and200liters,whilebedandbreakfast
accommodationsconsumebetween100and200liters(FEMATOUR).Thequantityofwater
requirementswillvaryaccordingtothetypeofhotelanditspolicies.
Asabove,thedetailneededaboutproposedwaterandsanitationfacilitiesiscommensuratewiththe
magnitudeofthedevelopment.Forsmallerscaletourismdevelopmentsthatareconnectingdirectlyto
35
Tourism
existingwaterorsewersystems,adrawingandshortdescriptionofpipelines;areasoftemporaryand
permanentdisturbance;andmeasuresforrestoringdisturbedareastopreconstructionfeaturesmaybe
adequate(ifapermitrequirementexists,thestatusoftheapplicationshouldbeincluded).
TableC7:WaterconsumptionandwastewatergenerationinHotelsintheUnitedStates
WaterConsumption WastewaterGeneration
Source
(liters/guest/day)
(liters/guest/day)
Room(doubleoccupancy)
40
36
Inroomuseonly
230
207
Includinglaundry
Golfcourse
400
Minimal(onlyfromon
courserestroomsifany)
Pool
40
NotAvailable
Restaurant:
36
Restroomsandkitchen 40
6
5
Bar
Source:IUCNTourismGuidelineArchitecturalGraphicStandards,byCharlesGeorge
Ramsey,JohnRay,Jr.Hoke,ISBN9780471348160
Forlargerscaledevelopmentsthatareconnectingtoexistinglines,adiscussionofanyrequiredpermits
shouldaccompanyinformationonconstructionmethods;temporaryandpermanentareasof
disturbance;measuresforreturningdisturbedareastopreconstructionfeatures;contingencyplansand
emergencyresponsemeasuresincasetheexistingsystemmalfunctions.Ifthereisnoformalpermit
applicationprocedure,informationshouldbeprovidedonthecapacityofexistingwaterandsewage
treatmentsystemstoensureitisadequatefortheadditionalinput.
Ifwaterorsanitationfacilitieswillbeprovidedonatemporarybasisforconstructionstaff,theseshould
alsobedescribed.Theprocessfordecommissioningshouldbeincluded.
Fortourismdevelopmentsthatwillconstructtheirownwaterorsanitationsystems,thefollowing
informationshouldbeprovidedintheProposedDesignchapter:
Drawingofwaterandsewerlines,connections,andtreatmentfacilities
Planneduse,treatmentandreuseofgraywater
Location,size,andcapacityofeachstructure,includingtypeoftreatment
Constructionmethodincludingtemporaryplacementoffill
Areasthatwillbetemporarilydisturbedduringconstructionandmeasurestoreclaimthese
areas
Waterusebudgetandplan
Useofgroundwatervs.useofsuppliedwater
Waterconservationplan
Groundwaterresourcesandpotentialcontaminationconcerns
Emergencyresponseandcontainmentmeasuresforleaks
Monitoringandmaintenanceplans
Ifanonsitewellwillbeconstructedtoprovidewaterforthetourismdevelopment,informationonany
permitrequirementsshouldbeprovided.TheinformationneededfortheProposedDesignsection
willdependontheexistenceandtheextentofanyotherpermitrequired.Ingeneral,informationon
36
Tourism
depthtogroundwater,projecteddrawdowns,monitoringandmaintenanceshouldbeprovidedforthe
EIA.
InformationrequirementsforwatermanagementarepresentedinTableC8.
TableC8:Projectdetailsforwaterandsanitation
COMPONENT
Uses
OnsiteWaterSupply
Public/CommunityWater
Supply
WastewaterTreatment
Requirements(m3/day),includingconservationmeasures,andstorageneedsfor:
Rooms
Restaurants/bars
Toiletfacilities
Firefighting
Vehiclewashing
Landscaping
Pools
Fountains
Othernonpotableuses
WaterRights
Sources(surface/groundwater)
Treatment(includingdesalinationplantifproposed)
DistributionWells
Source
Treatmentplantcapacity,expansionorupgraderequirement
Conveyancesystemupgradeandexpansionrequirements
Pipelinelocation,constructionsmanagementandsize
Requirements(m3/day),includingconservationmeasures
Sources
Pretreatment,includinggreaseremovalfromkitchenandfoodresources
Conveyancesystemupgradeandexpansionrequirements
Treatmentsystem
Treatmentplantcapacity,expansionorupgraderequirement
Dischargepoint
Reuseofwastewaterforirrigation,golfcourses,landscapingtoiletflushing,etc.
Constructionsmanagement
4.2 SolidandHazardousWaste
4.2.1 General
Tourismprojectsanduseofresourcesgeneratesolidwastethatneedstobecollectedanddisposedof.
Some,suchasvehiclemaintenance,storageareas,powergeneration,andfuelingfacilities,may
generatehazardouswastesincludingsolvents,lubricants,hydraulicfluids,antifreeze,spenttires,and
washwater.Others,suchaswarehouses,storagebuildingsandfuelingstationsmaystorehazardous
products(fuelsandchemicals).AspresentedinTableC9,intheEIAdetailedsolidandhazardouswaste
managementplansincludingspillpreventionandcontainmentplansarerequired.Thisincludesa
detaileddescriptionofkindandquantitiesofwastes.Thesewastesarenotonlygeneratedfromhotels
andrestaurantsbutalsoincludespoilsdredgedmaterialfromkeepingharborsfreeofsediment,the
maintenanceofgolfcourses,andvisitingcruiseliners.
37
Tourism
TableC9:Projectdetailsforwastemanagement
COMPONENT
SolidWaste
HazardousWaste
Quantity(kg/dayandm3/day),includingwastereductionmeasures
Collection
Separation(ifany)
Disposal
Recycling
Dredgematerialdisposalanddisposalsitemanagement
Preventionofmarinedebrisfromlandbasedandoceanbased
sourcesandnonpointsourcesofpollution
FacilitiesSupport(Maintenance,shopandchemicalmanagement)
Disposalmethod
Spillcontrol,response,andprevention
Golfcoursewastemanagement
Areviewoflikefacilitiesbuiltandoperatedelsewhereisoftenthebesttooltoforecastwaste
productionandimpactsforsolid,liquidandhazardouswastes.Onceinoperation,environmentalaudits
totrackactualwastegeneralareusefultoolsintheEnvironmentalManagementscheme.
Solidwastegeneratedduringconstructionandoperationwilldependonwhatisbuiltandwhere,and
subsequentlywhatwastesaregeneratedasaresultofoperation.Thehospitalityindustrydirected
towardswesternforeignersaspatronsisnotoriousforthevolumesofsolidwastegeneratedpercapita
comparedtolocalresidents.Largeresortcomplexes,transportationhubs(airports,cruiseshipdocks,
marinas,etc.)andthemeparkscanoverwhelmthecapabilitiesoflocalsolidwastefacilities.Accurate
estimationsofthesolidwastevolumesandcategoriesareessentialtoassessimpacts.Waste
generationcalculatorscanassistinforecastingneedsandthusimpactsofsolidwastes.Benchmarking
canbeusedtomeasurewastemanagementagainstdesiredbestintheindustrynorms.TheWorld
WildlifeFederationUKandtheInternationalBusinessLeadersForumhavedevelopedinternational
environmentalbestpracticebenchmarksforthehospitalityindustry(WWFUKandIBLF,2005).)
TheProposedProjectDesignshoulddescribehowwasteswillbemanaged,recycled,anddisposed.It
willincludecontainmentdesignsandemergencyresponseprovisionsforallfacilitiesinwhichhazardous
substanceswillbestoredandhandledaswellasthosethatmaygeneratehazardouswastes.
4.2.2 DredgingWaste
Dredgingoperationsandsedimentplacementistheexcavationofmaterialfromthebedofasea,river
orlakebedandtheplacementoftheexcavatedmaterialelsewhere.Fortourismprojectsitisassociated
withimprovingthenavigabledepthsinports,harborsandshippingchannels.Themanagementof
dredgingsiteplans,dredgingsiteoperations,dredgematerialdredgedmaterialdisposalanddredged
materialdisposalsitesareextremelyimportanttoprotectterrestrial,aquatic,andmarinehabitats.
Carefulevaluationshouldbemadeofthedredgingprojectandappropriateprojectmanagementand
environmentalprotectionmadecleartotheprojectmanagers.Theevaluationofdredgedmaterial
disposalsitesandalternativesshouldalsobeconsideredaspartoftheoverallEIAprocessinorderto
selectsiteswithminimaladverseenvironmentalimpact.Theseinvestigationsshouldinclude
alternativesforthebeneficialreuseofthesedimentsuchasforbeachnourishmentorhabitatcreation.
Disposalsiteselectionintheopenseabeyondthebaselineoftheterritorialseaneedstobeconsidered
inlightoftheLondonProtocolortheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea(UNLOS),
internationaltreatiestowhichmanynationsaresignatory.
38
Tourism
Thefinaldredgingprojectplanshouldinclude:
Quantitiesandqualityofdredgematerialstobeexcavated
Locationofdredgingproject
Proximityofthedredgingprojecttosensitiveareas
Locationofdisposalsites
Proximityofthedisposalareastofloodplains,sensitiveareas(biologicand
cultural/historic/archeological
Proximityofdisposalareastopopulationcenters
Sedimenttopreventproblemsfromoccurringduringtheprojectandaftertheprojecthasbeen
constructed,includingriskassessmentsbiological,physical,geological,chemical,anddisposal
operations.
Siteclearing,includingprotectionofsensitiveterrestrialandaquaticbiologicalresources
4.2.3 CruiseShipWaste
Iftheprojectisacruiseshipterminalorcruiseshipaccessispartofaproposedtourismprojectorasa
sourceofpatronsofconcessionsmightincludethefollowinginformationasrelevant:
Numberandsizeofcruiseshipcapacity
Capacityofshipsanticipatedforterminalintermsofnumberofroomsandtourists
Numberofemployees
Theprojectdescriptionshouldincludeplansforcollecting,storing,anddisposingofsolidandhazardous
wastes.TableC10includesalistofthetypesofwastematerialsgeneratedbylargepassengercruise
ships.Managementofthesewastesbothonshoreandnearshoreisimportanttoreducethe
environmentalimpacttosensitiveecosystems.Organicwastessuchasfoodstuffsmaybedisposedat
seadependingonregulatoryauthoritieswhileotherwastescanbedisposedonshoreinaregulated
landfillorbyincineration.
TableC10:Largepassengercruiseshipwastegenerationanddisposal
Medicalwaste
Oilywaste
Oilfilters
Drycleaningsolvents
Usedsandorbeadblasting
residue
Plastics
Photographicprocessing
chemicals
Batteries
Swimmingpoolchemicals
Miscellaneousspraycans
Cardboardandpaperproducts
PrintercartridgesandeWaste
Oilsludgeandslops
Usedoil
Incineratorresidueandairemissionsfromshipstacks
Paintandsolvents
Foodwastes
Scrapmetals
Fluorescentlightbulbs
Glassware,bottles,andcrockery
Cleaningagents
Expiredmedicines/drugs
Miscellaneousgarbage
Insecticides
Source:ACaliforniaTaskForce(2003)onevaluatingsolidwasteandhazardouswastesfromvessels
4.2.4 Restaurants
Descriptionsofrestaurantsincludedintheproposedproject:
Assumptionsaboutmealsthatwouldbeeatenonsiteorinexistinglocalestablishments
Seatingcapacity
39
Tourism
Assumptionsandplansforaccessfordeliveriesoffoodandsuppliesandmeansof
transportation
Plansforcollectionanddisposalofsolidandhazardouswastesaswellasorganicfoodwastes
Waterandenergysourcesanddemand
4.2.5 OtherSupportFacilities
Supportfacilitiesandactivitiesmayincludepowergenerationandtransmissionfacilities.Thesemaybe
locatedonoroffsite.InformationneedsaredescribedinTableC11.Ifitbecomesclearthatclosure
willberequired,orwhentheprojectnearstheendofitsservicelife,theprojectoperatorshallcontact
theproperregulatoryagency(ies)toobtaintheenvironmentalguidelinestocarryouttheclosureor
decommissioning.Theprojectdescriptionshallincludeatleastageneral.
TableC11:Projectdetailsforenergyfacilities
COMPONENT
PowerSupply
ElectricityDemand,SupplyConservation
OtherEnergyDemand,Supply,Conservation
Locations
Sizes
Lighting
Spillpreventionandcontrol
Emergencypowerneedsforcriticalsiteoperations
Locations
Sizes
Lighting
OfficeLocationandsize
Restrooms
Consumption,includingenergyconservationmeasures
Sourceoffsite
Transmissionlines(ifnecessary)
Substation(ifnecessary)
Onsitepowergenerationpower
Type
Emissionsandnoisecontrols(ifapplicable)
Onsitedistribution(routes,overheadorburied)
Fuelingstationswithspillpreventionandcontrol
5 PROJECTALTERNATIVES
TheProjectandAlternativesDescriptionsectionoftheEIAshouldprovideInformationontheproposed
projectandalternativessufficientnotonlytodescribehowtheymeetthepurposeandneedbutasa
basisforidentifyingandassessingtheirimpact(s).Thisprojectdescriptionshouldincludethenature,
sizeandtypeofprojectandallrelatedfacilitiesandactivities,itsoveralldesign,construction,operation,
sitedesignandlandarea,subsequentanticipatedexpansionandclosureaswellastheprofileofdirect
releasesintotheenvironment,employment,resourceandwastestreams,relatedtransportation,
energy,communications,publichealthandsafetyinfrastructureandthelike,whichareelaborated
below.AdditionaldetailontourismprojectsisprovidedinAppendixA.
40
Tourism
5.1 IdentificationandAssessment
Analyzingalternativesisimportanttoexploring
opportunitiestoavoidenvironmental,socialand
economicconcernsratherthanjustmitigatethem
foraspecificproposal.Alternativesareparticularly
importantgiventhesignificantpotentialimpactsof
tourismprojects.Alternativesshouldinclude:
Noactionalternative:whathappensin
absenceoftheproposedactions
AlternativeProject
o Alternativeprojectatanotherlocation
Modifiedproject
o Alternativesize
o AlternativeTimingandsequencingofthe
project
o Alternativelocation/sites
o Alternativesitedesign/facilitydesignoruse
o Alternativewater,wastewater
Considerationofalternativesistheheartof
theEIAprocessandisarequirementofmany
countryEIAlawsandprocedurestofoster
sustainabledevelopmentandimproved
decisionmakingtoreconcileeconomic,
environmentalandsocialconcerns.This
requirementtoconsideralternativesonly
pertainstoeconomicallyandtechnically
feasiblealternativesandusuallyonlyasubset
ofalternativesconsideredwouldbetakento
fullanalysisofimpactsasneededtoaddress
identifiedissues.NoActionOngoingactivities
intheanalysisareawouldcontinuetoaffect
theenvironment.Projectalternativesoffer
opportunitiestoavoidorreduceadverse
environmental,socialandeconomicimpactsof
theproject.GiventhepublicparticipationrequirementsoftheEIAprocess,itisalsoimportantforthe
projectproponenttosolicitpubliccommentontheproposedalternativesanalysis.
Thereareseveralissuestoconsiderindeterminingthescopeofalternativesthatwillneedtobe
addressed.AllEIAsfortourismprojectsshouldinclude:
NoActionAlternative:theanalysisofthenoactionalternativewhichrepresentsthereasonable
impacts,projectedintothefuture,ofnottakingtheproposedaction.Whatwouldhappenin
thefutureiftheproposedprojectoractionisnotapprovedorwithdrawn?
Reasonabletechnicallyandeconomicallyfeasibleprojectoptionsthatwouldreducepotential
adverseenvironmentalandsocioeconomicimpactssuchasalternativedesigns,technology,site
designandfacilitydesignoptionsfortheprojectlocationincludingproposalsbystakeholders,
formodificationsornewprojectoptionsposinglowerimpact.
Projectdescriptionsforalternativesshouldbeofsufficientdetailtoassessrelativeimpactonthe
environmentandsupportanyconclusionsaboutwhythealternativemayhavebeenselectedorrejected
andtheprojectproponentandgovernmentreviewerhashadtheopportunitytoconsiderwhether
feasiblealternativescanachievethepurposeandneedinamannerwhichbetterachievessustainable
developmentgoals.
5.2 TypesofAlternativesforTourismDevelopment
5.2.1 NoActionAlternative
Thisalternativeprovidesthebaselineagainstwhichimpactsoftheotheranalyzedalternativesare
compared.Itcanmeaneitherdoingnothingormaintainingthestatusquo.Foraproposednewfacility
orprojectitmeansthattheproposedactivitywouldnottakeplace.Itcanalsomeanphasingout
certainactivities.Theremaybemorethanoneversionofanoactionalternative.Anoaction
alternativemayormaynotbeareasonableresultoftheEIAprocess.Thiscouldalsopertaintospecific
aspectsofaproposedproject.
41
Tourism
5.2.2 AlternateProjectSite
Alternativesitelocationsshouldbeconsideredwhilecontinuingtorealizetheobjectivesofthetourist
activity,particularlysiteswhichavoidorminimizeadverseimpactsonphysical,biologicalandsocial
economicculturalresources.Thiswillrequireanunderstandingoflandownership,proximityto
attractions,andothereconomicconsiderations.Indoingso,concernshouldbegivento
environmentallysensitiveareas.Analternativesitemightalsoprovetobebeneficialtobetterutilize
existinginfrastructureortoavoidincreasingrisksofmarineorriverbankfloodingrelatedtoclimate
change.
5.2.3 AlternativeSiteConfigurationDesign
Resortsandassociateddevelopmentsareusuallyclassifiedashighimpact(IUCN,2009).Theyusually
involvedlargeareasoflandthatmayormaynothaveenvironmentallysensitiveareas.Alternativesmay
includechangestothesiteconfigurationorlayoutofasitetoprotectwildlifehabitat,mangroves,
waterways,andothersensitiveareassothatbufferzonescanbedevelopedorareascanbeprotected
toreduceoreliminatepotentialadverseimpacts,forexample,fromerosion,mudslides,flooding
threats.Differentsiteconfigurationsmayaddressconcernsofthelocalpopulationoverissueslike
visual,lightandnoiseimpacts.Proposeddevelopmentofmanmadebeaches,suchaspocketbeaches,
mayhavealternativelocationsandconfigurationswhichcanminimizeimpactonbeachsanddeposition
orerosion.IntheEIA,suchalternativesshouldbeevaluated.AsdescribedinSectionF,various
configurationscanbeevaluatedusingcomputersimulations.
Inaddition,variousalternativesfor
GREENBUILDING
harborandportdesignaretobe
Greenbuilding(alsoknownasgreenconstructionor
evaluatedfortheEIA.Theseincludebut
sustainablebuilding)referstoastructureandusing
notlimitedto:
processthatisenvironmentallyresponsibleandresource
efficientthroughoutabuilding'slifecycle:fromsitingto
UseAlternativestouseofjetties
design,construction,operation,maintenance,renovation,
andbreakwaters.
anddemolition.Thispracticeexpandsandcomplements
ChannelAlternativestoany
theclassicalbuildingdesignconcernsofeconomy,utility,
proposedchanneldesignand
durability,andcomfort.Althoughnewtechnologiesare
dredgingrequirements
constantlybeingdevelopedtocomplementcurrent
UseAlternativestotheuseof
practicesincreatinggreenerstructures,thecommon
fishingpiers
objectiveisthatgreenbuildingsaredesignedtoreduce
Alternativelocationsof
theoverallimpactofthebuiltenvironmentonhuman
healthandthenaturalenvironmentby:
concessions
Efficientlyusingenergy,water,andotherresources
Mooringalternativesand
Protectingoccupanthealthandimprovingemployee
alternativemooringdockingareas
productivity
Alternativesforproposedcanals
Reducingwaste,pollutionandenvironmental
DebarkationAlternativesfor
degradation.
embarkationareasaccessibility
Asimilarconceptisnaturalbuildingwhichisusuallyona
forphysicallydisabled
smallerscaleandtendstofocusontheuseofnatural
Locationofparkinglots,office,
materialsthatareavailablelocally.Otherrelatedtopics
andtoilets
includesustainabledesignandgreenarchitecture.
Sustainabilitymaybedefinedasmeetingtheneedsof
Alternativeusedrystackingto
presentgenerationswithoutcompromisingtheabilityof
storeboats
futuregenerationstomeettheirneeds.
Considerationsforprotection
fromstorms
Source:USEPA(2009)andHopkins(2002)extractedfrom
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_building
42
Tourism
Alternativelocationsforpathways,trails,andoffroadvehicleuse
Alternativedesign,locations,andconstructionofconcessionstands
5.2.4 ConstructionMaterialsandMethods
IntheEIA,theselectionofbuildingmaterialsistobediscussedindetailed.Aspotentialalternatives
discussedinclude:
Greenbuildingconcepts
Notusingchemicallytreatedwood
Useofporousmaterialsforsurfacingparkinglots
Minimizationoflanddisturbanceforquarryingaggregate
Useofwoodthatisinabundantsupplyandfromrapidlygrowingtrees(bamboo)
5.2.5 SmallerScaledProject
Analternatetothepreferredalternativemaybetobuildasimilarfacilityonlysmallerlessactivebeach
front,fewerrooms,feweramenitiessuchasthenumberofpoolsandgolfcourses,smallerparkinglots,
useofsatelliteparking,etc.Smallerdevelopmentswithsmallerhotels,smallerparkinglots,andother
facilitiesmightbealsoconsideredasanalternative.
5.2.6 ConstructionSequencing
Initialconstructionsequencingshouldbepresented,includingtheschedulingofconstructionforthe
variouscomponentsoftheprojectincludingroads,repairshops,warehousesandothersupport
facilities,powersourcesandtransmissionlines,watersourcesandconveyancesetc.Bestpractice
alternativesshouldbepresentedtominimizeimpacttonearbyresidents,wildlife(intermsofnoise,
light,andobstruction).Itshouldalsobedoneinregardofseasonalfluctuations(rainyanddryseason)
withmostworkbeingcompletedifpossibleduringdriermonths.
5.2.7 NonStructuralAlternatives
ManyStructuralalternativesareoftenproposedforaddressingfloodrisksandbeacherosion,however,
thereareoftennonstructuralalternativeswhicharenotonlylesscostlybutalsopotentiallymore
effective.Forsensitiveecosystemssuchaswetlands,floodplains,mangroves,andbeachesincoastal
areas,structuralchangescanhavecascadingimpactswhichcanevenexacerbateorunderminethe
purposeforwhichstructuralchangeswereintroduced.Forexample,manyresortsarebuiltin
relationshiptooceanfrontareasandbeachesplayacriticalroleinofferingrecreationalactivities.Inthe
EIA,alternativesaretobediscussedastowaysthatbeachdevelopedinasafeandenvironmentally
soundmannerincludingaccesstothebeachesprotectionofsanddunes,andsensitiveareaswith
stabilizingvegetation,andprotectionofnearshore,aquaticormarinehabitats(i.e.,seagrassbeds,
lagoons,river/estuaries,patchreefsorfringingreefsinshallowwater,mangroveforests,etc.),suchas
seagrasses.
Onoccasion,beachesareconstructedwithsandhauledinfromotherlocationsorremovalofexisting
landscapetoprovideimprovedaccesstothebeach.Thesearesometimesreferredtoaspocket
beaches.Foranysuchbeachsidetourismdevelopment,variousalternativesforthefollowingshould
bediscussedindetailasappropriate:
Alternativestoproposalsfornewbeachconstruction(useofpocketbeaches)andpotential
impactonexistingaquaticormarinehabitatsthataresensitivetosmotheringbybeacherosion
Alternativestoanyproposeddredgingforsandtodevelopbeaches
43
Tourism
Alternativestoproposalsforshorelineprotection(useofpiers,jetties,etc.)shouldbe
consideredandplannedcarefullyafterageologicalevaluationoftheproposedprojectbecause
theconstructionmaydisturbtheriverofsandandaffectupcoastordowncoastbeachareas
orsensitivenearshorehabitatsthrougherosion,accretion,orsmotheringbysand
Alternativestomethodsofdredging
Alternativestoshorelineprotection(useofpiers,jetties,etc.)
Alternativemethodsforsandduneprotection(fencing,vegetation,etc.)
Alternativestogolfdesignandlocation,suchasgolfcoursedevelopmentnearoceanfront
beaches
Alternativestoanyproposalsfordredging,solidwaste,debris,andtrashcontrolandremoval
5.3 AlternativeEnvironmentalManagementandControl
5.3.1 WastewaterManagement
AsstatedinIUCN(2009),atouristbusinesswastewaterconsistsoftheeffluentfromtoilets,showers,
andwashstands,aswellaskitchenandlaundryfacilities.Toileteffluentsarecalledsewage,whilethe
othersarecalledgrayorsoapywater.Sewagecontainsbacteriathatareharmfulforhealth,whilegray
waterscontainsoap,detergent,chlorine,fat,andfoodresidues.Bothneedtreatment;however,many
companiesdonottreatgraywatersproperly.Moreover,poolwatercontainschlorine,andwaterfrom
greenareasmaycontainpesticidesandfertilizers.
Onealternativeisforatouristdevelopmentisforittohookuptoavailablewastewatertreatment
systemssuchasacitys.Thisisnotwithoutanimpactforseweragepipelineswouldbedevelopedto
meetmaintrunklinesproducingpotentialimpactsduetoconstructionactivities.Moreoftenthannota
resortwoulddevelopitsownsystem.Thedesignofasystemcouldbesimpleorcomplexbutshouldbe
designedtopreventharmfulbacteria(pathogens),nutrients,andunwantedchemicalsfromentering
groundwaterorwaterways.IntheEIA,alternativewastewatertreatmentshouldbeconsidered.These
alternativesinclude:
Removingfats,oils,grease,andotherfoodresiduesfromthegraywaterusingatrap.
Havingthewatersflowintoatankwherethesolidssinktothebottom(septictank).
Usingsealedprocesses(anaerobictreatment)oraeratedprocesses(aerobictreatment)inthe
water,makebiogasgeneratorbiodigestersfortheorganicmatter.
Filtering.
Primarysettlinginanoxidationpond.
Aseriesoflagoontreatmentponds,andfilteringthroughaconstructedwetlandbefore
dischargetotheocean.
Moresophisticatedmethodsusingsecondarytreatmentwithchlorine/dechlorination,ozone,or
someotherprocesskillinganyremainingbacteriaorviruses.
AccordingtoIUCN(2009),themaindecisiontobemadeduringthedesignstageisaboutthetypeof
watertreatmentneeded.Wheneverthereisanabsenceofmunicipalwatertreatment,thecompany
wouldgenerallyneedtobuilditsowntreatmentplant,bothforsewageandgraywatersdepending
uponthesizeandlocationoftheproject.Forlargeprojects,twooptionsareavailable:aerobicor
anaerobicplants.Aerobicplantsrequireanoxidationpondwitheitherairoroxygeninjection,andwith
constantenergyconsumptionofabout1KWormore.Largeanaerobicplantsmayuseaprocessknown
inCentralAmericaasUASB(UpflowAnaerobicSludgeBlanketReactor),whichdoesnotrequire
electricity;inaddition,thisprocessproducesmethanegasthatmaybeusedasfuelitselforutilizedin
44
Tourism
ordertogenerateelectricity.Theoperationcostsofanaerobicplantsarelowerintropicalclimatesthan
aerobicplants,andtheyproduceonlyafourthofthesludge.ThequalityofaUASBplanteffluenttends
tobebetterthanthatofaerobicplants.Thedesignandconstructionofatreatmentplantrequiresthe
servicesofexperts.Formoreinformation,visitwww.uasb.org/index.htm#TOCor
www.monografias.com/trabajos10/tratami/tratami.shtml.
5.3.2 Solidwastemanagement
Wastereductionisanimportantaspectofsolidwastemanagement.Inaddition,recyclingitemssuchas
newspapers,aluminumcans,bottles,plastic,andothermaterialscangoalongwayinreducingcosts.If
possible,itisalsogoodtoreuseitemssuchassoftdrinkbottlesbyreturningthem.Finally,organic
wastecanbecompostedandturnedintofertilizerwithbiogasasabyproductwithcouldbeusedfor
energyproduction.
InthedevelopmentofanEIA,severalalternativesneedtobeevaluated.Theseinclude:
Wastereduction(recycling,reuse,etc.)
Constructionofonsitelandfill(withevaluationofseveralsitelocationsandstrictmanagement
topreventstormwaterandnonpointsourcerunoffofsolidwasteorfluids.)
Transporttoanoffsitemunicipallandfillsite
Sitelittermanagement(locationsofreceptacles,etc.)andcleanupofmarinedebris
Petwastecontrol
AnexampleofastructurewhichcanbeusedtomanagesolidwasteispresentedinFigureC1.
FigureC1:Infrastructuretostoresolidwaste
Mesh
Metalmesh
cover
Metal
structure
Fenceorwall
Liddedrecyclingbins
Curbfor
rainwater
ORGANIC
WASTE
PAPER&
CARDBOARD
PLASTIC &
GLASS
SPECIAL
WASTES
Cement
floor
Source:Astorga,Allan(2006),Guaambientalcentroamericanaparaelsectordedesarrollodeinfraestructuraurbana,
UICN/ORMA,SanJos,CostaRica.
5.3.3 HazardousWasteManagement
AccordingtoIUCN(2009),resorts,marinas,ports,andothertourismactivitiesalthoughminimal
producetoxicandhazardoussubstancessuchaspaint,insecticides,pesticides,woodpreservatives,
45
Tourism
swimmingpooldisinfectants,andfuel(aswellastheircontainers),inadditiontocomputermonitors
andcircuits,fluorescentbulbs,andnickelcadmiumbatteries(NiCdorNiCad),andautomobilebatteries
arealltoxicwastesrequiringspecialstoringandpickupsystems.Unfortunately,thistypeofserviceis
notavailableinmanypartsoftheregion.Alternativesshouldbedevelopedforthemanagement,
storageandplacementofmaterialwithspillpreventionandcontrolplansinplace.Thesealternatives
shouldhaveemergencymeasuresinplacewithproperpersonnelprotectionforemployees.
5.3.4 NoiseandLightManagement
Excessivelightandnoisecandisturbneighbors,patrons,andwildlife(IUNC).Alternativesshouldbe
developedintheEIAtolimittheimpactofsuchdisturbances.Thesealternativescaninclude:
Theplacementofrestaurants,discos,partyareas,etc.awayfromprotectiveareasandguests
Useofsoundproofbuildings
Shieldlightingsystems
Useoflightreductioncurtainsinrooms
Limitinghoursofoperation,perhapswiththeuseoftimers
5.3.5 WaterDrainageandStormwaterManagement
Managingstormwaterproperlycanreduceerosionandinflowofsedimentandchemicalsinto
waterways.Sincestormwatermanagementisacrosscuttingissueforconstructionandoperationofa
resortandothertouristfacilityinformationontheprojectdesignshouldprovidealternativesfordesign,
constructionandmaintenanceofappropriatewatercontrolmeasuresincludingprotectionofnatural
streams,rivers,aquifers,andotherwaterbodies;collectionditches,sedimentationponds,diversions,
andculverts;andactivitiesthatwouldminimizeerosionandsedimentation.Thedesignshouldaddress
runon,runoffandseepage.Thetypeofinformationthatshouldbeprovidedforeachtypeoffacilityis
detailedineachsubsection.
5.3.6 SedimentandWaterControlFacilities
Locationofallfacilitiesalternativestoprotectsensitiveareasandbeenvironmentallyfriendly
Ananalysisshowingthatthesmallestamountoflandaspossiblewillbedisturbedatonetime
andpotentialalternatives
Alternativemethodstoreducerunoff,runon,sedimentationanderosionuseofnaturaland
constructedmethodstoreducerunoff
Alternativemethodsofretainingsediment
Alternativemethodsfordivertingrunofffromthedisturbedareas
Alternativemethodsfordivertingsurfacewater,includingstormwater,aroundthedisturbed
area
Alternativemethodsforpreventingseepage
Alternativemethodsfortreatingandmaintainingroadsforreducingrunoff,erosion,anddust
Allsupportingengineeringdesigns,methodologyandjustificationforselectingtheappropriate
methodologyoveralternatives
Alternativemethodsforclosureandrestoration
Monitoringandmaintenanceplans
5.3.7 TemporaryPondsandPermanentImpoundments
Numberofeachtypeofimpoundmentshowingalternativelocations
Location,sizeandcapacityofeachstructureevaluatingpotentialalternatives
46
Tourism
Alternativematerialstobeused,anditssource
Alternativedesignswithdesigncriteriaandjustification
Alternativesforwaterdischargetreatmentfacilities
Monitoringandmaintenanceprograms
5.3.8 Culverts,DikesandDiversions
Numberofeachtypeofstructurewithalternatives
Locationandsizeofeachstructure
Alternativemethodsfordesign
Alternativeconstructionmethods:cuts,fills,materialsandtheirsources,compaction
Timingofconstruction
5.3.9 GroundwaterManagement
Alternativewelllocations(awayfromtheseaandsensitiveareas)
Alternativemethodstoreducepumpingrates(waterconservation,wellfieldmanagement)
Alternativewellplacementordepthtoimprovewaterchemistryandreducewatertreatment
requirements
Useofwellfieldmanagementtoolstooptimizewellplacementgroundwatermodeland
projecteddrawdowns
6 ManpowerandLocalPurchases
Theprojectdescriptionshouldpresentinformationonthenumberandtypeofemployeesthatwillbe
hiredbytheproject,duringallphasesofitslife,andthelevelatwhichtheprojectwillberelyingupon
localbusinessestoprovidegoodsandservices.Thisinformationisnecessaryforassessingthesocial
impactsoftheproposedproject.Forbothconstructionandoperation,thisinformationshouldinclude:
Numberandtypeofemployees(bylocalhireandnonlocalhire)byfieldofexpertise,skilledand
unskilled
Daysperweek
Hoursperday
Shiftsperday
Inventoryofneededconstructionmaterialsandtheiravailable,local,licensedquarries,gravelpitsand
othermaterialsuppliersshouldbeitemized.Ifemployeehousingwillbeprovided,thisshouldbe
describedaspartofthediscussiononancillary/supportfeatures.Thisinformationisnecessaryfor
assessingthesocialimpactsoftheproposeddevelopment.
7 Closure
Theprojectdescriptionshouldincludeatleastageneralclosureanddecommissioningplandescribing
theplanforclosing,restoration,abandonmentorreuseoftheprojectorfacilities,themachineryand
structures,andrestoringthelandsurface.Theplanshouldcontainacommitmenttocontacttheproper
regulatoryagency(ies)beforethetimeofclosuretoobtaintheenvironmentalapplicableguidelinesto
47
Tourism
carryouttheclosureordecommissioning,recognizingthattermsofclosuremaybeverydifferentwhen
thisphaseapproaches.
Restoration,ReuseandClosurePlan,recognizingthattermsofclosuremaybeverydifferentwhenthis
phaseapproaches.Thedescriptionofrestorationmeasuresshouldincludethesizeoftheareatobe
restoredaswellasconcurrent,temporaryandfinalrestorationmeasurestobeusedandtheir
schedules.Foreachmeasureinclude:
Areatobeaddressed
Timingandscheduleforexecutingmeasures
Equipmentandstructureremovalorconversion
Remedialmeasures,includingsuccessindicatorsandcontingencymeasuresifinitialeffortsare
unsuccessful
Plansforreuseofallorpartsoftheproposedproject.Thedescriptionofplansforreuseshould
includethesizeoftheareatobereused(thewholeorpartially)aswellasconcurrent,
temporaryandfinalrestoration(ifapplies)measurestobeusedandtheirschedulesanda
restorationandclosureplanincasethereusealternativenolongerapplies.Foreachprobable
reuseinclude:
o Areatobeaddressed
o Possibleentitiesinterestedintheproperty
o Narrativeofeachpossibleuse
o Timingofwhichtheareamightremaininactivewhilewaitingforthedefinitivereuseplans
o Commitmenttoperformrestorationandclosureplaniftheinitialeffortsforreuseare
unsuccessful
48
Tourism
D.ENVIRONMENTALSETTING
D. ENVIRONMENTALSETTING
1 INTRODUCTION
Adetaileddescriptionofthe
EnvironmentalSettingforatourism
ENVIRONMENTALSETTING
Inordertopredictpotentialimpactsofatourismprojectitis
projectisanimportantaspectofan
EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA).It importanttohavedetailedinformationontheEnvironmental
Settingtoprovidebaselineconditionsforthe:
providesanenvironmental,socioeconomic
Physicalenvironment,
andculturalbaselineforassessmentof
Biologicalenvironment,and
impactsbydescribingtheexisting
Socioeconomicandculturalenvironment.
conditionsandthosethatarepredictedfor
ThedetailsonhoweachoftheseisaddressedintheEIAare
thefutureintheabsenceoftheproposed
dependentonthecomplexityofthearea,thenatureofthe
project.Theinformationpresentedinthe
operation(smallorlarge,inanurbanenvironmentorrural,
EnvironmentalSettingshouldnotbe
landorwater,concessionaireorfixedbase,etc.),socialissues
encyclopedic,butrathershouldinclude
andregulatoryrequirements.Theperiodofbaselinedata
thespecific,detailedinformationthatis
collectionforwaterresources,air,climate,andecosystems
necessarytopredictimpactsand
(flora,fauna,wildlife,etc.)mustbesignificantenoughsothat
ultimatelyagainstwhichtomonitor
determinationoflongtermimpactscanbemadeandmay
impacts.Thissectionshouldincludean
requiredatatobecollectedoveraperiodofonetofiveyears.
environmentalbaselineofwhatwould
Specialemphasisforbaselinestudiesdependsonthenature
existintheabsenceoftheproposed
oftheproposedproject.Forexampleaproposedresortwitha
projectforthephysical,biologicaland
golfcoursewouldevaluatearcheologicalresourcesmore
socialeconomicculturalenvironments
thoroughlythanaproposedpierforasmalldivingconcession
thatcouldbeaffectedbythealternatives
duetothenatureandextentofthegrounddisturbing
underconsideration,takingintoaccount
activities.
boththecurrentsituationandimportant
trends.WhatisincludedineachofthesethreeenvironmentsissummarizedinTableD1.Thescopeof
thespecificinformationrequiredtodescribeeachtypeofenvironmentwillvarywithtypeandsettingof
theprojectaswellasthetypicaltypesofimpactswithwhichitisassociatedwitheachtypeofproject.
Thisbaselineaidsinfocusingattentiononthecriticalenvironmentalandsocioeconomicfactors,how
theprojectmightaffectthem,andhowbesttoavoidormitigatepotentialproblems.Inaddition,the
descriptionofboththecurrentenvironmentandpredictedconditionsintheabsenceoftheproposed
projectaidsinthedeterminationofpotentialcumulativeenvironmentalimpactsthatmightoccur
shouldtherebeotherimpactcausingactivitiestothosesameresources.
Anynewcollectionofdataforabaselineenvironmentalsettingrequirestheinvolvementofappropriate
expertsfollowingscientificallyacceptedmethodsandspecificallydesignedsamplingandmonitoring
plans.ThisprocessshouldbedocumentedintheEIA.Insomeinstancesplansforcountriesmayrequire
thatmonitoringmayrequireandspecificsamplingplansundergoreviewandapprovalbyEIAreview
officialspriortoexecution.Itisacautionarynotetoprojectproponentsandconsultantspreparingan
EIAthattheneedforanysuchmonitoringbeestablishedandagreedtobytheEIAreviewingauthority
wellinadvancesoasnottocreatedelaysindevelopingtheEIA.
49
Tourism
TableD1:Elementsofthephysicalbiologicalandsocialeconomicculturalenvironments
GeologyandSoils
Topopgraphyandslopes
Soilquality,stability(includeserosionhazardssusceptibilitytolandslideslandslides)
Seismology/volcanologyandsusceptibilitytoearthquakes,developmentoffaults,cracks,
orgroundmovementfromseismiceventsandvolcaniceruptions
Mineralandcontructionmaterialtypesandsources
Paleontologicalresources
Uniquegeologicalformations
PhysicalEnvironment
FreshwaterResources
SurfaceWater(andfloodpotential)
Watersheds
Groundwater(waterlevels,aquifercharacteristics,rechargezones,flowdirection,etc.)
WaterQuality
WaterQuantity
MarineWaterResources
Physicaloceanography
Geologicaloceanography
Marinewaterqualityinrelationto:contactrecreation,noncontactrecreation,andbaseline
waterchemistry(totalN,totalP,biologicaloxygendemand,suspendedsolidsand
sediment,pH,E.coli,Enterococcussp.,andfaecalcoliformbacteriaconcentrations)
AirandClimate
Meteorology(includesregionalandlocalandsusceptabilitytostormsandtidalsurges)
AmbientAirQuality(includeslevels,visibilityanddepositionpatterns)
ExistingEmissions(includes:onshorevehicles;recreationalvessels,commercialvessels,
andcruiseships;onshoredieselgeneratorsatthefacility;cookingfacilities;wastewater
treatmentfacilities;nearbyrecreational,commercialorindustrialfacilities;acidrain;and
cropburning)
NoiseandVibration
AestheticResources
Riskassessmentrelatedtonaturaldisasters(includingfloods,landslides,erosion,hurricaines,
drought,earthquakes,tsunamis,volcanoes,andothertrendsanddangersrelatedtoclimatic
change)
50
Tourism
BiologicalEnvironment
Terrestrialandmarineflora(especiallymangroveforestsandseagrassbeds)
Terrestrialandmarinefauna(especiallyalltypesofcoralreefs(e.g.,fringing,patch,bank,
barrier,etc,),shellfishbeds,nurseryareasforfisheries,localfishingareas)
Ecosystems(terrestrial,wetlands,aquatic,andmarine)
KeytrendsinstructureandfunctionsnotcapturedunderFloraandFauna
SensitiveEcosystems
EcosystemServices
EndangeredorThreatenedSpecies,SpeciesofConcern,andHabitats
ProtectedAreas
SocioeconomicConditionandResources
SocialEconomicCulturalEnvironment
Population
Economy
SocialCharacteristics
Health
Safetyandemergencyresponse(e.g.,rangeofnaturaldisasters,oilorhazardousmaterial
spills,beachcleanupanddebrisremoval,dangerousoceancurrents,dangerousriver
currents,underwaterobstructionsthatmayaffectboating,knowncontaminatedareason
landorinaquaticormarineareas)
Education
VulnerablePopulations(indigenouspeoples,minorityandlowincomepopulations)
Infrastructure
Transportation
PublicHealth(potablewatersupply,waterandwastewatertreatment,solidandhazardous
wastemanagement)
Communications
Energy
Cultural,Archeological,CeremonialandHistoricResources
WorldHeritageandculturalsites
Historicandarcheologicalsites(Landandunderwatersites)
LandUse(Actualandpotentiallanduse)
Agriculture,forestedlands,watersheds,wetlands)
Recreationandtourism(recreationalboatingareas;swimming,divingandsnorkelingareas;
beachareas;hikingandtrailareas;shipwrecksandunderwaterarchaeologicalorhistorical
sites;etc.)
Housing
o CommercialandindustrialdevelopmentPopulationcentersScientificresearchand
educationaluseareas
51
Tourism
2 PHYSICALENVIRONMENT
2.1 GeologyandSoils
Documentationofgeology,soilsandtopographyatthetourismsiteshouldbepresentedinthe
EnvironmentalSettinginnarrativeandtabularform,crosssections,andonmapsonwhich
potentialimpactscanbeoverlaid.Informationongeology,soilsandtopographyistypically
availablefromtheresponsibleministriesandacademia.Asitespecificsoilsurveyandtestmay
berequiredifsuchdataisnotreliable,adequateorreadilyavailable.Someofthespecificareas
thatshouldbeincludedare:
Regionalgeologyshouldbeaddressedintermsofandpaleontologicalresources.
Identificationandcharacterizationofgeological,geophysicalandstratigraphicprofiles,faults,
andstructures.Apreliminaryleveltocharacterizetheseismicconditions.
Characterizesurfacefeaturesandmorphogenicprocessesoperatinginthestudyarea.
Topographicalcharacterization
Summarytableofsoilpropertiesestimatingquantities,depth,areaandtypeofsoilremoval
and/orrecommendedreplacementmaterial.Includemechanicalpropertiesofsoils.Identifythe
availablesourcesofmaterialsused.
Characterizeandmaprepresentlandunitsrepresentingthestudyarea.Analyzecurrentand
potentialusesofsoilinthestudy.Carryoutpreliminaryagrologicalqualitysoilforareasof
study.
Methodologyofsamplingandtestsandtheirrespectivedepths.Conclusionsand
recommendationsspecifictotheprojectinengineeringterms,loadcapacityoftheland.
2.1.1 TopographyandSlopes
Itisimportanttoaathoroughunderstandingofthetopographyandslopestabilityofatourismsite.This
isimportantintermsofpredictingrunoffcharacteristicsofrainfallevents,intheidentificationof
geologichazards,andthestabilityofbuildingsshouldaneventsuchasanearthquakeoccur.
2.1.2 SoilQualityandErosionPotential
Soilqualityisimportantinbothasapotentialfactorinagriculturalproductivityandpotentialfunctionin
itsstabilitycharacteristicsforsupportingtheconstructionofnewfacilities.Manytourismprojectshave
thepotentialtomodifyrunoffandsedimentation,soitisimportantthatenoughsoildataareprovided
sothatrunoffandsedimenttransportmodelscanprovidemeaningfulresults.
Duringbaselinedatacollection,itisimportanttocollectinformationontheerosionpotentialofthe
soils,thechemicalcompositionofeachsoiltype,andtheavailabilityandsuitabilityofsoilsforuse
duringrestorationandrevegetation.Ifasoilsurveyisnecessary,itshouldinclude:
Soiltype
Grainsizedistribution,
Engineeringpropertiesincludingstability
Depthofvarioushorizons
Permeability
Erosionandsedimentationpotential
Currentlanduses
Soilmapunitsrepresentingthestudyarea
Currentandpotentialusesofsoilinthestudyareas
52
Tourism
Preliminaryagriculturalsoilquality:fertility,vegetativegrowthpotential,etc.
Particularcareshouldbegiventostudyingtropicalsoilstructureandchemistrysincesuchsoilsarevery
sensitivetodegradation.
2.1.3 GeologicHazards
Tourismactivitiescanoftentakeplaceinregionspronetonaturalhazards.Seismicactivity,including
frequencyandintensityofearthquakesandtremors,shouldbeincludedinthissubsection,particularly
forprojectsthatincludelargestructures.Ifthetourismsiteorrightofwayislocatedwithinaradiusof
30kmfromanactivevolcanicemissioncenter,informationshouldalsobepresentedonthegeneral
volcanicfeaturesoftheareanearthesite,historicaleruptions,andperiodofrecurrence,typeof
eruptions,andareasmostlikelytobeaffectedbyeruptions.
Inaddition,tsunamiscausedbyearthquakesevenseveralthousandkilometersawaycangenerate
wavesthatcancauseseveredamagetobeaches,infrastructure,dwellings,andbuildings.Inthe
planningprocessconsiderationshouldbegivenindefiningthoseareawhicharepronetobeaffectedby
largewavesandpotentiallyaffectedareasshouldbedelineated.
2.1.4 BeachesandCoastalAreas
Beachesareamajorattractionfortouristactivitiesandcanvarygreatlyinqualityofthesand,roughness
ofthesurf,seasonalerosionofthesandandtrends,whethertheyarerockyanddifficulttoaccessor
easytoaccess.Theseasonalwavedirectionandtrendsinbeacherosionaretiedtometeorological
disturbancesandseasonalchangesinoceancurrentsaswellasthenaturalcontoursoftheoceanfloor
(includingcoralreefsorsandyareas)belowthesurface.Thisinformationshouldbeclearlypresented,
andinappropriatedetailforprojectswhichwillutilizethisresourceandinparticularforthoseprojects
thatincludeproposalsforthedevelopmentofanydredgingoperations,jetties,piles,docks,marinasetc
whichcanaltercoastaloceancurrentpatterns.Ifanystructuralactivitiesareproposedforshore
stabilitizationitisimportantthattheEIAalsoexplorenonstructuralshorestabilizationmeasures
becauseoftheexperienceofsuchstructurescreatingtheirownbeacherosionanddestabilizationin
adjacentandnearbylocations.
Forthemarinecoastalenvironmentproject,thebathymetryandsubstrateconditionsarecriticalto
constructionandoperationsandforassessingimpacts.Additionally,seasonalcurrentsandwave
patternsshouldbeaccountedforindesignandaffecttheinwater,overwaterandnearshoreland
basedconstruction.
2.1.5 UniqueGeologicalFormations
Uniquegeologicalgeologicalformationsshouldbeidentifiedintermsoftheirbiological,historicor
futuredestinationbytouristsandparticularsensitivitiesforsustainingtheirintegrityandvalues.Among
theseareunderwaterandabovegroundcaves,geothermalsourceswhichhaveprovidedthesourceof
hotwatersaunasandbathes,aswellasenergy,andthetypesofcoralreefs(fringing,patch,bankor
barrier)andtheirassociatedecosystemcomponents.
2.2 WaterResources
2.2.1 SurfaceWater
TheEnvironmentalSettingsectionshouldincludeanevaluationofsurfacewaterresourcesintheareaof
influenceoftheproject.AreaofinfluenceisdefinedfurtherinChapterF,AssessingImpacts.This
53
Tourism
shouldincludetheanalysisofthewatershedcharacteristicsincludingwaterquality,flowcharacteristics,
soils,vegetation,andimperviouscover(seeboxbelow).Thisinformationshouldbeshownon
topographicmapswhichshouldincludeallsurfacewaterresourcesandfloodplainsintheareaof
influenceoverlaidwiththeproposedprojectfacilitiesincludingallmonitoringstationsanddischarge
points.Inadditionthisanalysisshouldtakeintoaccountlikelyclimatechangeimpacts,e.g.,sealevel
rise,whichshouldbeconsideredinevaluatingwaterresources.Seee.g.,
http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/adaptation.html.
Allrivers,streams,wetlands,lakes,bays,coastalreaches,andotherwaterbodiesshouldbeidentifiedas
wellasthecurrentusesofthewaterwithintheareaofinfluence(SeeChapterFfordefinition).All
existinghistoricsurfacewaterflowdataintheareaofinfluenceshouldbecollected,compiledand
analyzedtopresentinformationon:
Averagedaily,monthlyandannualflowsincubicmeterspersecond(m3/s)
Maximummonthlyflowsinm3/s
Minimummonthlyflowinm3/s
Therivernetworkandgeomorphologicalcharacteristicsofthestreams
Interrelationshipswithtidalfluctuationsinoceanareas
Wetlandsandtheirrelatiionshipwithstreams
2,10,25,50and100yearfloodandstormrunoffeventsandassociatedfloodplainsfor
streamsandrivers
Seasonalfluctuationsinareaandvolumeofwetlands,lakesandreservoirs
WATERSHEDAPPROACH
Itisimportanttoevaluateimpactsofatourismprojectinrelationtotheentirewatershed.Watershed
managementinvolvesboththequantityofwater(surfaceandgroundwater)availableandthequalityofthese
waters.Understandingtheimpactoftheprojectonboththequantityandqualityofwatershouldtakeinto
accountthecumulativeimpactsofotheractivitiesinthesamewatershed.
Awatershedbasedimpactassessmentapproachinvolvesthefollowing10steps:
1. Identifyandmaptheboundariesofthewatershedinwhichtheprojectislocatedandplacetheproject
boundariesonthemap
2. Identifythedrainagepatternandrunoffcharacteristicsinthewatershed
3. Identifythedownstreamrivers,streams,wetlands,lakes,bays,seas,andotherwaterbodies
4. Determinethecurrentandprojectedconsumptiveandnonconsumptiveusesofthewaterinthese
resources
Drinkingwater
Irrigation
Aquaculture
Industry
Recreation
Supportofaquaticlife
Navigation
5. Estimatetheimpactoftheprojectontheconsumptiveandnonconsumptiveuseofwater
6. Determinetheexistingqualityofthewaterintheseresources
7. Determinethenatureandextentofpollutantsdischargedthroughoutthewatershed
8. Determinetheanticipatedadditionalpollutantdischargefromtheproposedactivity
9. Identifyotheranticipatedadditionaldevelopmentsplannedorprojectedforthewatershed
10. Identifystakeholdersinvolvedinwatershedandencouragetheirparticipationinprojectdesign
54
Tourism
AnimportantaspectofanEIAisthedevelopmentandpresentationofbaselinesurfacewaterquality
monitoringdata,whichshouldbecollectedpriortodisturbance.Monitoringofbaselineconditions
shouldtakeplaceforatleastayearsothatseasonalfluctuationsinflowandwaterqualitycanbe
determined.Allexistinghistoricwaterqualitydatafortheareaofinfluenceshouldbecompiledtohelp
definethebaseline,andtheneedforadditionalmonitoringdefinedintermsofitsduration,location,
frequencyandmethodstobeused.Theneedforadditionalmonitoringshouldbeestablishedwith
sufficientleadtimetoincludenecessaryinformationwithintheEIA.Anynewmonitoringthatis
performedtoobtainadditionalinformationshouldbecarriedoutbyappropriateprofessionalsfollowing
anddocumentingscientificallyacceptedandreplicableprocedures.
Priortoimplementinganybaselinemonitoringprogram,aSamplingandAnalysisPlanshouldbe
developed.Thisplanwoulddefinesamplelocations,samplingtechniques,chemicalparameters,and
analyticalmethods.Samplelocationsshouldbelocatedupstreamandimmediatelydownstreamof
potentialpollutantsources.Theselectionofchemicalparameterstobemonitoredisdependentonthe
natureofthepollutantstobedischargedtosurfacewater.Monitoredparametersmayinclude:field
parameters(pH,specificconductance,temperature,dissolvedoxygen,etc.)andlaboratoryanalyzed
parameters(totaldissolvedsolids,totalsuspendedsolids,selectedtracemetals,majorcations/anions,
BiologicalOxygenDemand,nitrate,Phosphate,oilandgrease,totalandfecalcoliform,turbidity),and
perhapsotherparametersdependingonthenatureoftheoperation.Theplanshouldbecoordinated
withtheEIAreviewingauthorityorthegovernmentalagencyresponsibleformanagingwaterresources
toensurethattheinformationwillbeacceptabletothegovernmentwhentheEIAisevaluated.
Tourismprojectsvarywidelyandthepotentialsourcesofwaterpollutionareequallydiverse.Agolf
courseoperationcanstrainthewatersupplyandhavethepotentialofnutrientloadingtobothsurface
andgroundwatersfromirrigation,fertilizationpracticesandtheapplicationofpesticides,herbicidesand
fungicides;transportationhubshavethepotentialforchemicalcontaminationfromfuels,oilsandair
emissiondepositions;andonsitewastewatersepticsystemscanpollutesurfaceorgroundwaterswith
bacteriaandnutrients.Fortourismprojectsthathavetheseidentifiableassociatedrisks,datashouldbe
augmentedbytheresultsofasitespecificsurfacewater(orasrelevantgroundwater)qualitymonitoring
programconductedatspecificlocationswithintheprojectarea.
2.2.2 MarineWaters
Thequality(totalsuspendedsolids,BOD5,pH,oilandgrease,bacteria,floatables,etc.)andphysical
characteristics(temperature,salinity,transmissivity,sediments,currents,wavecharacteristics,etc.)of
themarinewatersareimportanttodefineastheymayimpactpotentialusesatthetourismfacility.In
regardtothewaterenvironment,instancesofoilandotherorganic,inorganic,andbacteriological
contaminantsshouldbenotedalongwithseasonaltrends.Changesintemperature,salinity,water
clarity,andoceancurrentsduringlevelsofhighandlowtidewillaffectthefloraandfaunadescribedin
thebiologicalenvironment.Thelocationandstatusofcoralreefsshouldbenotedaswell.Section3
includesexamplesofmethodsforcharacterizingthehealthofcoralreefs.
2.2.3 Groundwater
Theextentofthecharacterizationofthebaselinegroundwaterresourcesnecessaryfortourismprojects
variesgreatlywiththetypeofproject.ManyConcessionprojectshavelittlepotentialforimpactsto
groundwater,somaynotrequirebaselineinformationongroundwater.Thosewithonsiteseptic
systemsmayhavepercolationtests,depthtogroundwaterandotherlimitedaddedinvestigations.
Otherprojectsmayhaveimpactsongroundwaterqualityorquantityorboth,andthereforerequire
moreinformationongroundwaterconditions.Theprimarypotentialimpactstogroundwaterresources
55
Tourism
commonlyassociatedwithtourismactivitiesandfacilitiesinclude:hardscapingsuchasbuildingsand
parkinglotsonlargedevelopmentprojectscandiminishrechargeofaquifers;wastewatersystemsand
septicfieldscouldcontaminatespringsandwells;andhandlingofchemicals,fuelsandhazardous
wasteshavethepotentialforcontaminatinggroundwatersources.
Forthoseprojectsthatcanimpactgroundwaterquantity,theEnvironmentalSettingsectionshould
includedescriptionsofaquifers(bedrockandalluvial)includingtheirgeology,aquifercharacteristics
(hydrauliccharacteristics),andtheflowregime/directionforeachaquifer.Theinfluencesofgeologic
structures(faults,contacts,bedrockfracturing,etc)andsurfacewaterbodiesontheaquifersshouldalso
bemappedordetermined.
Allwellsandspringsintheareashouldbemappedandinformationshouldbeprovidedontheirflows,
waterlevelsanduses.Thesemapsshouldbeoverlaidwiththetopographyandshouldcovertheareaof
influence.Forwells,depthandconstructioninformationshouldbepresented.TheEIAshouldalso
indicatewhichoneshavebeenmonitoredandwhichoneswillbemonitoredduringandafter
operations.Thisinformationcanthenbeused,alongwiththelocationsofpotentialrechargeand
contaminantsources,todeterminepotentialimpacts.
Forthoseprojectsthatcanimpactgroundwaterquantityquantityorquality,theinformationonvadose
zoneandaquifercharacteristicsshouldincludesufficientdataontheparameterstoallowaquiferand
vadosezonemodeling,asnecessary.Thenecessaryparameterswilldependonthetypemodelingthat
willberequired,whichshouldbeselectedbasedonthenatureofthepotentialimpacts.Anymodel
usedrequiresvalidvaliddatatomakerealisticpredictions.Thebaselineinformationshouldmakeit
possibletodeterminewhetherthereisanydangerofsaltwaterintrusiononfreshwatersources
becauseofdrawdown.
Aswithsurfacewater,animportantaspectoftheEIAisthedevelopmentandpresentationofbaseline
watermonitoringdata,collectedpriortoprojectinduceddisturbance.Allexistingdataonquantityand
qualityofwaterfromspringsandwellsinthevicinityoftheprojectareashouldbecollectedand
reportedintheEIAtohelpdefinethebaseline.Forprojectsthatcanpotentiallyhaveimpactson
groundwaterquality,ifdataforexistingwellsandspringsarenotavailable,aSamplingandAnalysis
Planshouldbepreparedandasamplingprogramimplemented.Thesamplingshouldincludewater
levelsandflowratesaswellasotherparameterssuchaspH,temperature,andspecificconductance.
Theselectionofchemicalparameterstobemonitoredisdependentonthenatureoftheactivityandits
potentialtocontaminatetheaquifer.
2.2.4 SpecialWaterResources
InthecontextoftourismtheEIAshouldhighlightwaterresourcesthathaveparticularsignificancefor
tourismasanattractionorhistoricaluse.Trendsinthesespecialsourcesintermsofqualityanduse
shouldbedescribed.
2.3 AirandClimate
2.3.1 ClimateandMeteorology
Understandingclimateandmeteorologyintheprojectareaisimportantforthedesignofalongtermair
monitoringprogram(asnecessaryforlargetourismcomplexeswheresignificanttransportationrelated
emissionincreasesarelikely),developingawaterbalanceforthesite,anddesigningwater/erosion
controlstructuresandpublicsafety.Duringthebaselinedatacollectionperiod,climaticdatafromlocal
56
Tourism
weatherstationsshouldbegatheredandanalyzed.Thisdatashouldincludeatleasthistoricdatasuch
as:
Rainfall(monthy,total,intensity,andduration)
Winddirectionandspeed(bymonth)
Solarradiation(monthly)
Evaporationrates(monthly)
Barometricpressure(monthly)
Temperature(maximum,minimum,averagebymonth)
Tropicalweathersystemssuchashurricanefrequencyandmagnitude.
Forlargeprojects,ifnodataareavailablenearthesite,aweatherstationshouldbeestablishedand
baselinedatashouldbecollectedforatleastoneyeartoreflecttheseasonalchangesatthesite.All
samplingsiteandweatherstationlocationsshouldbedepictedonamapintheEIA.Inaddition,
potentialrisksandriskmanagementprogramsshouldbeidentifiedforhurricanes,tropicalstormsand
tsunamis.Changingclimaticpatternsduetoclimatechangeshouldbefactoredintothisanalysis.
2.3.2 AmbientAirQualityandExistingEmissions
Ifthetourismprojectincludesalargeincreaseintransportationservices,collectionofbaselineair
emissiondataisadvised.Transportationemissionsaffectnotonlyairquality,butalsogreenhousegases
contributingtoglobalclimatechange;andemissiondepositioncaneffectsurfacewaterquality.
Manyareasattractivetotouristslackairqualitydatabecausetheirenvironmentalissueshaveprimarily
relatedtootherconcernsortheirhavenotbeenfundstomonitorairquality;however,baseline
emissionsandambientairqualityinformationcanbeimportant,particularlywheretouristactivitiesmay
causeincreasesinemissionsasaresultofburningdirtyfuelsandvehiculartrafficorprojectsite
clearanceactivitiesmayincreaselevelsofparticulatesviasuspensionofdustandopenburningof
debris.
2.4 NoiseandVibration
Baselinenoisemeasurementsshouldbetakenatrepresentativepointsofreceptionpriortostartof
construction,forcomparisontoexpectednoiselevelsduringconstructionandoperation,and
comparisontoapplicablenoisestandards.Noiselevelsinandaroundsensitivehabitatsandareasof
humanhabitationshouldalsobetakenifpossibleimpactissuspected.
Apointofreceptionorreceptormaybedefinedasanypointonornearthepremisesoccupiedby
personsoranimalswhereextraneousnoiseand/orvibrationarereceived.Examplesofreceptor
locationsinclude:permanentorseasonalresidences;hotels/motels;schoolsanddaycarefacilities;
hospitalsandnursinghomes;placesofworship;parksandcampgrounds;sensitivehabitatssuchas
breeding,birthingornestingareas.Beyondpointofreception,thephysicalsettingshouldalsobe
described.Noisetravelsanddissipatesoverterraindifferently;water,openlands,vegetatedstrips,
urbansettingsandelevationchangescanaffecttheresultantnoiseimpactatthepointofreception.
Atwatersideoutdoortourismlocales(beaches,restaurants,bars,musicvenues,etc,.),thereceptors
acrossthewaterwayshouldalsobegivenconsideration.
Noisemonitoringprogramsshouldbedesignedandconductedbytrainedspecialists.Themonitoring
periodsshouldbesufficientforstatisticalanalysisandmaylast48hoursorcoverdifferingtimeperiods
withinseveraldays,includingweekdayandweekendworkdays.Noisemonitoringshouldbecarriedout
57
Tourism
usingType1or2soundlevelmetersmeetingallappropriateIECstandardsandcapableofloggingthe
typeofdatarequiredbythedesign(continuouslyoverthemonitoringperiod,orhourly,ormore
frequently,asappropriate).Monitorsshouldbelocatedapproximately1.5metersabovetheground.
2.5 AestheticResources
Baselineinformationonviewsandvistasthatcouldbeimpactedbytheproposedprojectshouldbe
identifiedintheEnvironmentalSetting.Vistasandviewsinclude,butarenotlimitedtomountains,
waterfalls,skylines(includingsunrisesandsunsets),beaches,),andcultural,archeological,andhistorical
structures.Narrativedescriptionsofexistingvisualassetsarealsousefulasthespecificimportanceofa
viewmaynotbeobvioustoanonlocalviewer.Inaddition,thissubsectionshouldpresentinformation
onexistingvisibilityintheprojectarea.Thissubsectionshouldpresentpanoramicphotosofthe
proposedfacilitysitefrompotentialviewpointssuchascommunities,roads,anddesignatedscenic
viewingareas.Thesephotoscanbeusedtoestablishtheviewswithoutthefacilityandprovidea
baselineonwhichthefacilitycanbeoverlaid.
Informationshouldalsobepresentedinthesubsectiononlightpollutionfromexistingsourcesinthe
projectarea,includingcommunities,factories,streetlights,etc.Whereobjectivemeasurementis
desired,lightlevelscanbequantifiedbyfieldmeasurementormathematicalmodeling,withresults
typicallydisplayedasanisophotemaporlightcontourmap.
2.6 RiskAssessmentfromNaturalHazards
Manysourcesofrisktothebiologicalandsocioeconomicculturalenvironmentsarecontainedwithin
thedescirptionofthephysicalenviornment.Toprovideanadequatebasisforimpactassessmentfor
theproposedprojectandalternativesaswellasformthebasisformitigation,monitoringand
contingencyplansforaddressingresidualrisk,itisimportantthatthevariousrisksbeadequately
portrayedandassessedbothstatisticallyandingeospatialtermssothattheycanberelatedtothe
proposedproject.ChapterFdescribesscenariosforboundingrisksthatmayhaveagreatdealof
uncertaintyrelatedtothem.ForpurposesoftheEIA,risksshouldbereasonablyforeseeable,butshould
attempttotakeintoaccountknownriskswhichhavelowprobabilitybuthighrisk.Theserisksas
portrayedintheEIAshouldbereadilyrelatedtodescriptionsofthebiologicalandsocioeconomic
culturalimpactsectionsaswellastotheproposedprojectandalternatives.Anyplansforclimate
adaptationshouldbeidentifiedandtakenintoaccount.
3 BIOLOGICALENVIRONMENT
TheEnvironmentalSettinginformationforbiologicalresourcesshouldincludeinformationon:
TerrestrialandMarineFlora
TerrestrialandMarineFauna
Ecosystems:terrestrial,wetland/mangroves,aquaticandmarineecosystems
ThreatenedorendangeredSpeciesandhabitats
ProtectedAreas,artificialreefs,andsensitiveecosystems
Inevaluatingbaselineconditionsofterrestrial,wetland/mangrove,aquaticandmarineecosystems,the
followingstepsshouldbetaken:
Obtainreadilyavailableinformationonbiodiversitythroughreviewofmaps,reportsand
publicationsavailablefromgovernmentagencies,universities,NGOsoronline.
58
Tourism
Producemapsofallhabitatsandkeyspecieslocations,protectedareas,migrationcorridors,
seasonaluseareas(mating,nesting,,etc.)
Describetimingofimportantseasonalactivities(nesting,breeding,migration,etc.)forspecies
thatcouldbeaffectedbythetourismprojectactivities.
Determinethefollowingecologicalcharacteristicsoftheprojectarea:
Sizeofeachhabitatandbufferareasneededtoprotectsensitivehabitats
Existingconditionofeachhabitatanditsvalue
Speciesvalueofspecies/habitatrichness
Fragilityoftheecosystem
Populationsizeforimportantspeciesorspeciesofconcern
Rarityofanyspeciesorhabitat
Identifywhetherthesiteorsurroundingareafallswithinaprotectedareae.g.,anaturalarea
designatedbythegovernmentashavingspecialprotection(NationalPark,NationalForest,
WildlifeReserve,MarineProtectedArea,etc.).
Identifywhetherthesiteorsurroundingareaisnotcurrentlyprotectedbuthasbeenidentified
bygovernmentsorotherstakeholdersashavingahighbiodiversityconservationpriority.
Identifywhetherthesiteorsurroundingareahasparticularspeciesthatmaybeunderthreat.
Reviewandsummarizerelevantlegalprovisionsrelatingtobiodiversity,speciesprotectionand
protectedareamanagement(includingrequirementsofanymanagementplansthatexistfor
designatedprotectedareas).
Elicittheviewsofstakeholdersandrecognizedexpertswithinthecountry(insideandoutsideof
government)onwhetherthesiteorsurroundingareahasrare,threatened,orculturally
importantspecies.
Theevaluationofanyecosystemwhetherterrestrial,wetland/mangrove,aquaticormarine,is
dependentuponprofessionaljudgmentandrequirestheinvolvementofexpertsinthetechnicalarea
appropriateforthetypeofresourceandtheirusebythelocalpopulation.Inareaswherethereislittle
ornoinformationavailable,considerablefieldworkmayberequiredtocollecttheinformationlisted
aboveandshouldbecollectedandassessedbyappropriateexpertsandgenerallyacceptedmethods
andunderareplicablesamplingplan.Differenttechniquesandsamplingplanstoestablishbiodiversity
maybeappropriateforfloraandfaunaintheareaofinfluence.
3.1 Flora
Aninventoryofterrestrial,aquatic,andmarineflorawithintheprojectboundariesandprojectareaof
influenceshouldbeconductedduringthecollectionofbaselineinformationfortheEnvironmental
Setting.Thebestsourcesofdataonlocalfloraarelocalpeoples,relevantministries(forestry,
agricultureandenvironment),andacademia.Theresultsoftheinventoryshouldbepresentedas
vegetationmapsoftheareawhichusuallywillalsoservetoprovideamapoftherelevantecosystems.
Narrativedescriptionsofvegetationtypesshouldalsobeincluded,identifyingspeciesendemism,
keystonespecies(speciesthatplayacriticalroleinmaintainingthestructureofanecological
communityandwhoseimpactonthecommunityisgreaterthanwouldbeexpectedbasedonitsrelative
abundanceortotalbiomass)andspeciesrarityincludingidentificationofthosethatmaybethreatened
orendangered.Areasofspecialinterestmayincludecanopies,mangroves,typesofcorals,and
seagrasses.
59
Tourism
3.2 Fauna
Aninventoryofterrestrial,aquatic,andmarinefaunawithintheprojectboundariesandprojectareaof
influenceshouldalsobeconductedduringthecollectionofbaselineinformationfortheEnvironmental
Setting.Thebestsourcesofdataonlocalfaunaarelocalpeoples,relevantministries(forestry,
agricultureandenvironment),andacademia.
Theresultsoftheinventoryshouldpresentinformationonthestatus(i.e.endemic,migratory,exotic,
endangered,threatened,keystone,etc.)andlifehistorycharacteristics(matingandbroodingseasons,
migratorypatterns,etc.)ofthespeciesidentifiedasresidinginthearea.Forterrestrialspecies,maps
shouldbeincludedidentifying:
Breedingareas
Nestingandcalvingareas
Migratorycorridors(ifapplicable)
Informationonfish,mussel,macroinvertibrateandotheraquaticspeciesshouldincude:
Spatialandtemporaldistribution
Specieslifestagecomposition
Standingcrop
Ageandgrowthdata
Spawningtimingrun
Mapsofcoralreefareas,includingfringingreefs,patchreefs,bankreefs,orbarrierreefs
Thereareoftennativespeciesorgroupsoffaunathatareextremelypopularandadrawfortourism
(e.g.:birds,primates,butterflies,turtles,coralreefs,marinemammals,marinereptiles,etc.)Thesemay
ormaynotbeprotected.Particularattentionshouldbegiventothesefaunaresourcesiftheirhabitats
areexpectedtobeindependenttouristdestinationsfromeitherresorts,cruiseshipdaytrippers,or
fromguidedtours.Ifanyofthesearepresent,specialstudiesinventoryingthenumbersandthehealth
ofthepopulationandhabitatmayberequired.
3.3 Ecosystems
Beyondlookingatfloraandfaunaseparately,anEIAneedstobeintegrated,fromfromanecosystems
perspectiveandorganizedinamannerwhichfacilitatesexaminationoftheinterinterrelationships
betweenbiophysical,socialandeconomicaspectsinassessingprojectimpacts(IAIA1999).Addressing
theserelationshipsreliesonanintegrateddescriptionoftheEnvironmentalSettingaswellasintegrated
impactassessment(seeboxontheecosystemservicesapproach).Methodologiesfordescribing
ecosysteminteractionsareevolvinganddescribingcomplexinteractionsbetweenfloraandfauna,
physicalandhumanthreats,andkeytrendsinthestructureandfunctionsoftheecosystemsisdifficult
becauseofthecomplexnatureoftheirrelationships.
60
Tourism
ECOSYSTEMSERVICESAPPROACH:PULLINGITALLTOGETHER
Anecosystemservicesapproachrecognizestheintrinsicandcomplexrelationshipsbetweenbiophysicalandsocio
economicenvironments.Itintegratestheseaspectsbyexplicitlylinkingecosystemservices(thebenefitspeople
derivefromecosystems),theircontributiontohumanwellbeing,andthewaysinwhichpeopleimpactecosystems
capacitytoprovidethoseservices.Theapproachreliesonasuiteoftools,suchas:aconceptualframeworklinking
driversofchange,ecosystemsandbiodiversity,ecosystemservices,andhumanwellbeing(MA2005);guidelinesfor
privatesectorcompaniestoassessrisksandopportunitiesrelatedtoecosystemservices(Hansonetal.2008);anda
manualforconductingecosystemservicesassessments(UNEPtobepublished).
Inthecontextofenvironmentalimpactassessments,theecosystemservicesapproachprovidesamoresystematic
andintegratedassessmentofprojectimpactsanddependenciesonecosystemservicesandtheconsequenceforthe
peoplewhobenefitfromtheseservices.IthelpsEIApractitionerstogobeyondbiodiversityandecosystemsto
identifyandunderstandthewaysnaturalandhumanenvironmentinterrelates.Thisholisticunderstanding,from
descriptionoftheEnvironmentalSettingtotheimpactassessment,willleadtheEIApractitionerthroughanewset
ofquestionsorganizedaroundtheconceptualframeworkshownbelow:
Whataretheecosystemservicesimportantforlocalcommunities?Whichserviceswilltheprojectpotentially
impactinasignificantway?Howdoestheimpactononeecosystemserviceaffectthesupplyanduseofother
ecosystemservices?
Whatistheunderlyinglevelofbiodiversityandthecurrentcapacityoftheecosystemstocontinuetoprovide
ecosystemservices?
Whataretheconsequencesoftheseecosystemserviceimpactsonhumanwellbeing,forexamplewhatare
theeffectsonlivelihoods,income,andsecurity?
Whatarethedirectandindirectdriversofecosystemchangeaffectingthesupplyanduseofecosystem
services?Howwilltheprojectcontributetothesedirectandindirectdriversofchange?
Source:Conceptualframeworktoassessecosystemservices(Adaptedfromthe
MillenniumEcosystemAssessment,MA2005)
Examiningalltheboxesinthisframeworksystematicallyaspartofanenvironmentalassessmentofprojectimpacts
carriesthefollowingpromises:
Sinceecosystemservicesbydefinitionarelinkedtodifferentbeneficiaries,anyecosystemservicechanges
canthenbeexplicitlytranslatedintoagainorlossofhumanwellbeing.
Itwillhighlighttheimpactonallimportantecosystemservicesprovidedbytheareasuchaserosion
control,pollination,waterregulation,andpollutantremoval.
ItwillensurethattheEIAaccountsfortheeffectsoftheprojectonexistingdirectandindirectdriversof
ecosystemchangethatinturncouldimpacttheecosystemservicesprovidedbythearea.
Itwillimprovetheprojectsmanagementofrisksandopportunitiesarisingfromecosystemservices.
61
Tourism
Ecosystemsaregenerallydividedintoterrestrial,wetlands/mangroves,aquaticandmarinebutthereare
variouswaystodelineateimportantcommunitysystemsofplantsandanimals.Terrestrialecosystems
aredefinedbyspecieswhichmayoccuronlyonlandorwithinaspecificwatershed,includingmammals,
birds,reptiles,amphibians,invertebrates,trees,shrubs,forbs,grasses,fungi,mossesandmicrobes.
Nativevegetationcanbedividedintouplandandlowlandcommunities.Uplandcommunitiesconsistof
forests,shrublandsandgrasslands.Lowlandvegetationoccurringwithindrainagesformsriparian
(streamside)communities.
Aquaticfreshwaterecosystemsaredependentonwatershedcharacteristicsandmayinclude
mammals,reptiles,fishandbenthicmacroinvertebratesthatliveinanaquaticenvironment.
Phytoplanktonandotherlifeformscanalsobeconsidered,dependingontheaquatichabitatalongwith
vegetation/plantswhichgrowunderwater.
Wetlandsincludingmangroveforestsaredefinedbyplants
LOSMANGLARES
andanimalsthatinhabitapartiallyinundatedandpartially
THEMANGROVE
abovegroundexistence.Thedelineationofwetlandsisof
particularimportancewithrespecttohydrologyastheseare
Elmanglaresfrutodelenamoramiento
entreelroyelmar
sensitivehabitatsandquiteimportantwithrespectto
cuandoelrovienebesarelmarnaceel
cleaningofwaterpassingthroughthewetlandsand
manglar
mangrovesaswellasservingasbuffersagainstflooding
elsewhereinthehydrologicalbasin.Alreadyidentifiedin
Themangroveisthefruitofthelove
surfacewatersubsection,inthissubsectiontheecological
betweentheriverandthesea.
characteristicsshouldbepresented.
Whentherivercomestokisstheseathe
mangroveisborn
Marine/coastalecosystemsaretypifiedbyorganismsthat
liveinabrackishorsaltwateraquaticenvironments.Where
Dra.ClariceMaraNevesPanitz
applicable,thedelineationofcoastalecosystemsshould
identifythetransitionalboundariesfromsaltwatertobrackishwatertofreshwater.Theseshouldbe
mappedanddescribed,andthetidalinfluencesdocumented.Whenassessingmarineandcoastal
ecosystems,primaryconsidertationshouldbegiventohabitats,suchascoralreefsandseagrassbeds,
andtheneedforbufferareasthatmaybeaffectedbythedevelopmentoftourismfacilitiesandcoastal
infrastructure.
3.4 EndangeredorThreatenedSpeciesandHabitats
Theseguidelinessuggestthattheendangeredandthreatenedspeciesandhabitatsbecovered
separatelyunderfloraandfauna,andthensummarizedinanintegratedsectiontohighlightparticularly
sensitiveareasofconcerninevaluatingimpacts.Thisseparatesectionisnotintendedtoduplicatethe
informationunderFloraandFauna,butrathertopullittogetherinanintegratedmanner.
Threatenedandendangeredfloraandfaunaareasubsetofthecompleteinventoryoffloraand
faunafaunforaprojectanditsareaofimpact.Thisinvolves:
Reviewoflocal,national,regionalandgloballiteratureontherangeanddomainofendangered
orthreatenedspecies.
Consultationwithlocalandnationalgovernmentagencies,NGOsandacademicinstitutionsto
determinewhatspeciesmaybeintheprojectarea.
Crossreferencingthislistwithnationallistsofthreatenedandendangeredspeciesaswellasthe
InternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN)RedList(http://www.iucnredlist.org).
62
Tourism
Conductingathoroughphysicalsurveyoftheprojectareaandinquiringoflocalresidentsand
authoritiestodetermineifthosespeciesarepresent.
3.5 ProtectedAreasandSensitiveEcosystems
Protectedareas,includingofficiallydesignatedparks,preserves,marineareas,shipwrecks,cultural
areas,archeologicalareas,historicalareas,andthelikeshouldbehighlightedintheEIAasareaswhich
havealreadybeenidentifiedassignificantandneedingspecialprotection.Oneofthechallengesin
preparingtheEIAthatboundariesofprotectedareasmaybeimpreciseonavailablemaps.Giventhe
areaofinfluenceoftheprojectspotentialimpact,itmaybeimportanttocarryoutspecificstepsto
betterdefinetheseboundariestoensurethattheproposedprojectwillnotencroachonorbe
inconsistentwiththeintendedlevelofprotectionofhabitatandspecies.
TheEIAshouldaddressvulnerablefloraandfaunaandtheirhabitatsregardlessoflegaldesignation.So,
itwillbeimportanttoidentifyareasthathavebeenofficiallydesignatedforprotectionsandwhatthose
protectionsare,aswellasthoseareasthathavebeenidentifiedforpotentialfutureprotection.Often
intheabsenceofclearprotectivedesignations.Thisinvolveslookingatarangeofcriteriatodetermine
whetherthesiteorbiologicalresourceisoflocal,regional,nationalorinternationalimportance.
Someparticularlyvulnerablenaturalareasinclude(Source:IUCN,2009):
Coralreefs
TheMesoamericanReef,intheCaribbeanfromMexicosYucatantothenorthofNicaragua,
especiallythecaysinBelizeandtheislandsintheBayofHonduras.
TheislandsinthePacificandtheCaribbeanofPanama,andthesouthernzoneofCostaRica
BodiesoffreshwaterinPeten,Guatemala,andBelize,becauseoftheporouslimestonesoils
aroundthem.
Toalesserdegree,thebodiesofwaterintherestoftheCentralAmericanisthmus
Tropicalrainforestsinallcountries,exceptElSalvador
DryforestsalongtheisthmuscoastsonthePacificCloudforestsinthehighlands
High,treelessplainsorparamosontopofhillsandvolcanoes
Mangroves
TurtlenestingbeachesNaturalprotectedareas
Limitedscopeecosystemsoutofprotectedareas(e.g.,thecoastlinemountainrangeinsouthern
CostaRica)
Islands,becauseoftheirwaterscarcityandsparsenaturalhabitats
Endemicareas(wherespeciesuniquetotheareaarefound)
Livemolluscsthatinhabitshells(bivalesorgastropods)
Shipwrecksandartificialreefs
Submergedhistoricalsites,similartoPortRoyal,Jamaica
Siteswithsubmergedhistorical,cultural,orarcheologicalartifactsaroundcoastaltowns,cities,
settlements,historicalpiersandanchorages(e.g.,oldbottles;cannonballs;military,nautical,or
othervaluableitems;etc.)
Fortheseprotectedareasandsensitiveecosystemswithintheareaofinfluenceoftheproposedproject,
theEIAshouldindicatewhetherthereisacurrentmanagementplan,oranyotherplanningtoolorstudy
thatthecountryuses,andwhetherthemanagementplanaccommodatesthecurrentandfutureuseof
63
Tourism
protectedarea,whethertheprotectedareaqualityandusehasdeterioratedorbeenmaintained,and
trendsincapacityanduseintheabsenceoftheproposedprojectovertheanticipatedlifeoftheproject.
Variousmethodologieshavebeendevelopedto
SIMPLIFIEDINTEGRATEDREEFHEALTHINDEX
characterizethehealthofcoralreefsandtrends
Coralcoverisameasureoftheproportionofreefsurface
overtime.Onesuchmethodologyisthe
coveredbylivestonycorals,whichformthe
SimplifiedIntegratedReefHealthIndex
reefsthreedimensionalframework.Itisthemostwidely
developedforMesoAmerica,whichtakesinto
measuredindicator.
accountcoralcover,algalcoverandfish
Fleshymacroalgaecoverisameasureofthe
abundancedescribedintheaccompanyingtext
proportionofreefsurfacecoveredbyfleshyalgaeor
box.
3.6 BaseLineandMonitoringReefforthe
countriesoftheCAFTADR
seaweed.Itiswidelycollecteddataalongthesame
transectsascoralcover
Herbivorousfishabundancemeasuresthebiomass
(totalweightoffishperunitarea)ofsurgeonfishand
Severalmethodologiesofqualitativeorderexist
parrotfish,themostimportantfishgrazersonplants
toestablishabaselineandsubsequent
thatcouldovergrowthereef.
monitoring.Someofthemostutilizedinthe
Commercialfishabundancemeasuresthebiomass
Caribbeanare:
(totalweightoffishperunitarea).
1. AtlanticandGulfRapidreefAssessment
(AGRRA)
Source:HealthyReefs,2010
2. SynopticmonitoringoftheMeso
AmericaReefSystemReef(SAM)
3. CaribbeanCoastalandMarineProductivityProgram(CARICOMP)
Ofthesethree,themostutilizedintheCaribbeanareAGRRAandCARICOMP.
Thesetwomethodologieshaveadvantagesanddisadvantages.AGRRAisafastevaluationofreefs,
whichutilizeslinealtransectstodeterminetheconditionofthereefthroughpointsofintersection.On
theotherhand,CARICOMPutilizespermanenttransectsthatallowittogathertrendsoverseveral
years,alsoutilizinglinealtransects.CARICOMPismoreprecisethatAGRRA,buttheeffortsoftimeand
costarealotgreater.
AGRRAisbeingutilizedforlongtermmonitoringwithgoodresults.Theprimarydifferenceiseaseof
use;theuserofAGRRAmayobtaintechnicalsupportthroughitswebsitetoanalyzethedatacollectedin
thefield.Dataissenttothewebsiteandisanalyzedandreturnedtothecollector.Thus,theanalysisis
standardizedandtheresultsthecanbecomparedbetween800placesthroughouttheCaribbean.
ToaccesstheAGGRAmonitoringtoolandtorequesttrainingassistance,seewww.agrra.org.Toaccess
theCARICOMPmonitoringtool,seewww.unesco.org/csi/act/caricomp/ecosystem.htm.
Formoreinformationonthedifferentprotocolsofmonitoringreef:
www.icran.org/pdf/Methods_Ecological_Monitoring.pdf
Theprotocolutilizedtoestablishabaselinecanvary,buttheindicatorstobemeasuredshouldatleast
includethefollowing:(Adaptedfromwww.healthyreef.org)
"CoverofChoirisameasureoftheproportionofthesurfaceofthereefcoverbyalivestone
choirs,thataretheonesthatformthethreedimensionalframeworkofthereef.Thisisthe
64
Tourism
indicatorthatismostfrequentlymeasured.
Afleshymacroalgaecoverisameasureofthepercentageofsurfaceofthereefthatiscovered
byfleshyalgaeorforwhichisknownsimplyas"algae".Thisdataisobtainedinthesame
transectsutilizedtodeterminethecoverofchoir
Abundanceofherbivorousfishmeasuresthebiomass(totalweightoffishbyunitofarea)of
fishsurgeonandfishparrot,thefishthatareknownforforagingintheplantsthatcoverthe
reef.
Abundanceofcommercialfishmeasuresthebiomass(totalweightoffishbyunitofarea)of
significantcommercialfishdefinedinthemethodofAGRRA.(www.healthyreefs.org)
Oncethevaluesofthepreviousindicatorshavebeenobtained,theycanbecomparedwiththe
following"ThresholdsofHealth"tablepresentedbytheInitiativeHealthyReefs(www.healthyreefs.org).
4 SOCIALECONOMICCULTURALENVIRONMENT
4.1 SocioEconomicConditionsandResources
Economicandsocialdataaddressrelationshipsbetweentheprojectandthecommunitiesitmayaffect.
Theobjectiveofthisinformationistoestablishtherelationshipbetweenalternativeswiththesocio
economicconditionsdefinedbythesizeandprecisedemographicindicatorsofthevulnerabilitiesfor
therangeofalternations.Thisbaselineinformationshouldincludedemographics,employment,
income,andfiscalinformationthatincludesvarioustypesofpaymentstogovernments.
65
Tourism
Thissubsectionshouldincludedescriptiveandquantitativeinformationfortheareasurroundingthe
projectsiteon:
Population,includingage,gender,ethnic
SOCIOECONOMICSURVEY
composition,religions,languagesspokenand
Rapidurbanappraisalusingtechniques
educationallevel
suchaswindshieldobservationsofthe
CrimeCrimeratesLiteracyrates
projectareaandcommunities;structured
Communityorganizations
andsemistructuredinterviewswith
Employmentandunemployment,withmixoftypes stakeholders;anddeskresearchto
investigatethesocioeconomicaspectsof
andlevelsofjobsandkeytrends
theprojectarea:
PublicHealthandSafety
Populationandsettlement
Publichealthandddiseasesintheprojectarea
characteristics
(includingthesourcesofdataandthe
Landusesandlivelihoods
methodologyusedtocollectandanalyzethe
Socialinfrastructure
data)
Communityperceptions
Existingpracticeforassessmentof
occupationalandpublichealth
Publicsafetyconditionsandresources
Economicactivitiesincludeindustrialandcommercialactivities,employers,employment,incomesand
distributionofincome,taxbaseandskills,servicesandgoodsavailabilityinthecommunities.Thismay
needmoreemphasisfortourismprojectsthatmayincludeaninfluxoflargenumbersofaffluent
foreigners.
Indigenous,minorityandlowincomepopulationsshouldbeindentifiedforthegeographicregion
relativetotheenvironmentalsettingorimpacttype.Itshouldbeconsideredwhetherthepopulations
relyonspecificnaturalresourcesforlivingorrelyonareasforcultural,religiousoreconomicreasons
andwhethereproposedtouristdevelopmentmightcreatedisplacementofthepopulationorthreatsto
theirwayoflife.
4.2 InfrastructureSystemsandEquipment
Thissectionshouldincludethecurrentandfutureplannedinfrastructureandequipment,itscurrent
capacityandtrendsthroughoutthelifeoftheproposedprojectintermsofquality,anddemandinthe
absenceoftheproposedprojectinthefollowingareas:
Transportation
PublicHealth
Communications
Energy/Utilities
EmergencyResponse
Itshouldnotrepeattheinformationprovidedintheprojectandalternativesdescriptionunless
necessaryforclarity.Baselineinformationmaybecrossreferenced,asneeded.
Theadequacyofthisinfrastructureintothefutureunderthenoactionalternativewithouttheproposed
projectshouldconsiderclimatechangethatmaycreateneworchanginginfrastructuredemands.See
e.g.,http://www.rff.org/rff/documents/RFFIB0915.pdf
66
Tourism
4.2.1 TransportationInfrastructure
Theinformationonthetransportationinfrastructureshouldaddressbaselineconditionsof
transportationandtrafficpatternsonexistingroads.Thisshouldinclude:
Mapsshowingthelocationofallexistingroadsandevacuationroutes,ifapplicable
Whethertouristsareexpectedtoarriveatthedestinationviaprivateautomobile,rental,tour
bus,publicbus
Conditio
Surfacematerials
Erosionandsedimentproblemsandcontrols
Maintenanceprograms(what,whenandwhom)
Descriptionofanticipatedthirdpartyimprovements(governmentorentityotherthanthe
proponent)
Trafficpatternsanddensitiesonroadswhichmayexperiencesignificantincreaseduseduring
constructionoroperationoftheproject.TrafficStudies/modelsmaybewarrantedforlarger
tourismprojects
Safetylevelsandcurrentcirculationissues,andcapacity
AvailableFuelingStationsgas,marine,jet
Otherformsoftransportationfortouristsandmaterialsrequiredbytheprojectthatareexpectedto
utilizetheproposedprojectshouldbeidentifiedcommensuratewiththelocationsandcountriesfrom
whichtouristsarelikelytobedrawn,including,butnotlimitedto:
Watertransportrecreationalboats,divingoperations,cruiseships,otherrecreationalwater
craft
Railroads,
Airstrips,
Airportsandheliports
Pipelinesforfuel,wateretc.
Inaddition,cruiseshipsandotherkindsofboats,suchascruisersandsailboats,arealsoexpectedto
carrytouriststodestinations.Itisthereforeimportanttohavesimilarinformationofportsandmarinas.
Thisinformationshouldalsoinclude:
Designfeatures
Fuelingfacilities
Mooringsforportandmarinas
Mooringfloats(e.g.,NOAAsAnchorsAwayProgram,orthePADIDiveSiteMooringProgram)
placedatdivesitestoreduceanchordamageonsensitivemarinehabitats.
Safetyprotocolsfortourismactivities(e.g.,scubadivingandsnorkeling,hiking,boating,flying,
motorvehicleoperation,sightseeing,etc.)
Medicalresponsecapabilities(e.g.,recompressionchamber,medicalassessmentofdiving
accidents,medicalemergencyortraumacenter,medivacsystem,etc.)
Capacity
Imbarkationanddebarkationareas
Maintenanceprograms
Parkingfacilities
Drydocksandwastehandlingfacilities
67
Tourism
Portormarinareceptionfacilitiestohandlegarbageorotherwastesgeneratedaboardboats
andships
4.2.2 PublicHealthInfrastructure
Theinformationpresentedonthepublichealthinfrastructureincludesinformationontheexisting
drinkingwater,wastewaterandsolidwastemanagementsystems.TheEnvironmentalSettingshould
providemapsandquantitativeinformationontheexistinginfrastructureforthesesystems,their
capacitiesandanyplansforexpansionorchangeintechnologyormanagementofthesystems.
Informationshouldbepresentedonmapsaswellasinnarrativeandtabularforms.Thisinformation
shouldalsoincludeexistingproblems,constraints,capacitiesoffacilities,andcompliancewith
internationalnorms.
4.2.2.1. WaterSystem
Sourcesofwater
Quality(beforeandaftertreatment)
Access
Trendsinavailabilityofpotablewater
Maps,distancesanddistributionsysteminformation(pumpstationsspecificationsand
transmissionpipesizes)
Elevationchangesformprojectsitetotieinpoint
Issues,problems,constraintswiththesefacilitiesIstheWaterSafetoDrink?
4.2.2.2. WastewaterSystem
Quantity(inflowand
discharges)
Treatmenttype/level
Sludgedisposal,ifapplicable
Dischargepointsdesignedto
avoidhealtheffectsin
contactrecreationareasand
contaminationornegative
impactsonsensitive
biologicalareas
Trends
Maps,distancesand
distributionsystem
information(pumpstations
specificationsand
transmissionpipesizes)
Elevationchangesform
projectsitetotieinpoint
Issues,problems,
constraintswiththese
facilities
WHATAREWASTESANDWHATTYPESOFWASTESSHOULDBE
CONSIDERED?
Awasteisanysolid,liquid,orcontainedgaseousmaterialthatis
beingdiscardedbydisposal,recycling,burning,orincineration.Itcan
bebyproductofamanufacturingprocessoranobsoletecommercial
productthatcannolongerbeusedforintendedpurposeand
requiresdisposal.
Solid(nonhazardous)wastesgenerallyincludeanygarbage,refuse.
Examplesofsuchwasteincludedomestictrashandgarbage;inert
construction/demolitionmaterials;refuse,suchasmetalscrapand
emptycontainers(exceptthosepreviouslyusedtocontain
hazardousmaterialswhichshould,inprinciple,bemanagedasa
hazardouswaste);andresidualwastefromindustrialoperations,
suchasboilerslag,clinker,andflyash.
Hazardouswastesharesthepropertiesofahazardousmaterial(e.g.
ignitability,corrosively,reactivity,ortoxicity),orotherphysical,
chemical,orbiologicalcharacteristicsthatmayposeapotentialrisk
tohumanhealthortheenvironmentifimproperlymanaged.Wastes
mayalsobedefinedashazardousbylocalregulationsor
internationalconventions,basedontheoriginofthewasteandits
inclusiononhazardouswastelists,orbasedonitscharacteristics.
Sludgefromawastetreatmentplant,watersupplytreatmentplant,
orairpollutioncontrolfacility,andotherdiscardedmaterial,
includingsolid,liquid,semisolid,orcontainedgaseousmaterial
resultingfromindustrialoperationsshouldbeevaluatedonacase
bycasebasistoestablishwhetheritconstitutesahazardousora
nonhazardouswaste.
68
Tourism
4.2.2.3. WasteManagementSystem
Quantity(dailyquantitiesgenerated,collectedanddisposedof)
Collectionsystems
Recyclingprograms
Disposalfacilities(locations,sizesandmanagement)
Availabilityofchemicalandhazardouswastemanagementanddisposalservices
Issues,problems,constraintswiththesefacilities
Portormarinareceptionfacilitiestohandlegarbageorotherwastesgeneratedaboardboats
andships
4.2.3 CommunicationsInfrastructure
Telephones:landlines,cellphonecoverage
WiFi
Access
Televisionandradiostations
Emergencycommunicationnetwork
4.2.4 EnergyInfrastructure
Sourcesofenergygeneration
Energytransmissionanddistribution
Substations
Capacity
Trends
Emergencypowergenerationduringanaturaldisaster
4.2.5 AdditionalInfrastructure
Waterforlandscapingandgroundsmanagement
Waterforirrigationofgolfcourses
Desalinationplantfordrinkingwater
Waterforfirefightingactivities
4.3 Cultural,Archeological,CeremonialandHistoricResources
Thissectionshouldincludeinformationonallcultural,archeological,ceremonialandhistoricalresources
intheprojectarea.ThisinformationshouldincludetheexistenceintheareaofpreHispanic
settlementsandpreliminaryarchaeologicalsurveysofthearea,iftheyexist.Forlargeprojects,an
archaeologicalsurveymaybenecessaryifitdoesnotexist.
Somecultural,archeological,ceremonialorhistoricsitesmayneedtobekeptconfidentialduetothe
sensitivityoftheresourceandpossibledisturbancefromdisclosure.Projectplannersshouldconsult
withgovernmentalmanagersfortheseresourcestoensurethatthesitesarenotdisturbedoraffected
negativelybydisclosureoftheirlocations.Theseresourcesmaybefoundinterrestrial,aquaticand
marinelocations.
69
Tourism
Inaddition,thissectionwillidentifycustomsandculturalaspectsofthepopulationandidentifyany
indigenouscommunitiesorsitesusedbyindigenouspeople.
4.3.1 WithintheImpactZone
Allcultural,archeological,ceremonialandhistoricresourceswithintheprojectboundariesandwithin
theareaofdirectimpactshouldbeinventoriedandmapped.Excellentsourcesofinformationon
locationofsuchassetsusuallyincludefederalministriesresponsibleforsuchassets,localreligious
institutionsandscholars,andtheUNESCOWorldHeritageSite(http://whc.unesco.org/en/list).During
thepreparationoftheEIA,viewsshouldbesolicitedfromstakeholdersonwhetherthereareanysites
orsurroundingareashaveimportanttraditionalorculturalvalue.Thissubsectionshouldalsoinclude
informationonanyindigenouspeopleorothertraditionalculturesintheprojectarea.
4.3.2 AtTouristDestinations
Withinthebroadspectrumoftourismactivities,impactsexpandpasttheprojectboundariesandareaof
directimpacttoareasthatarevisitedbythosestayingattheresortorcampgroundorcruiseship,
includingunderwatersites.Thesemaybeconcessionrunareasorunregulatedareasthathavethe
potentialtobeaccessanddamaged.Asabove,thecultural,architectural,ceremonial,historicand
naturalresourceareasthatarecurrentlyutilizedorproposetobeutilizedastouristdestinationsshould
bemappedandinventoried.Thecarryingcapacityofeachshouldbeassessedandthepercentof
currentutilizationandprojectedutilizationshouldbeestimated.
4.4 LandUse
Qualitativeandquantativeinformationis
providedinthissectionconcerningland
ownership,existinglandusesandgeneral
features.Landusepatternsshouldbeevaluated
bywatershed.Inadditionmarineusepatterns
shouldbeevaluated,includingvesseltraffic
lanes,navigationchannels,anchoringareas,and
particularlysensitiveseaareaswhereanchoring
andvesseltrafficarerestricted.Includedinthe
landusedescriptionwouldbeamapthatwould
showthevarioususes,suchasresidential,
commerical,mining,agriculturalareas,airstrips,
boundaries,riversandlakes.Also,landusesor
marineusesproposedbytheprojectsuchas
roads,facilities,trails,navigationchannels,
artificialreefs,mooringfloats,anddocksshould
beprovided.
LOCALLANDUSEREGULATIONS
Beforetheprojectstarts,itisimperativethatthe
applicablelanduseregulationsbedetermined.In
someplaces,constructionisforbidden(e.g.,thefirst
50metersfromthehightidemarkinCostaRica).In
others,constructingcertainbuildingtypesormaking
modificationstoexistingbuildingsishighlyrestricted
(e.g.,AntiguainGuatemala).Usually,locallanduse
planningstatusprovidefortheallowablesoil
coverage,theminimumlotsize,themaximumheight,
etc.Technicalaspectsregardingearthworksare
describedindetailintheGuideforInfrastructure:An
EnvironmentalManagementInstrument.Inorderto
buildinsomecoastalareas,islands,andprotected
areas,itisnecessarytoobtainaconcession.
Source:UICN:GuideforTourism:AnEnvironmentaland
SocialManagementInstrument
4.4.1 ProposedProjectSite
Thebaselineofenvironmentalinformationshouldincludeinformationonactualandpotentiallanduse
ontheproposedprojectsite.Thiswillincludethecurrentstateoftheprojectpropertyandany
associatedmarinearea.Describethepropertyasurbanorrural,vacantlandorexistingstructurestobe
demolished,etc.Formarineconstructionsites,existingorplannedaquaticstructuresshouldhave
detailedexamination.Suchfeaturesasdocks,breakwaters,bridgeabutments,etc.notonlypose
impedimentsintheprojectfootprint,butalsoaffectlocalcurrents,sandmovements,andpotential
70
Tourism
smotheringofnearshoreareaswhichhavetobefactoredintothedesignsandoperations.Likewise,
therearesetbacksandrestrictionstoconstructionandoperationsaroundthosefeatures.Proximityto
navigablechannelsposeanotherconcerntoconstructionandoperationsatanaquatictourismproject.
Navigationchannelsgenerallyhavetobedredgedinitiallyandperiodicallyoverthelifeoftheprojectto
maintainthestateddraftdepths.Thereagainareoffsetsandrestrictionsthatapplytoconstruction
andoperationsadjacenttonavigablechannels,aswellasproperdesignationandmonitoringofdredged
materialdisposalsites.
4.4.2 SurroundingLands
ThebaselineofEnvironmentalSettinginformationshouldincludeinformationonactualandpotential
landuseandmarineareasaroundtheproposedproject.Itshouldindicatetrendsinland/marineuse
andpatternsofland/marineuse.Theinformationshouldbepresentedasaland/marineusemap
showinglocation,sizeandproximityof:
Agriculturallands
Forestedlands
Floodplainsandwaterbodies
Coastalzones
Urbanzones
Protectedareas
Marineecosystems
Environmentallysensitiveareas(notinprotectedareas)
Culturallysensitiveareas
Populationcentersincludingthenumberanddensityofdwellingunits
Commercialandindustrialareas
Otherlandusesasappropriate
Thissubsectionalsoshouldincludedescriptiveandquantitativeinformationaswellasmapsonethe
social,tourismandrecreation.Theinformationonthesocialinfrastructureincludesthenumbers,sizes
andlocationsandproximitytotheprojectareawithsomeindicationofquietzoneswhichmayinclude:
Schools
Cemeteries
Churches
Otherpublicbuildings
Existingrecreationandtourismopportunities
Housing
EducationalInstitutions
Employment(mixofsources)
Theinformationonthetourismandrecreationinfrastructureincludesthenumbers,sizesandlocations
ofrecreationfacilitiesandecoculturaltouristlocations.Thesubsectiononsocioeconomicconditions
andresourcesalsoshouldincludeinformationonthecurrentandprojectedfutureemployment
opportunitiesassociatedwithtourismbasedonnaturalorculturalresources.
71
Tourism
72
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
E. POTENTIALIMPACTS
1 INTRODUCTION
TheimpactssectionoftheEIAexamines
thepotentialimpactsonthephysical,
biologicalandsocioeconomiccultural
environmentsthatmayresultfromthe
construction,operationandclosureof
theproposedprojectoritsalternatives.
SectionEofthisGuidelineintroducesthe
typesofimpactsgenerallyassociated
withtourismprojects.SectionF
identifieswaystoassessand,wherever
possibletoquantify,theimpacts,their
magnitude,duration,extentandtheir
significanceforaproposalandlocation.
Theimpactassessmentshouldaccount
foralloftheprimaryandsupport
structuresandrelatedelementsand
activitiesinvolvedintheprojectas
describedintheProjectandAlternatives
Descriptionforthefullrangeofdirect,
indirectandcumulativeimpacts:
Directimpactsareduetoa
specificprojectrelatedactivity
inthesameplaceandtimeas
theproject.
Indirectimpactsaredueto
actionsresultingfromthe
specificproject,andarelaterin
timeorfartherremovedin
distance,butstillarereasonably
foreseeable.Indirectimpacts
mayincludegrowthinducing
impactsandotherimpacts
relatedtoinducedchangesin
thepatternoflanduse,
populationdensity,orgrowth
rate,andrelatedimpactsonair
andwaterandothernatural
systems,includingecosystems.
POTENTIALIMPACTSFROMTOURISM
Byitsverynaturetourismistheattractionofpeoplewhodo
notliveinanareatotakeadvantageofitsphysical,biological
and/orsocioculturalattributesfortheenjoymentofthe
visitor.Becauseofthepotentialeconomicbenefitstotourist
destinations,itisoftenanactivepolicyofgovernmentsand
individualstocompeteforthepotentialpositiveeconomic
benefitstolocalemploymentanddevelopment.
Nevertheless,tourismcanresultinfourbasictypesofadverse
impacts:
Seasonalandintensiveincreasesinpopulationdensity
thatincreasetheburdenonandstressexistinglocal
infrastructure,resources,foodproduction,andcultural
practices.
Destructionorrestructuringofthenaturalenvironment,
landandwaterresourcesandsensitivecultural,historicor
architecturalvaluesduetotourismrelateddevelopment,
whichmaycompromisehabitatandspeciessurvivaland
damagesociallyimportantsites.
Contaminationoflandandwaterresourcesbecauseof
thegenerationofwasteandpollutionfromtourism
activities.
Directenvironmentalharmcausedbytouristsactivities,
oftenwithinfragileecosystems.Examplesincludedamage
causedbywalkingoncoralreefsorusingoffroadvehicles
indeserts.
Whennaturalsystemssuchasthenaturalbarriersprovidedby
wetlandsandmangrovesfailordeliverreducedservices,
seriousthreatstopublichealthsafety,andtheenvironment
canoccurthroughflooding,anderosion,andpossible
saltwaterintrusiontothedrinkingwatersupply.
Tourismthatispoorlymanagedcandamagetheresources
thatattracttourists,sothetourismindustryshouldbe
sensitivetochangesinenvironmentalquality.Thebiological
conceptofcarryingcapacity,particularlyinsensitive
ecosystems,suggeststhatbeyondacertainlevel,areascannot
absorbadditionaltourismactivitywithoutsignificant
deteriorationoftheenvironment.Strategicplanning,and
cautiousdevelopmentandimplementationofenvironmental
controls,arerequiredtoachieveenvironmentallysustainable
tourismandeconomicgrowth.
Source:(INECE),1995
73
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Cumulativeimpactsaretheincrementalimpactsoftheproposedprojectwhenaddedtopast,
present,andreasonablyforeseeablefutureactivities,regardlessofwhatentityundertakessuch
otheractions.Cumulativeimpactscanresultfromindividuallyminorbutcollectivelysignificant
actionstakingplaceoveraperiodoftime.Impactsaresitespecificandaredeterminedbythe
geology,soils,hydrology,hydrogeology,climate,ecosystemsandhumanpopulationsinthe
vicinityoftheproject.Theimpactsmaybepositiveornegative.Positiveimpactscanresult,for
instance,ifatourismactivityorfacilityrestoresorprotectsanenvironmentalorheritage
resource,thusresultinginnetimprovementinconditions.
Impactsassociatedwithtourismcanresultfrommanydifferenttypesofactivities,rangingfromlarge
hotelsorresortsorcruiseshipterminalconstruction,torelativelysmallconcessionsfocusedona
particularactivity,suchasscubadivingorziplineadventuretours.InallcasestheEIAwillserveto
identifyandassessindividuallyandasawholetheimpactsofalloftheseactionsastheymaybe
involvedattheproposedprojectthroughsitepreparation,construction,operationsandclosurestages.
Theguidelineisstructuredaroundimpactstoeachtypeofenvironment:thephysicalenvironment,the
biologicalenvironment,andthesocioeconomicculturalenvironment.Thesesubsectionsarefollowed
byasubsectionthatpresentsmethodsforidentifyingcumulativeimpacts.
2 PHYSICALENVIRONMENT
2.1 Geology,SoilsandOceanTopography
Tourismprojectsgenerallymayincludeconstructionandmanagementactivitiesthatmayimpact
geology,soilsandthemarinesubstrate,including:
Landclearingforsitepreparationandaccessroutes
Earthmovingandterrainshapingincludingexcavationandfilling,involvingearthmoving
equipmentandoccasionallyblasting
Disposalofclearedmaterial(vegetation,soil,stones,dredgedmaterial)removedduringthese
activitiesandconstructiondebris
Useandpossiblestorageoflubricants,fuelsandotherchemicalproducts
Closure,involvingfurtherterrainshaping,debrisdisposalanduseoflubricants,fuelsandother
chemicalproducts
Landclearing,earthmoving,andterrainshapingattheprojectsiteaswellasatthesiteswherematerial
forprojectconstructionwillbecollected(quarries,borrowpits,etc.)willremovevegetativecoverand
changethetopographyoftheaffectedarea,whichcancauseincreasedsoilcompaction,erosionand
associatedsedimentation.Changingthetopographyofthesitecanalsocreatethepotentialfor
landslidesorslopefailure,dependingonthesoiltypesandmagnitudeofthechange.
Changingthetopographywillchangethedrainagepatternsandincombinationwithremovalof
vegetativecovercanleadtoerosion,themagnitudeandextentofwhichwillinpartbedeterminedby
theresultinggradients,soiltypes,rainfall,andlocalhydrology.Exposingbaresoilduringtheseactivities
canalsoincreasewinderosion.Theseimpactscanbeshortterm,ifpropersoilerosionandslope
stabilitycontrolsareusedorinstalled,althoughtheymayoftenexistthroughthecompletionof
constructionofonsitefacilities,structuresandbuildings,accessroadsandtransmissionline
connections,astheseactivitiesalsodisturbsoil.Constructionplanningshouldtakeintoaccountthe
seasonalrainsthatarecommonintheCentralAmericanandCaribbeanregiontomanageerosionof
exposedsoil.
74
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Inthecoastalandmarineenvironmentorforinlandwaterways,constructioninandnearthewatermay
requiredredgingand/orfillingactivitywhichcansignificantlyaffectwaterflow,waveaction/dissipation,
whichinturncanhaveimpactson,erosionandsedimentation.Inthemarineandcoastalenvironment,
dredginganddisposalactivitiesfortheconstructionofdocks,moorings,jetties,marinas,structureson
piles,terminalsforcruiseships,newhotelland,andbeachnourishmentcanradicallychangethe
topographyoftheoceanbottomsandalterwaveactiontoincreaseerosionandsedimentatthesiteor
fartheralongtheshore.
Tourismdevelopmentincoastalareas(includinghotel,resort,airportandroadconstruction)isof
increasingconcernworldwide.Thiscanleadtosandmining,beacherosionandlanddegradation.
Coastalconstructioncanremovestabilizingbeachvegetationandchangethecoastalstructureand
alongshorewavemovement,causingundesirableerosionanddepositionpatterns.Thiscantrigger
requirementsforadditionalconstructioncomponentstocorrect/alleviatethoseproblems(breakwaters,
revetments,shorelinearmoring,etc.)Theseconstructedfixesoftenincreasethenaturalenvironmental
disturbancesandcanrequireadditionalmitigationefforts.
Somefixedbasetourismactivitieshavefuelingdepotsandotherchemicalstorageareasthatcontain
hazardoussubstances,includingfuels,fertilizers,pesticides,cleaningproducts,etc.Ifthesesubstances
leak,theycancontaminatesoil.
75
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
TableE1presentsvariousimpactswhichcouldbecausedtogeologyandsoilresourcesaswell
oceanographyandbeachesduetotourismdevelopment.
TableE1:Potentialimpactsongeologyandsoilresourcesfromtourismdevelopment
ACTIVITY
POTENTIALIMPACT
Landclearing,earthmoving,terrainshaping
(leveling,drainage,etc.)andassociated
activities(e.g.,borrowpits,quarriesandother
offsitesourcesofmaterials)
Constructionandlandscapingofonsite
facilities,structuresandbuildings
Constructionand/orupgradeofaccessroads
andpowerlines
Wastewater
Hazardouswastesandfuels
Solidwastedisposal
Dredgingandfilling
Dredgingmaterialdisposal
Beachdevelopment
Developmentofdocks,moorings,marinas,
jetties,breakwaters,etc
Hikingandcamping
Offroadbikingandtouring
Closure/Decommissioning
Landslidehazards(creationofunstableslopes)
Erosionandsedimentproduction
Soilcompaction
Soilcontaminationfromspillsandfuelleaks
Disposalofcleareddebris
Soilcompaction
Soilcontaminationfromspillsandfuelleaks
Disposalofconstructionwastes,includingpotentiallyhazardouswastes
Offsiteearthmaterialsources(sand,marl,rocksoil,aggregate,wood,etc.)
Needtoseetheycomefromlegitimatesources
Soilcontamination
Soilcontamination
Erosionandsedimentproductionfromconstructionoflandfills
Contaminationofsoils
Changesinstreamoroceanbottomtopography
Beacherosion
Sedimentationandaggregation
Creationofnewlandareascausingerosioninotherplaces
Changesinstreamoroceanbottomtopography
Soilcontamination
Impactsofsedimentmounding(changestowaveclimate,vesseldepth
limitations)
Increasebeacherosion
Disturbanceforbottomareasincludingoceantopography
Alterbeacherosionandaggregationareas
Modifyoceantopography
Soilcompaction
Soilcompaction
Beacherosion
Erosion
Soilcompaction
Spillsandfuelleaks
76
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
2.2 WaterResources
AsdiscussedintheprevioussubsectiononGeologyandSoil,nearlyalltourismprojectsinvolveland
clearingforsitepreparationandaccessroutesandearthmovingandterrainshaping,whichmaychange
thedrainagepatternsandincreaserunoffandassociatedsoilerosionandsedimentation.
Runoffcancarrysedimentsandother
Freshwateravailabilityforcompetingagricultural,
contaminants,eitherattachedtothesedimentor
industrial,householdandotherusesisrapidly
insolution,includingsoilnutrientsandlubricants,
becomingoneofthemostcriticalnaturalresource
fuelsandchemicalsthatmaybespilledatthe
issuesinmanycountriesandregions.Rapid
sites.Anysourceofsoilcontaminationidentified
expansionofthetourismindustry,whichtendsto
intheprevioussubsection,canbecarriedin
beextremelywaterintensive,canexacerbatethis
problembyplacingconsiderablepressureonscarce
runoff.Ifagriculturalchemicalsareusedonfarms
watersupplyinmanydestinations.Waterscarcity
orforestsassociatedwithbiomassproduction,or
canposeaseriouslimitationtofuturetourism
ifherbicidesareusedduringlandclearingorto
developmentinmanylowlyingcoastalareasand
managevegetationinrightofways,theycanalso
smallislandsthathavelimitedpossibilityforsurface
becomecomponentsofrunoff.Dependingonthe
wateruseandstorage,andwhosegroundwater
localconditionsandthedistancetosurfacewater, maybecontaminatedbysaltwaterintrusion.
thesecontaminantscanimpactwaterqualityin
Source:Neto(2002)
thesurfacewatersthatreceivedrainagefromthe
affectedareas.
Constructionorupgradingofaccessroadstothefacilitysiteortotherightofway,inthecaseof
transmissionprojects,mayalsorequireconstructionacrosswetlandsorstreams,whichcandisrupt
watercoursesandwetlandflowregimes,directlyimpactingwaterqualityandcausebankerosion.
Anotherpotentialwaterqualityimpactcanoccurwhenconstructiontakesplaceonmarinefloors
causingincreaseddisturbancesofsediments,increasedturbidityandsubsequentdamagetohabitats.
77
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
TableE2identifiespotentialimpactstowaterresourcesfromvariousactivities.
TableE2:Potentialimpactsonwaterresourcesfromtourismdevelopment
ACTIVITY
Landclearing,earthmoving,terrainshaping
(leveling,drainage,etc.)andassociated
activities(e.g.,borrowpits,quarriesandother
offsitesourcesofmaterials)
Constructionofonsitefacilities,structures
andbuildings
Constructionand/orupgradeofaccessroads
andpowerlines
Landscaping
Generation,collection,treatment,disposalof:
Wastewater
Watersupplydevelopment
Solidwastedisposal
Developmentofdocks,moorings,marinas,
jetties,breakwaters,etc.
Dredgingandfilling
Dredgingmaterialdisposal
Hikingandcamping
Offroadbikingandtouring
Scubadivingandsnorkeling
Closure/Decommissioning
POTENTIALIMPACT
Modificationofdrainagepatterns
Erosionandsedimentcontaminatingsurfacewater
Watercontaminationfromspillsandfuelleaks
Disposalofcleareddebris
Modificationofstreamsandrivers
Watercontaminationfromspillsandfuelleaks
Disposalofconstructionwastes,includingpotentiallyhazardouswastescan
contaminatesurfaceandgroundwater
Increasedrunoffduetosoilcompactionandchangesinvegetationcover
Waterneedsforconstruction,suchascementmixinganddustcontrol
Potentiallyhighwaterconsumptionbuttingstrainonwaterresources
Runoffofpesticides,fertilizerscontaminatingsurfaceandgroundwater
Erosionandsedimentation
Increasedrunoff
Surfaceandgroundwatercontamination
Depletionofnearbywaterresources
Increasesedimentfromconstruction
Increasedrunoffduetosoilcompactionandchangesinvegetativecover
Modificationofstreamsandriversduetocrossings
Runoffcarryingsedimentsandassociatedcontaminants
Spillsandfuelleaks
Mobilizationofcontaminantsthatmayoccurinexistingsediments
Surfaceandgroundwatercontaminationifdredgematerialaredeposited
onshore.
Spillsandleakscontaminatinggroundandsurfacewater
Increaseturbidity
Disposalofpotentialhazardoussubstancescontaminatingsurfaceand
groundwater
Changesintidalexchange(betweentheoceanandbayorriver)and
associatedchangesinsalinityregime
Erosionandsedimentproductioncontaminatingsurfacewater
Erosionandsedimentationatpointsofentry
Spillsandfuelleakscontaminatingsurfaceandgroundwater
contaminatingsurfaceandgroundwater
2.3 AirResources
Aircontaminationattourismprojectsariseprimarilyfromdustandequipmentemissionsduring
constructionandincreasedtransportationrelatedemissionsduringbothconstructionandoperations.
Dustisgeneratedatalltourismprojectsduringlandclearing,earthmoving,terrainshaping,
constructionanddecommissioningactivities.Despitethebestattemptstocontroldust,therecanbe
78
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
areasandtimeswhenelevateddustconcentrationscanoccurduringtheseactivities.Alargeportionof
dustismadeupoflargeparticles,withdiametersgreaterthan10microns.Thiscoarsedustusually
settlesgravitationallywithinafewhundredmetersofthesource.Thesmallerparticlesizefractions
(PM10),however,canbecarriedbywindindustcloudsforgreatdistancesandmaybedepositedonor
nearpopulatedareas.Dustfromlandclearingandconstruction,however,isashorttermimpact.
Duringsitepreparationandconstruction,theprojectcanalsogenerateparticulateandgaseousair
pollutantemissionsfromburningofcleareddebrisandvehicleandconstructionequipmentexhaust.
Particulateemissions(includingPM10emissions),carbonmonoxide,unburnedhydrocarbons(volatile
organiccompounds),nitrogenoxidesandsulfurdioxideresultfromfuelcombustioninvehicles,heavy
equipment,andgeneratorsassociatedwithlandclearingandconstruction.Ifasphaltbatchplantswill
beusedduringtheseactivities,thentherecanalsobeemissionsofvolatileorganiccompounds(VOCs).
Duringoperationofthetourismprojectairemissionsmaybeassociatedwithpowergenerationand
fromcruiseshipemissions.Cruiseshipsburnhighsulfurfuelsthatcancontributetoraisedlevelsof
asthma.Recenteffortstocontrolthesesourceshighlightthecontributionsthattheyaremaking.
TableE3:Potentialimpactsonairresourcesfromtourismdevelopment
ACTIVITY
Landclearing,earthmoving,terrainshaping,and
constructionofonsitefacilities,structuresand
buildingsandconstructionand/orupgradeofaccess
roadsandpowerlines
Generation,collection,treatmentanddisposalof:
Wastewater
Solidwaste
Dredgingandfilling
Energyproduction
Motorboats
Cruise
Airplanesandairports
POTENTIALIMPACT
(i.e.publichealth,visibility,acidrainresourceimpacts
fromairpollution)
Emissionsfromvehicles
Fugitivedust
Smokefromdebrisburning
Fumesandvolatileorganicsfromasphaltbatchplants
Odors
Fumes
Emissionfromvehiclesandheavyequipment
Emissionsfordredgers
Emissionsfromgenerators
Emissionfrommotors
Stackemissionfromburninghighsulfurfuelnearshore
Acidrainfromhighsulfuremissions
Emissionsfromairplanesandvehicles
2.4 NoiseandVibration
Noiseandvibrationattourismprojectsaregeneratedduringconstructionanddecommissioning
activitiesfromblasting,constructionequipment,andthetransportofequipmentandmaterialsand
fromincreasedtourismrelatedtrafficduringoperations.Marineconstructionalwaysinvolvespile
drivingorspecializedfoundationswhichresultinbothnoiseandvibrations.
Anytourismactivitycanincreasehumantrafficandthusnoise.Fixedbaseconstructionnoiseand
operationsandconcessionairetours/activitiesinnaturalareascanintroducenoisesandvibrationsnot
nativetothefauna.Marineactivitiessuchasmotorizedboatsandjetskiscanincreasenoiseand
vibrationtoseacreatures..TableE4presentsabriefsummaryofactivitiesandpotentialimpacts.
79
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
TableE4:Potentialimpactsnoiseandvibrationfromtourismdevelopment
ACTIVITY
Landclearing,earthmoving,terrainshaping,and
constructionofonsitefacilities,structuresandbuildings
andconstructionand/orupgradeofaccessroadsand
powerlines
Solidwastedisposal
Dredgingandfilling
EnergyProduction
Motorboats,jetskiis
Cruise/Rail/Plane
POTENTIALIMPACT
Noiseandvibrationfromheavyequipment,onsitemachinery
(crushers,batchplants,etc.)andtransportofmaterialsand
machinerytosite
Noisefromtheuseonsiteoftools
Noiseandvibrationfromblastingaffectingwildlifeand
property
Noisefromgarbagetrucks
Noiseandvibrationfromlandfilldevelopmentandoperation
Enginenoise
Generatornoise
Enginenoisefrommotors
Enginenoise
Tracknoise
Whistlenoise
2.5 AestheticResources
Impactsoftourismprojectsonlandscapeandaestheticresourcescaninclude:
Impactsonvisualresources
Impactsonpanoramiclandscapes(includingculturalresources)
Impactsonvisibility(aircontaminationprojectsonly)
Increasesinlightcontamination
Visualimpactsoftourismprojectsarehighlyvariable,dependingontheprojecttype,location,linesof
sight,andscenicvistasthatmayexistintheprojectarea.Visualimpactsaregenerallynewfacilitiesand
roadconstruction.Newconstructioncanintroducebuildingheightsuncommontothesurroundings.
Roadconstructionscanmaraformerlypristineviewshed.Newconstructioncanaddmighttimelights
inareaswherethereformerlywerenone,againdisturbingtheformerlypristineviewshed.
Lightpollutionthatisexcessiveorobtrusiveartificiallightcanbeaproblematlargefixedbase
facilities.Lightpollutionisabroadtermthatreferstomultipleproblems,allofwhicharecausedby
inefficient,unappealing,or(arguably)unnecessaryuseofartificiallight.Lightpollutionsourcesfrom
Tourismprojectsinclude:
Lightsusedduringconstructiontoenableworkatnightorduringlowlightconditions
Buildingandstructureexteriorandinteriorlighting
Nighttimesecuritylighting
Onsitestreetlights
Vehicularlightingassociatedwithtraffictoandfromthesite
3 BIOLOGICALENVIRONMENT
Theprimarypathwaysofimpactsonthebiologicalenvironmentarecontaminationofsoil,waterandair
andalterationofflowinsurfacewateroroceancurrents.However,biologicalresourcesalsocanbe
affectedbylanduseconversions,increasedhumanactivityinthevicinityoftheproject,andincreased
pressureonnaturalresourcesintheareaofinfluenceduetohumanpopulationincreasesassociated
withtheprojectactivities.Ecosystemsarecomplexwebsandrelationshipsamongplantandanimal
speciesandtheirphysicalenvironment.SomeorderthisinformationbyFloraandFauna,andinthe
processofdescribingthemdescribetheirassociatedecosystem.Ecosystemscanbedescribedfloraand
80
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
faunawithinfreshwater,terrestrial,andcoastal/marineecosystems.TableE5presentsabrief
summaryofhowvariousactivitiescanimpactthebiologicalenvironment.
TableE5:Potentialimpactsonbiologicalenvironmentfromtourismdevelopment
ACTIVITY
LandClearing,
Earthmoving,
TerrainShaping,
andConstruction
Activities
RESOURCE
TerrestrialFlora
andassociated
Ecosystems
TerrestrialFauna
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
Construction
Camp
Terrestrialand
AquaticFauna,
andassociated
Ecosystems
Dredgingand
Filling
TerrestrialFlora
andFauna
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
Beach
Nourishment
Operations
Developmentof
docks,moorings,
marinas,jetties,
breakwaters,etc.
Solidand
HazardousWaste
Dischargeof
pollutedor
treated
wastewater
FuelStorage
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
Terrestrialand
AquaticFaunaand
associated
Ecosystems
TerrestrialFlora
andassociated
Ecosystems
Terrestrialand
AquaticFaunaand
associated
Ecosystems
TerrestrialFlora
andassociated
Ecosystems
POTENTIALIMPACT
Spreadofinvasivespeciesand/orlossofindigenousspecies
Ecosystemlossduetoswampdraining,wetlandinfill,etc.Lossofhabitatforever.
Wildfire
Disruptionanddislocation(vianoise,vibration,lightsandhumanpresence,
floodingorcoastalerosion)oflocaland/ormigratorywildlife,including
disturbanceofmigratorycorridorsandbreeding,nestingandcalvingareas
Wildfire
Runoffcarryingsedimentsandassociatedcontaminants
Waveandcurrentcontrolstructures(jetties,breakwaters,groynes,etc.)directly
destroyhabitat
Waterqualityimpactssuchasincreasedsedimentdisturbancecanindirectly
affecthabitathealth
Animalsattractedtogarbageandfoodwaste
Disruptionanddislocation(vianoise,vibration,lightsandhumanpresence)of
localand/ormigratorywildlife,includingdisturbanceofmigratorycorridorsand
breeding,spawning,nestingandcalvingareas
Degradationofecosystemsfromfuelwoodgathering
Increasedcollecting,huntingandfishing(foodforworkers)
Lossofhabitatifdredgedmaterialisdisposedofonland
Directdegradationordestructionofbenthiccommunities,coralreefsandother
aquatichabitats
Degradationordestructionofhabitatfromdisposalofdredgedmaterialinwater
bodies
Breachingofprotectivereefs,leadingtodegradationordestructionofhabitat
Disturbanceofspeciesduringsensitivelifehistorystages
Mobilizationofcontaminantsfromsedimentcausingwatercontaminationand
potentialspeciespoisoning
Disturbanceforbottomvegetationareasincludingoceantopography
Degradationordestructionofhabitat
Directlossofhabitat
Degradationofhabitatcausedbyshadingofplants(seagrass,mangroves,marsh
species,corallinealgae)
Attractionofpestsandvectors
Contaminatedrunoffandwaterdischargescancausefishkillsandpoisonwildlife
Solidwastecollection,storageanddisposalsitesaffectwildlifemigrationpatterns
Litterinstream,lakes,andtheoceanadverselyimpactsaquaticlife
Runofffromgolfcoursesthatiscontaminatedwithpesticidesandherbicidescan
poisonaquaticlifeandwildlife
Hazardoussubstancesinrunoffcankillvegetation
Uncontrolledspillsandleakageoffuelscanpoisonaquaticlifeandwildlife
Uncontrolledspillsandleakageoffuelscankillvegetation
81
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
ACTIVITY
TouristActivities
RESOURCE
TerrestrialFlora
andassociated
Ecosystems
TerrestrialFauna
AquaticSpecies
andEcosystems
POTENTIALIMPACT
CampingandHiking
Increasetramplingandcompaction
Introduceforeignweeds,invasivespecies,
Increasewildfirerisk
Misuseofnaturalresources
Destruction,modificationorfragmentationofhabitat
Disruptionofbehaviorincluding:feeding,migration,breeding,nesting,and
calving
Poisoningfromchemicalsandwastes
Increasedhumanaccessincreaseseharvestingbycollectionandhunting
Sameasterrestrialfloraandfauna
Boatanchoringandwakescancausedirectdamage
Overharvestingbysportfishing
3.1 TerrestrialSpeciesandAssociatedEcosystems
Impactsonterrestrialspeciesandtheecosystemsassociatedwiththemcaninclude:
Destruction,modificationorfragmentationofhabitat
Disruptionofbehavior,includingfeeding,migration,breeding,nesting,andcalving
Directimpacts
Poisoningfromdirectcontactwithhazardoussubstancesorcontaminationofwateringholes
Increasedcollectionandhunting
Destructionorfragmentationofterrestrialecosystemsislargelyassociatedwithphysicaldisruption
duringconstruction(landclearing,earthmovingandterrainshapingatthefacilitysite)andalongaccess
roadsandrightofways,oroperationalactivities(hiking,ziplines,ATV/Jeeptours)whichbringintense
humanactivitythatmayintersectnormalmigratorypathsorhabitats.Excessivecollectionoffuelwood
byworkersduringconstructionoroperationcanalsoleadtodeforestation.Destructionofecosystems
canalsobecausedindirectlyifemissionskillorreduceproductivityofvegetationdownwindfromthe
tourismactivity.
Wildfiresareanothersourceofecosystemdestruction.Facilityconstructionandoperationincreasesthe
numberofhumansinitsvicinity,whichincreasesthepossibilityofhumancausedwildfires.Thisisalso
truealongaccessroutesandrightofways.Ifvegetativemanagementofrightofwaysallowforthe
buildupoffirefuels,suchasslash,thiscanincreasetheintensityoffiresintherightofways.
Riverbedscouringcausedbyconstructioninoradjacentriparianzonescancausestreambederosion,
whichcanlowerwateravailabilityinriparianzonesintheareaofthescouring,causingdieoffof
vegetation.
Theconstructionofaccessroadsandrightofwayscanfragmentexistingecosystemsandinterrupt
migratorycorridors.Accessroadsandrightofwayscanalsoopentohumanactivitiesareasthathad
previouslybeenrelativelywild,disturbingthespeciesinthoseareasandcreatingopportunitiesfor
increasedcollectionorharvestofplantlifeandcollectionorhuntingofanimals.
Someecosystemareasaremorecriticaltospeciessurvivalthanotherareas.Theseincludemigratory
routesorcorridors,wateringholes,saltlicks,andbreeding,nestingandcalvingareas.Theseareas
shouldhavebeenidentifiedinthepreparationoftheEnvironmentalSetting.Anyimpactsintheseareas
shouldreceivespecialattention.
82
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Modificationofhabitatcanbeassociatedwithrightofwaymanagementaswellaswithreleasesof
noxiousorinvasivespecies.Excessivevegetationmaintenanceinrightofwaysmayremove
unnecessaryamountsofvegetationresultingindisruptingsuccessionandincreasingthelikelihoodof
theestablishmentofnonnativeinvasivespecies.
Alterationofterrestrialhabitatforconstructionoftransmissionanddistributionprojectsmayalsoyield
benefitsforwildlifesuchasthecreationofprotectivenesting,rearing,andforaginghabitatforcertain
species;theestablishmentoftravelandforagingcorridorsforungulatesandotherlargemammals;and
nestingandperchingopportunitiesforlargebirdspeciesatoptransmissiontowersandassociated
infrastructures.
Tourismprojectscandisruptanimalbehaviorinseveralways.Iftheprojectinvolvesaconstruction
camporonsitehousingduringoperation,animalscanbeattractedtogarbageandfoodwastethus
changingtheirfeedinghabitsandtheirinteractionswithhumans.Regularmaintenanceofrightofways
tocontrolvegetationmayinvolvetheuseofmechanicalmethods,suchasmowingorpruning
machinery,inadditiontomanualhandclearingandherbicideuse,allofwhichcandisruptwildlifeand
theirhabitats.Noise,vibration,illumination,andvehicularmovementcandisruptanimalactivities.
Theseareparticularlyofconcernifanimalsaredisruptedinsensitivehabitats,suchasmigratoryroutes
orcorridors,wateringholes,saltlicks,andbreeding,nestingandcalvingareas.
Lightpollutionposesaseriousthreattowildlife,andcanhaveenegativeimpactsonplantandanimal
physiology.Lightpollutioncanconfuseanimalnavigation,altercompetitiveinteractions,change
predatorpreyrelations,andcausephysiologicalharm.Therhythmoflifeisorchestratedbythenatural
diurnalpatternsoflightanddark,sodisruptiontothesepatternsimpactstheecologicaldynamics.
InlandNaturalAreaTourismlikecamping,hiking,andauto/Jeep/ATVtourshavedirectimpactto
wildlife.Offtrailexcursioncantrample,compact,denudeareaswhichcanincreaseerosion,disrupt
migrationspathways,decreasethefoodsupplyanddirectlyimpactthehealthofanecosystem?Direct
impactstowildlifecanbecausedbyincreasehunting,impropersolidorliquidwastedisposalanddirect
contactbyanimalswithprojectcomponents.Increasedcollectionandhuntingcanbestimulatedby
increasedhumanactivityintheareabyworkersandthepopulationthatgrowstomeetthoseworkers
needs.Improperwastedisposalcanbringanimalsintodirectcontactwithhazardoussubstancesor
poisonwateringholes.
3.2 AquaticEcosystems
Changesinwaterqualityaffectaquaticresourcesbyincreasingtheloadingofsediment,nutrients,or
toxic/hazardousmaterials(metals)tostreamsandwaterbodies,decreasingtheoxygeninthewater,
and/orchangingambientenvironmentalconditions.Physicalmodificationsintheresourcescanalso
impactaquatichabitats,suchasmodifyingshade,poolandrifflesequences,flowofephemeral,
intermittent,orperennialstreamsduetocontaminatedrunofffromparkinglots,paths,roads,andother
surfacesdisruptingflowsintoorthesizeofwetlandsorotherwaterbodies.Impactsmayresultin
changestorelativeabundanceofspeciesorbiologicaldiversity.
Tourismactivitiescanalsoimpactaquaticecosystemsifincreasedresourcedemands(suchas
overfishing)ortheintroductionofothersecondaryimpacts(suchasclothingwashing,recreationaluse,
orlightingfromcoastalfacilities)displacespeciesordisrupthabitats.
83
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
3.2.1 WetlandsandMangroveForests
Wetlandsandriparianareasare
MANGROVES
usuallythemostproductiveand
Ageneralnameforseveralspeciesofhalophytebelongingto
diversevegetationtypeswithinan
differentfamiliesofplants(includingtrees,shrubs,apalmtreeand
ecosystem.Impactstowetlandsdue
agroundfern)occurringinintertidalzonesoftropicaland
totourismoperationsmayoccur
subtropicalshelteredcoastlinesandexceedingonehalfmeterin
height.Thetermisappliedtoboththeindividualandthe
directlyorindirectly.
ecosystem,thelatterofwhichistermedmangal.Mangroves
provideprotectednurseryareasforjuvenilereeffishes,
Directimpactscanincludewetland
crustaceans,andmollusks.Theyalsoprovideafeedinggroundfora
destructionthroughremovalfor
multitudeofmarinespecies.Manyorganismsfindsheltereitherin
developmentofresorts,over
therootsorbranchesofmangroves.Mangrovebranchesare
pumpinggroundwaterorchangesin
nestingareasforseveralspeciesofcoastalbirds.Therootsystems
streamfloworaquiferconditions,or
harbororganismsthattrapandcyclenutrients,organicmaterials
fillingasaresultofconstruction
andotherimportantchemicals.Mangrovesalsocontributeto
activities.Someoftheseactivities
higherwaterqualitybystabilizingbottomsediments,filtering
canresultinsaltwaterintrusion
waterandprotectingshorelinesfromerosion.Theyprotectreefs
fromlandrunoffsedimentation.Conversely,coralreefsprotect
whichisdestructivetofreshwater
mangrovesandseagrassesfromerosionduringheavystormsand
wetlands.Sedimentationcanalso
strongwaveaction.Sediment,contaminatedstormwaterrunoff
impactwetlandresourcesasaresult
andotherpollutantcandamageecosystemsassociatedwith
ofuncontrolledrunoffanderosion
mangroveecosystems.
fromtheconstructionsitesor
Source:NOAA
scouringandheadcuttingfrom
poorlydesignedstreamdiversionsor
dischargeoutfalls.
Indirectimpactsonriparianandwetlandresourcescanoccurfromincreasedhumanactivitiesinthose
habitats,includingrecreationandgatheringofplantmaterialsforfood,construction,fuelormedicinal
uses.
3.3 Marine/CoastalSpeciesandAssociatedEcosystems
Marine/Coastalspeciesarethosespeciesthat
Rapidexpansionofcoastalandoceantourism
mayliveinthewaterorneartheshorelinesof
activities,suchassnorkeling,scubadivingandsport
seas,oceans,orgreatlakes.Theyincludespecies
fishing,canthreatencoralreefsandothermarine
thatliveinmarinewateraswellasfreshwater.
resources.Disturbancetomarineaquaticlifecan
Impactsthatcanaffectaquaticspeciesandthe
alsobecausedbytheintensiveuseofthrillcraft,
ecosystemsassociatedwiththeminclude:
suchasjetskis,frequentboattoursandboat
Watercontamination
anchors.Anchordamageisnowregardedasoneof
Changesinwaterflowsorwaterlevelsin
themostseriousthreatstocoralreefsinthe
CaribbeanSea,inviewofthegrowingnumberof
surfacewater
bothsmallboatsandlargecruiseshipssailinginthe
Directaquatichabitatalteration
region.Severedamagetocoralreefsandother
Injuryormortalityfromdirectcontact
marineresourcesmay,inturn,notonlydiscourage
withinwatertechnologies,increased
furthertourismandthreatenthefutureoflocal
collectionorfishing,habitatavoidance
touristindustries,butalsodamagelocalfisheries.
duetonoiseorvisualdisturbances.
Source:Neto,2002
CoastalandMarineTourismincludes
construction,operationsandconcessionsassociatedwithports,marinas,docksandseasideresorts.
84
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Hotelsandresortscancausedecreasedwaterqualityresultingfromrawandimproperlytreated
wastewaterdischargesandfertilizerrunoff.Anincreaseinsolidandhazardouswastes,aswellasnoise
andvibrationscandisturbecosystems.Marinas,docksandboatingactivitiesincreasethepotentialfor
spillageordisposalofoilandfuels,lubricants,andantifoulingchemicals,whichcandirectlyharm
wildlifeorindirectlyimpairitthroughdiminishedwaterquality.Inadequateportreceptionfacilitiesfor
wastesandgarbagemaycausesuchmaterialstobedischargedintheoceanfromcommercialvesselsor
recreationalvessels.Additionallyanchorsandwakescandirectlycausephysicaldamage.Boatsallow
touriststheabilitytoaccesspreviouslyinaccessiblemarineandcoastalareas.Theretheycandirectly
impacthabitatsthrough:trampling,collectingsouvenirs/coral/shells/etc.,overfishing,disturbing
nestingbirdsandturtles,littering,andstartingwildfires.
Impactsonaquaticecosystemscausedbywatercontaminationandwaterflowsarederiveddirectly
fromthewaterquantityandqualityimpactsidentifiedinsubsection2.2,WaterResources.Iftheproject
canimpactwaterqualityorquantityinsurfacewater,thenithasthepotentialtoimpacttheaquatic
speciesinthosewaters.Forexample,dischargeswithelevatedtemperatureandchemicalcontaminants
canaffectphytoplankton,zooplankton,fish,crustaceans,shellfish,andmanyotherformsofaquaticlife.
Similarecosystemandspeciescompositionimpactscanoccuriftheamountofflowisreducedorifthe
projectintroduceslargevariancesinflowrates.Thesetypesofecosystemchangescanoftenleadto
invasionbynonnativespecies.Theseimpactsandotherscausedbychangesinwaterqualityand
quantityshouldbeinvestigatedandcharacterized.
Directaquatichabitatalterationcanoccurduringconstructionorupgradingofaccessroadsandrightof
ways.Ifsuchactivitiesrequireconstructionacrosswetlandsorstreams;onthebordersofpondsor
lakesestuaries;oroncoastlines,theycandisruptwatercoursesandwetlandflowregimes,impactwater
qualityandcausebankerosionallofwhichimpactaquatichabitats.Anydredgingorconstructionon
marinefloorscandisruptmarinehabitatincludingintertidalvegetation(e.g.eelgrass),coralreefs,and
marinelife.
TOURISMIMPACTSTOCORALREEFSANDMARINEHABITATS
Developmentofmarinasandbreakwaterscancausechangesincurrentsandcoastlines.Furthermore,
extractionofbuildingmaterialssuchassandaffectscoralreefs,mangroves,andhinterlandforests,leading
toerosionanddestructionofhabitats.Miningofcoralforresortbuildingmaterialshasdamagedfragile
coralreefsanddepletedthefisheriesthatsustainlocalpeopleandattracttourists.
Overbuildingandextensivepavingofshorelinescanresultindestructionofhabitatsanddisruptionofland
seaconnections(suchasseaturtlenestingspots).Coralreefsareespeciallyfragilemarineecosystemsand
aresufferingworldwidefromreefbasedtourismdevelopments.Evidencesuggestsavarietyofimpactsto
coralresultfromshorelinedevelopment,increasedsedimentsinthewater,tramplingbytouristsand
divers,shipgroundings,pollutionfromsewage,overfishing,andfishingwithpoisonsandexplosivesthat
destroycoralhabitat.
Developmentofmarinasandbreakwaterscancausechangesincurrentsandcoastlines.Furthermore,
extractionofbuildingmaterialssuchassandaffectscoralreefs,mangroves,andhinterlandforests,leading
toerosionanddestructionofhabitats.Miningofcoralforresortbuildingmaterialshasdamagedfragile
coralreefsanddepletedthefisheriesthatsustainlocalpeopleandattracttourists.
Overbuildingandextensivepavingofshorelinescanresultindestructionofhabitatsanddisruptionofland
seaconnections(suchasseaturtlenestingspots).Coralreefsareespeciallyfragilemarineecosystemsand
aresufferingworldwidefromreefbasedtourismdevelopments.Evidencesuggestsavarietyofimpactsto
coralresultfromshorelinedevelopment,increasedsedimentsinthewater,tramplingbytouristsand
divers,shipgroundings,pollutionfromsewage,overfishing,andfishingwithpoisonsandexplosivesthat
destroycoralhabitat.
CAFTADR
ANDUSCOUNTRYEXPERTSSUPPORTEDBYUSAIDENVIRONMENTANDLABOREXCELLENCECCADUSEPAPROGRAM
Source:UNEP(2001)
85
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
3.4 EndangeredorThreatenedSpeciesandHabitatsandProtectedAreas
Itisimperativethatnoendangeredorthreatenedspeciesordesignatedprotectedareasbeadversely
impactedbytourismprojects.Thesespeciesshouldreceiveparticularattentionduringtheassessment
ofimpactsonfloraandfauna,strivingfornonetloss.Allactivitiesproposedfortheprojectshouldbe
overlaidonmapsofthehabitatsforendangeredandthreatenedspeciesaswellaprotectedareas,to
identifyanypotentialimpacts.
4 SOCIALECONOMICCULTURALENVIRONMENT
Socioeconomicimpactsoftourismprojectsarehighlyvariableanddependentontheprojecttype,
projectsize,projectfootprint,energysource(s),existinglanduseandgroundcoverpatterns,proximity
ofpopulation,locallivelihoods,presenceofculturalandreligiousassets,andtheareaofprimaryand
secondaryimpact.Further,differenttypesofimpactsmayoccurduringprojectpreparation,
construction,operationanddecommissioning.Nonetheless,therearesetsofimpactsonthesocial
economicculturalenvironmentthatarecommontonearlyalltourismprojects.Thesearesummarized
inTableE6.
TableE6:Socialeconomicimpactsthatmayoccurfromtourismprojects
RESOURCE
Economic
Social
PublicHealth
PublicSafetyandPhysicalRisk
WorkerHealthandSafety
POTENTIALIMPACT
Increaseordecreaseinindividualincomes
Directemploymentattheproject
Indirectemploymentgeneratedbyprojectactivities
Increasedpurchasesfromlocalbusinesses
Othereconomicactivitiesstimulatedinthecommunityasaresultoftheproject
Employmentopportunitiesforlocalresidents(shortandlongterm)
Increasedtaxbase
Commitmenttocommunitydevelopmentsupportfromtheprojectcompany
Displacementandrelocationofcurrentsettlements,residentsorcommunity
resources
Displacementordisruptionofpeopleslivelihoods(e.g.,fishing,hunting,grazing,
farming,forestryandtourism)relatedtodisruptedaccessorresourceloss
Publicfinancerequirementswillmoreinfrastructureorservicesbeneededto
meetthedemandsofincreasepopulationintheareas(e.g.,publiceducation,
policing,fireprotection,water,sanitation,roads)
Reductioninqualityoflifeforresidentsfromvisualandnoiseimpacts
Increasedcrime(drugs,alcohol,prostitution,etc.)
Changeinpopulation
Changeincharacterofcommunity
Changeinreligious,ethnicorculturalmakeupofcommunity
Changeinhousingmarket(duringconstructionandoperationandafterclosure)
Increaseexposuretodiseaseduetoaninfluxoftouristsandworkersfromother
locations
Increaseburdenonpublichealthsystem
Increaseburdenonpublicofficialstoprovideservicesduringemergenciessuchas
floods,volcaniceruptions,etc.
Riskoflossoflifefromincreasedfloodingpotential
Increaseinsexuallytransmitteddiseasesamongworkers
Increaseinonthejobinjury
Increaseinoccupationaldiseasesduetoexposuretodustandotherproject
relatedactivitiessuchashandlingofexplosives,solvents,petroleumproducts,etc.
86
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Social and economic impacts of tourism projects can be both positive and negative. Socioeconomic
impactscanvarybylocationandsizeoftheproject,lengthoftheprojectfromconstructiontoclosure,
manpowerrequirements,theopportunitiesthecompanyhasforthelocalcommunityemploymentand
involvement, and the existing character and structure of the nearby communities. Some of these
communities have opted to participate in tourism in a controlled fashion, thus deriving substantial
economic benefits. Others have been subjected to forms of tourism which are denigrating, yield few
benefits,andoperatewithoutthecommunitysconsent.
Thetourismbusinessactivelysupportsinitiativesforpositivesocialandinfrastructuraldevelopment.
Oneoftheprimarysocioeconomicconcernsisdisplacementofpeoplethrough:involuntaryorforced
takingofland,relocationorlossofshelter,lossofassets(farmlands,forests,fisheries,etc.),and/orloss
ofincomesourcesormeansoflivelihood.Thisisanespeciallycrucialconsiderationforindigenous
peopleandprojects,likehydroelectricdams,thatcanimpactvastareas.Developmentbankexperience
indicatesthatinvoluntaryresettlementunderdevelopmentprojects,ifunmitigated,oftengivesriseto
severeeconomic,socialandenvironmentalrisksarisingfromachainofactionsfollowingdisplacement.
Productionsystemsaredismantledandpeoplefaceimpoverishment.Peoplearerelocatedto
environmentswheretheirproductiveskillsmaybelessapplicableandthecompetitionforresources
greater.Communityinstitutionsandsocialnetworksareweakened.Kingroupsaredispersed.Cultural
identity,traditionalauthorityandthepotentialformutualhelparediminishedorlost.
Theimpactsonpublichealthcanvarywiththetypeofproject.Anyprojectsthatcreatewaterbodies
cancreatehabitatsformosquitoes.Ifdenguefeverormalariaisprevalentinthearea,these
impoundmentscouldincreasethepopulationofmosquitoesthatcarrythesediseases.Emissionsfrom
thermal/combustionprojectscanimpacthealthindownwindcommunities,dependinguponthe
concentrationsandthedistancetothecommunities.TableE10presentsasummaryofpotentialsocio
economicimpactsaswellastopublichealthandsafetyduetotourismactivities.
4.1 VulnerablePopulations
Impactanalysisandpolicyconsiderationsthatmaybevalidforthegeneralpopulationmaynot
adequatelycaptureimportantimpactsonsubsetsofsociety.Forthesevulnerablepopulations,efforts
toprotecttheirenvironmentalhealthandwellbeingrequiresfurtherinvestigationintotheirspecial
relationshiptotheenvironmenttoassesswhetherpredictedimpactsmayfalldisproportionately
heavily.Impactsthatmaynotbeconsideredsignificantforthegeneralpopulationmayoverlook
potentiallysignificantimpactsonthesepopulationswithoutthisspecialfocus.Inthecontextofthe
UnitedStates,thepopulationswhichmaybedisproportionatelyaffectedarereferredtoas
environmentaljusticecommunities.Whethertheseimpactscanbeanticipatedfromproposed
tourismprojectsdependsupontheareaofinfluenceoftheimpactsoftheproposedprojectandtheuse
oftheaffectedresourcesbypopulationswhichmaybedisproportionatelyaffectedtypicallyindigenous
peoples,minorityorlowincomegroups.
Traditionalindigenouscommunitiesareparticularlyvulnerabletoculturalchangesbecauseofthelackof
concernandcarelessnessofsometouristoperatorswithregardtothecommunitieswishesand
interests.Someofthesecommunitieshaveoptedtoparticipateintourisminacontrolledfashion,thus
derivingsubstantialeconomicbenefits.Othershavebeensubjectedtoformsoftourismwhichare
denigrating,yieldfewbenefits,andoperatewithoutthecommunitysconsent.Tourismdevelopment
can:
Pushfarmingontolandsthatmaybemorepronetoerosionorlacksuitablewatersupplies
87
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Relocatepeopletohomesandstructuresthatmaybemorevulnerabletonaturaldisasters
includingflooding,volcanicactivity,andfire
Limitaccesstobeachareasortheseasbylocalfishermenaffectingtheirlivelihoods
Changedietaryhabitsduetotheavailabilityoffoodsprovidedtotouristorlimitedaccessto
seafood,fish,andwildlifewhichareimportantaspectstolocalpopulationdiets
Pressureculturalsurvivalbybeinginfluencedbytourist
Modifyordeprivetraditionaluseoflandandnaturalresources.
4.2 Infrastructure:Systems,Equipment,Capacity,Performance
AspresentedinTableE7,theimpactsoninfrastructureoftourismprojectscanbeneutral,positiveor
negative,varyingwiththelocationandsizeoftheproject,manpowerrequirements,economicbenefits
tothecommunity,impactonavailabilityofpublicfundsandtheexistinginfrastructure.
TableE7:PotentialImpactstoexistinginfrastructure
TYPE
FACILITYORFEATURETHATMAYBEAFFECTED
(e.g.cost,capacity,pollutionimpacts,demandsforinfrastructure)
Transportation
PublicHealthInfrastructure
EnergyInfrastructure
CommunicationsInfrastructure
ExistingroadsPotentialchangestotrafficpatterns,densities,and
trafficsafetyissuesordeteriorationinareaaffectedbyproject
Associatedstructures(bridges,tunnels,trafficcontrols,etc.)
Marinas,boats,andmooringactivities
Landingstripsandairports
Busterminals
Drinkingwatersuppliesandtreatment
Wastewatertreatmentandmanagement
Solidandhazardouswastemanagementandtreatment
Increaseddemandforenergycreatingpotentialblackouts
Alterationstodistributionsystemandreach
Costofenergy
Increasedneedforcommunicationsinfrastructure
Alterationstodistributionsystemandreach
Forallofthesetypesofinfrastructure,thequestionfortheEIAisdotheyhavethecapacitytomeetthe
demandstheprojectmaycreate,orwilltheyhavetobealtered,improvedorexpanded?Additionally,
theEIAshoulddetermineiftheprojectwillaltertheconditionoftheinfrastructure.Iftheinfrastructure
willnotmeetthedemandoftheproject,oriftheprojectwillimpacttheconditionoftheinfrastructure,
thentheprojecthasanimpactoninfrastructure.
Fortransportationinfrastructure,thissubsectionaddressesimpactsoftransportationandtraffic
patternsonexistingroads.Itshouldidentifyanyanticipatedchangesintrafficpatterns,densities,and
trafficsafety.Ifsuchchangesareidentified,theEIAshouldalsoestimatetheirimpactontraffic
accidents,congestionandnoise.
4.3 Cultural,Archeological,CeremonialandHistoricResources
Impactsoncultural,archeological,ceremonialandhistoricresourcesincludeanydirectorindirect
alterationofsites,structures,views,landmarksortraditionalculturallifestylesandresourcesassociated
withthoselifestyles.Cultural,archeological,ceremonialandhistoricresourcesinclude:archeological
88
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
sites(onlandorunderwater),historicbuildings,burialgrounds,sacredorceremonialsites,areasused
forthecollectionofmaterialsusedinceremoniesortraditionallifestyles,andsitesthatareimportant
becauseoftheirrolesintraditionalstories.Tourismactivitiesinherentlyprovidemoreaccessto
heritageareas,bringingmoremaninducedimpacts.Tourismdoesbringtheopportunitytogenerate
fundstopreservesitesandimplementmanagementstrategiesthatcanhavepositiveimpacts.
LANDACQUISITIONWITHININDIGENOUS
Examplesofadverseeffectstoculturaland
PEOPLESCOMMUNITIES
historicalresourcesfromtourismprojects
Arecurringcomplaintinconversationswithmembersof
mayinclude:
indigenous peoples where there is tourism is that some
Destructionduringconstruction
tour operators use the communal lands without the
communitysconsent. Theacquisition or construction of
Damageandalteration
any type of infrastructure in communal lands have
Removalfromhistoriclocation
construction of any type of infrastructure in communal
Introductionofvisualoraudible
lands
has the clear prior and informed consent of the
elementsthatdiminishintegrity
community, which is also entitled not to grant such
Neglectthatcausesdeterioration
consent. This is a legal obligation in the countries that
Lossofmedicinalplants
have ratified Convention 169 on Indigenous and Tribal
Lossofaccesstotraditionaluseareas Peoples of the International Labor Organization (Costa
Impactstopreviouslyinaccessible
Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras). Furthermore, the
indigenous peoples of Panama, Nicaragua, and Belize
areasfrom
havedifferentdegreesoflegalautonomy,whichrequires
development/improvementofroads
thatdeveloperstoundergoasimilarprocess.
Visualchangesonasacredhorizon
Something similar happens in farming and fishing
Removalofsubmergedartifacts
communities in many areas of Central America where
Impactstoculturalandhistoricsitesareoften there are no clear property titles. There are cases in

whichthelocalpopulationwasdisplacedtobuildabeach
atwoedgedswordwiththepossibilityof
hotel because they lacked land titles. The de facto
bothnegativeandpositivebenefits.
owners in places with no clear property titles should be
Archeologicalsitesarevulnerablenotonlyto
compensatedadequatelyandshouldbefreetorejectthe
plundering,butalsototheconstructionof
displacementproposal.
touristinfrastructurethatharmsand
deterioratestheseheritagesitesdueto
uncontrolledvisitation.Ontheotherhand,thepresenceoftourismmayfinancearcheologicalresearch
andbringahalttopillageinisolatedsites.Similarly,tourisminhistoricsitesmayeitheraidtoconserve
theirheritagethroughsustainabletourism,orcanactuallyhastentheirdestructionthrough
uncontrolledbuilding(IUCN).TableE8presentsabriefoverviewofpotentialimpactsfromtourism
developmenttocultural,architectural,ceremonialandhistoricresources.
TableE8:Impactstoculturalarchitecturalceremonialhistoricresources
RESOURCE
Cultural,Archeological,HistoricalandCeremonial
POTENTIALIMPACT
Destructionoralterationofphysicalstructuresduringconstruction
Removalofartifactsfromhistoriclocationduringconstructionand
operation
Introductionofvisualoraudibleelementsthatdiminishintegrityof
structuresorsites
Visualchangesonasacredhorizon
Additionalresourcesandimpetustorestoreandprotect
Changestocommunitycohesionandtraditions
Introductionofcompetingcultureandpracticeseffectinglifestylesof
localandindigenouspeoples
Changesindiet,healthandlivelihoodofindigenousgroups
89
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
4.4 LandUse
Tourismprojectscanimpactlocallanduse.Clearly,landuseontheprojectsiteitselfwillbemodified
forthelifeoftheproject.Thisimpact,however,variesgreatlywiththesizeofthefacilitysite.Asmall
concessionaireactivitymayhavelittleimpactwhereasalargeresortcomplexwillhaveagreaterimpact.
Otherlongtermimpactscanincludethoseassociatedwithroads,railsandotherancillaryfacilitiesthat
maystayinplaceandbeusedformanyyears,possiblyevenaftertheprojectslife.
Projectscanimpactlanduseonpropertiesadjacenttothefacilitiesaswellaspropertiesthroughwhich
roadsandrightofwaysmaypass.Demandforproductsconsumedbytheprojectmayalsoresultina
changeinlanduse,particularlyiftheproductscanbeproducedonlandcurrentlyinotheruses.Land
useintheseareascanbeaffectedbyvisibility,noise,odor,airpollution,andwatercontamination.The
developmentofnewroadsalsomayopenuppreviouslyinaccessibleareastodevelopment.
Changesinlanduseshouldbedescribedbythetype;andlocationofthechangeaswellasthearea(size
inhectares)ofthechange.Changeslandusecausedbychangesindemandforsocialinfrastructure
(schools,cemeteries,churches,otherpublicbuildings,touristfacilitiesandhousing)shouldalsobe
assessed.
5 IDENTIFYINGCUMULATIVEIMPACTS
Cumulativeeffectsarethoseeffectsontheenvironmentthatresultfromtheincrementaleffectofthe
actionwhenaddedtootherpast,present,andreasonablyforeseeablefutureactionsregardlessofwhat
aprojectproponentundertakes.Cumulativeeffectscanresultfromindividuallyminor,butcollectively
significantactions,takingplaceoveraperiodoftime.
Tourismprojectscancontributetocumulativeeffectswhentheireffectsoverlapwiththoseofother
activitiesinspace,ortime,orboth.Effectscanbeeitherdirectorindirect.Directeffectsarethosethat
occurinthesameplaceandatthesametimeandareadirectresultoftheproposedaction.For
example,indirecteffectscanoccuratadistancefromtheproposedaction,ortheeffectsmayappear
sometimeaftertheproposedaction
EXAMPLESOFCUMULATIVEEFFECTS
occurs.Forexample,anupstreamtimber
Incrementallossofwetlands
harvestareaandupstreamwatersewage
Degradationofrangelandfrommultiplegrazing
treatmentplantmayaffectwaterquality,
allotmentsandtheinvasionofexoticweeds
inadditiontotheeffectsonwaterquality
Populationdeclinesinnestingbirdsfrommultiple
fromtheproposedaction.Ifwater
treeharvestswithinthesamelandunit
Increasedregionalacidicdepositionfromemissions
resourcesaredivertedawayfromcurrent
andchangingclimatepatterns
usessuchasagriculture,thenimpactsto
Cumulativecommercialandresidentialdevelopment
thosepreviouslymanagedagricultural
andhighwayconstructionassociatedwith
landsshouldbeconsidered.Theseland
encroachingdevelopmentoutsideofurbanareas
disturbedbyagriculturalactivities,now
Increasedsoilerosionandstreamsedimentationfrom
leftunmanaged,toreturntonaturecanbe
multipleloggingoperationsinthesamewatershed
vulnerabletoerosion,landslides,invasive
Changeinneighborhoodsocialculturalcharacter
speciesandperhapsundesirable
resultingfromongoinglocaldevelopmentincluding
replacementhabitat.
construction
Degradedrecreationalexperiencefromovercrowding
AlthoughrequiredofEIAsthecumulative
andreducedvisibility
impactassessmentisoftenoverlooked
90
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
becausemanyoftheactionsthatneedtobetakenintoaccountarenotwithinthecontroloftheproject
proponent,orbecausemethodsforcumulativeimpactassessmentmaynotbeapparent.
Cumulativeimpactsmaybepositiveornegative.Insummary,additiveorcumulativeimpactsofthe
projectwiththoseofexisting,plannedorfutureactivitiesshouldbeaccountedfor.Thisistypicallydone
byaddingpredictedimpactstoexistingconditions.
5.1 IdentifyingResourcesthatHavePotentialforCumulativeImpacts
Resourceswhichmayrequiretheanalysisof
cumulativeeffectsdescribedbeidentifiedthrough
Overconsumptionbymanytouristfacilities
theresultsofanyscopingmeetings,sitevisit,public notablylargehotelresortsandgolfcoursescan
limitcurrentsuppliesavailabletofarmersand
interestinaparticularresource;andconsultation
localpopulationsinwaterscarceregionsand
withtheagenciesandgovernmentalorganizations
thusleadtoseriousshortagesandpricerises.In
(NGOs)familiarwithorresponsibleforthose
addition,pollutionofavailablefreshwater
resources.Additionalguidanceondefining
sources,someofwhichmaybeassociatedwith
cumulativeanalysisresourcescanbefoundin
tourismrelatedactivities,canexacerbatelocal
ConsideringCumulativeEffectsUndertheNational shortages.
EnvironmentalPolicyAct(Councilon
SourceNeto,2002
EnvironmentalQuality,1997).Thisdocumentis
availableonthewebat
http://ceq.hss.doe.gov/nepa/ccenepa/ccenepa.htm.
Anexampleoftheaffectedenvironment,oraresource,whereoperationsmaycauseacumulativeand
additiveimpactwouldbegroundwaterusage.Intheprojectareatherealreadymayexistwellsthatare
tappingthesameaquiferforirrigation,industrial,andmunicipaluses.Pumpingwaterfromthatsame
aquifermayproduceacumulativeimpact.Theseuses,whenevaluatedseparately,maynotproducea
noticeableormeasurabledeclineinthegroundwaterelevation.However,iftheseusagesaremodeled
togetherwiththeestimatedvolumesperyearofeachuseandoverthetimeperiodofplanneduse,the
modelmayshowacumulativeimpactofwidespreadandsignificantdeclineingroundwaterelevation.A
cumulativeimpactforgroundwater,widespreadandsignificantdeclineinwaterelevation,thenmay
produceanimpacttosurfacewaterelevationbyloweringstreamlevelsandbaseflowsinnearby
streamsifthereisahydrologicconnectionbetweentheaquiferandstreams.Declinesingroundwater
elevations,causingdeclinesinbaseflowsinneighboringstreamsmayproduceanimpacttohabitat
criticaltowildlifeorvegetationthereforeimpactingcertainspeciesofwildlifeandvegetation.Ifinthe
coastalzone,groundwaterdepletionhasthepotentialtocausesaltwaterintrusionintofreshwater
supplies.
Theeffectoflargescaleorevensmalltourismdevelopmentcanhavewidespreadimpactonthelocal
communityandtheenvironment.Forinstanceifdevelopmentpushesfarmersawayfromprime
farmlandtoareasthatlesssuitableforfarmingthatmaybemorepronetoerosion,theresulting
sedimentationintowaterwayswouldbeconsideredanpartofthecumulativeimpactofaproject.
Anotherexampleswouldbeincreasesinalgalbloomsinwaterbodiesdueincreasesinnutrientloading
fromsewerage,nutrientrunofffromgolfcoursesorlandscaping,andseepagefromlandfills.Increased
dredginginnumerouslocationscanincrease:
Changesintidalexchangesbetweentheoceanandbaysorrivers.
Changesinsalinityregime
Breachingofprotectivereefs
91
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
Directlossofhabitats
Disturbanceofspeciesduringsensitivelifehistorystages
5.2 Regional,SectoralorStrategicAssessment
Regional,sectoral,orstrategicsocialandenvironmentalassessmentmaybeavailabletoprovidethe
additionalperspectiveinadditiontothesocialandenvironmentalimpactassessment.Regional
assessmentisconductedwhenaprojectorseriesofprojectsareexpectedtohaveasignificantregional
impactorinfluenceregionaldevelopment(e.g.,anurbanarea,awatershed,oracoastalzone),andis
alsoappropriatewheretheregionofinfluencespanstwoormorecountriesorwhereimpactsarelikely
tooccurbeyondthehostcountry.Sectoralassessmentisusefulwhereseveralprojectsareproposedin
thesameorrelatedsector(e.g.,power,transport,oragriculture)inthesamecountry,eitherbythe
clientaloneorbytheclientandothers.Strategicassessmentexaminesimpactsandrisksassociated
withaparticularstrategy,policy,plan,orprogram,ofteninvolvingboththepublicandprivatesectors.
Regional,sectoral,orstrategicassessmentmaybenecessarytoevaluateandcomparetheimpactof
alternativedevelopmentoptions,assesslegalandinstitutionalaspectsrelevanttothepotentialimpacts
andrisks,andrecommendbroadmeasuresforfuturesocialandenvironmentalmanagement.Particular
attentionispaidtopotentialcumulativeimpactsofmultipleactivities.Theseassessmentsaretypically
carriedoutbythepublicsector,thoughtheymaybecalledforinsomecomplexandhighrisksprivate
sectorprojects.Theseanalyseswillcomeintoplaywhenestablishingsettingcarryingcapacitiesfor
heritagesitesandnaturalresourceareas.Thefollowingtextboxpresentssomebasicquestionsthat
shouldbeansweredinsuchassessments.
92
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
FigureE1:Identifyingpotentialcumulativeeffectsissuesrelatedtoproposedaction
1. Whatisthevalueoftheaffectedresourceorecosystem?Isit:
Protectedbylegislationorplanninggoals?
Ecologicallyimportant?
Culturallyimportant?
Economicallyimportant?
Importanttothewellbeingofahumancommunity?
Importanttothewellbeingoftheworldcommunity?
2. Istheproposedactiononeofseveralsimilarpast,present,orfutureactionsinthesamegeographicarea?
3. Dootheractivities(whethergovernmentalorprivate)intheregionhaveenvironmentaleffectssimilarto
thoseoftheproposedaction?
4. Willtheproposedaction(incombinationwithotherplannedactivities)affectanynaturalresources;
culturalresources;socialoreconomicunits;orecosystemsofregional,national,orglobalpublicconcern?
Examples:releaseofchlorofluorocarbonstotheatmosphere;conversionofwetlandhabitattofarmland
locatedinamigratorywaterfowlflyway.
5. HaveanyrecentorongoingEIAanalysesofsimilaractionsornearbyactionsidentifiedimportantadverse
orbeneficialcumulativeeffectissues?
6. Hastheimpactbeenhistoricallysignificant,suchthattheimportanceoftheresourceisdefinedbypast
loss,pastgain,orinvestmentstorestoreresources?
7. Mighttheproposedactioninvolveanyofthefollowingcumulativeeffectsissues?
Longrangetransportofairpollutantsresultinginecosystemacidificationoreutrophication
Airemissionsresultingindegradationofregionalairquality
Releaseofgreenhousegasesresultinginclimatemodification
Loadinglargewaterbodieswithdischargesofsediment,thermal,andtoxicpollutants
Reductionorcontaminationofgroundwatersupplies
Changesinhydrologicalregimesofmajorriversandestuaries
Longtermcontainmentanddisposalofhazardouswastes,
Mobilizationofpersistentorbioaccumulatedsubstancesthroughthefoodchain
Decreasesinthequantityandqualityofsoils
Lossofnaturalhabitatsorhistoriccharacterthroughresidential,commercial,andindustrial
development
Social,economic,orculturaleffectsonlowincomeorminoritycommunitiesresultingfromongoing
development
Habitatfragmentationfrominfrastructureconstructionorchangesinlanduse
Habitatdegradationfromgrazing,timberharvesting,andotherconsumptiveuses
Disruptionofmigratingfishandwildlifepopulations
Lossofbiologicaldiversity
Source:AdaptedfromTable2.1,CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality,ConsideringCumulativeEffectsunderthe
NEPAPolicyAct,January1997
93
Tourism
E.POTENTIAL IMPACTS
94
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
F. ASSESSINGIMPACTS:PREDICTIVETOOLSANDCONSIDERATIONS
1 OVERVIEWOFUSINGPREDICTIVETOOLSFORANEIA
Environmentalimpactassessment(EIA)employs
predictivetoolstodeterminethelocations,
magnitude,duration,extentandsignificanceof
potentialimpactsonthenaturalandhuman
environment.Tourismsectorprojectsinvolveawide
rangeofactivitiesprojectsize,complexityof
componentsanddiversityofimpacts.Generally
acceptedscientificpracticesshouldbeusedto
estimatepotentialimpacts.Manyofthesepractices
arepresentedinthissectionoftheguidelines.
TOOLSFORASSESSINGTHEIMPACTSOF
TOURISMPROJECTS
Predictivetoolscanbequantitativeasinthe
caseofanalyticalornumericalairandwater
models,semiquantitativebasedontheresults
ofsurveysusedtoevaluatesocioeconomic
impacts,orqualitativebasedonprofessional
judgmentorcomparisonswithknownimpactsof
similarprojectsandenvironmentalsettings.
1.1 GroundRules:BasicConsiderationsforPredictingImpacts
TheEIAshouldassessasappropriatethedirect,indirectandcumulativeimpactsfortheproposed
projectincludingalternativesandforeveryphaseoftheproject:siteselection,sitepreparationand
construction,operation,maintenanceandclosure.
Groundrulesforpredictionimpacts:
1. Generallyacceptedscientificpracticesshouldbeusedtoestimatepotentialimpacts.
2. Greaterdetailandanalysisshouldbeincludedforthoseimpactswhicharepotentially
significant.
3. Itwillbeimportanttoidentifyuncertaintiestolaythegroundworkfordecisionsaboutthe
project,proposedenvironmentalmeasures,monitoringandcontingencyplans.
4. Theassessmentofimpactsbuildsonandindeeddependsonbothacompleteandaccurate
descriptionoftheproject,alternatives,andrelatedactivities,andtheinformationonthe
environmentalsetting.Theassessmentmaytakeintoaccountproposedenvironmental
measuresincorporatedintothesiting,designandprocessesandprocedures,buttotheextent
thatthisisdoneintheassessmentofimpacts,thoseactionsshouldbeincludedinthe
EnvironmentalManagementsectionoftheEIAwhichdescribesthecommitmentsoftheproject
developertoenvironmentalmeasuresactivities.Inotherwords,youcannotassumefor
purposesofanalysisthattheimpactishalfofwhatitwouldotherwisebebecauseofacontrol
deviceandfailtoincludethatcontroldeviceintheenvironmentalmeasuresthatarecommitted
tofortheproject.Controltechnologiesproposedarealsooftenpartoftheprojectalternatives
addressedbalancingcostagainstbenefits.
5. KeyassumptionsshouldbeexplicitintheEIA.Becausepredictionisonlyasgoodasthe
assumptionsandtheappropriatenessofthetools,informationrequiredshouldbeexplicitly
spelledoutintheEIAfortherevieweranddecisionmaker.Arangeofpredictivetoolsmaybe
available,andtheusershouldjustifyandvalidateorqualifythetoolsanddatausedbasedon
thesitelocationandsituation.Topography,meteorology,hydrology,landuseandground
cover,energyinputtypesandrates,andconditionsthatmaybeuniquetotheprojectsite
shouldalsobeconsidered.
6. CumulativeImpactsshouldnotbeignored.Impactsofprojectconstructionandoperation
shouldbeaddedtoexistingandotherpredictedimpacts(otherprojectsalreadyplannedor
95
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
underdevelopment),astheoverallnetimpactsshouldbeaddressed.Thisappliesnotonlyto
theproject,butalsoimpactstowaterresources,noiselevels,airresources,biologicresources,
concessionsareas,andifappropriatemarineandcoastalresources.
7. Toemploypredictivetoolsitusuallyisnecessarytocalculateintermediaryfactorssuchasthe
resultingdirectemissionsorreleasesintotheenvironmentfromagivensetofactivities,or,the
areaandtypeoflanddisturbance,numberofemployeesthatmayberequiredduring
constructionphases,andotherfactors.Byapplyingtheseintermediaryfactorstowhatisknown
abouttheenvironmentalsetting,predictivetoolsprovidequantitativeandqualitative
informationontheimpactsbaseduponknownoranticipatedrelationships.
1.2 GeographicBoundariesforAssessmentofImpacts
Thegeographicboundariesforassessmentofimpactsareanimportantfactorincorrectassessmentof
impacts.Itisoftencalledtheareaofinfluence.Determiningthegeographicboundariesdependson
thecharacteristicsoftheresourcesaffected,themagnitudeandscaleoftheproject'spotentialimpacts,
thetimingofthesourceofimpacts,thedurationoftheimpactsthemselvesandtheenvironmental
setting.Inpractice,acombinationofnaturalandinstitutionalboundariesmayberequiredtoadequately
considerbothpotentialimpactsandpossibleenvironmentalmeasures.Ultimately,thescopeofthe
analysiswilldependonanunderstandingofhowtheeffectsareoccurringintheassessmentarea.
1.2.1 ProjectFootprint
Developmentofprocessflowdiagramsandassociatedplotplansisessentialtounderstandingthe
footprintofaproject,andpotentialimpacts.Sources,pollutanttransportmechanismsandpotential
impactswithintheprojectboundaryandwithintheareaofinfluencecanbemoreeasilyunderstoodand
addressediftheassessmentstartswithsuchgraphicoverviewsoftheproject.Outputsofnumerical
predictivemodelscanalsobeoverlaidonplotplansandmapsofsurroundingareas.Boththefootprint
ofthedisturbedarea,adjacentareasfortemporarystorageofequipment,ordebrisandthefinalsite
planfortheprojectneedtobeconsideredinthefootprint.
1.2.2 AreaofInfluence
Determiningtheareaofinfluenceforaprojectcanbecomplex.Itisrarelylimitedtotheproject
boundaryorauniformradiusaroundtheprojectsite,andmayincludesensitiveandprotectedareasat
greaterdistancesthanmaybenormallythoughtofasbeingwithintheareaofinfluence.Definingthe
areaofinfluenceisoften,ifnotalways,variableanddependentontheaffectedresource,including
humanhealthandwelfare;thephaseofdevelopment;thedurationoftheimpacts;andthetypeof
impacts(direct,indirectandcumulative).
Areaofinfluenceconsiderationsbasedontypeofresourceinclude:
ShorelinesandBeaches:Tourismdevelopmentinwaterandatwatersedgehavevepotential
impactswellbeyondtheprojectfootprint.Coastalprocessesarecomplex;theforcesofwind,
waves,storms,sealevelchanges,andothernaturalprocessesmovethesedimentsthatshape
andreshapethecoastlinesandbeaches.Coastaldevelopmentprojectsoftenchangescurrents,
scourpotential,sanddeposition,etc.notonlyattheprojectsitebutonadjacentareas.Most
shorelinedevelopmentrequirescomplexanalysesofawiderangeofconditionsjusttoprotect
thetourismfacilities.Hazardsevaluationsarealwaysrequired.Thesesameanalysescanbe
extendedtoforecastpotentialimpacts.
Ecosystemsandwatersheds:Theboundariesofcoastaldevelopmentprojectsshouldbebased
onwatershedunits,theresourcesofconcernandthecharacteristicsofthespecificareatobe
96
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
assessed.Inmanycases,theanalysisshoulduseanecologicalregionboundarythatfocuseson
thenaturalunitsthatconstitutetheresourcesofconcernandwatershedareasthatsustainthe
resourcesofconcern.Importantly,thegeographicalboundariesshouldnotbeextendedtothe
pointthattheanalysisbecomesunwieldyanduselessfordecisionmaking.Inpractice,theareas
forseveraltargetspeciesorcomponentsoftheecosystemcanoftenbecapturedbyasingle
ecoregionorwatershed.
BiologicalResources:Theareaofinfluenceforbiologicalresourcesisdefinedbythepresenceof
floraandfaunaandkeyhabitatareasforterrestrial,freshwater,ormarinespecies.Theareaof
influencecanbecomplicatedbythepresenceofmigratoryspeciesthatarenotpresentyear
roundandecosystemswhicharesensitiveandunique.Thus,areasthatareagreatdistance
awayfromtheprojectcanbeinfluencedbytheproject.
SoilsandGeology:Theareaofinfluenceforimpactsonsoilisusuallylocalizedandrestrictedto
theprojectfootprintanddisturbedarea,anditsimmediatesurroundings.However,evaluation
ofgeologichazardsshouldconsidertheareaofpotentialimpactofgeologicrisks.
WaterResources:Theareaofinfluencerelatedtoreleasesofpollutantstoawaterbodywill
dependonthenatureofthewatershed,typeofwaterbody(e.g.,stream,river,lake,orcoastal
oceanarea),thevolumeandflowofthatwaterbody,thenatureofthepollutant,andthe
chemicalcharacteristicsofthewaterbody.Forwaterreleases,theareaofinfluencecanbe
limitedtoasingleriverorstream,butcouldextendmanymilesdownstreamtogroundwater
andevenfeedingotherareasofthewatershed.Theareaofinfluencerelatedtouseofwater
willdependuponthewatersource(e.g.,surfacewaterbody,groundwater,captured
wastewater),thevolumeofwaterrequired,andcompetingusesforthewater.
Estuaries:Estuariesformatransitionzonebetweenriverenvironmentsandocean
environmentsandaresubjecttobothmarineandriverineinfluences.Estuariesarevery
productivenaturalhabitats.Developmentactivitiesfromdredgingandconstructionmayalter
watercirculationandwavepatternscausingchangesinsalinity,waterquality,turbidity,and
sedimentation,bothattheprojectsiteandelsewhereintheestuary.Estuariesoftenhave
complexsubstratesandconstructionanddredgingactivitiescanadverselyaffectbottom
dwellingandbenthiccommunities.Wetlands,vegetatedshallowsandmudflatsarevery
productivehabitatsthatcanbeparticularlyvulnerabletodevelopmentactivities.
CoastalWatersandOpenOcean:Watersthatextendfromthehighwaterlineouttoseamay
alsobeinfluencedbycoastaldevelopments.Similartoestuaries,developmentactivitiesfrom
dredgingandconstructionmayalterwatercirculationandwavepatternscausingchangesin
salinity,waterquality,turbidity,andsedimentationbothattheprojectsiteandatmoredistant
locationsintheregionalsystem.Constructioninthelittoralzonemayinterrupttheflowof
sedimentsresultinginunwantedaccretionorexcessiveerosion.Bottomdwellingandbenthic
communitiesinthesewatersmayalsobeimpacted.Vegetatedshallowsandcoralreefsinthese
areasarealsovulnerabletodevelopmentactivities.
AirQuality:Theareaofinfluenceforairemissionswillbeinfluencedbyprevailingwinds,
weatherpatterns,terrain,andthenatureofthepollutantbeingconsidered.Sophisticatedair
dispersionmodelscanpredictspatialpatternsofairdispersionanddepositionforvarious
chemicalsandallowforclosedelineationoftheareaofinfluence.Local,regionalandglobalair
qualityimpactsshouldbeconsidered.
LandUseandSocioeconomics:Theareaofinfluencewilldependonregionalsocioeconomic
conditionsandtheextenttowhichtheproposedprojectandassociatedactivitiesmayalterthe
essentialcharacteroftheareaanditspopulation,existingorplannedlanduse.Thegeographic
boundaryappropriateforanalysiscanbequitedifferentinruralasopposedtourban
97
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
environments.Theareaofinfluencecanbelocalizedandrestrictedtotheprojectfootprintand
immediatesurroundings,butbecauseofinducedindirectimpactsitcanbefarreaching.
Noise:Theareaofinfluencemaytakeseveralformsfornoise.Visitorstoundevelopedareas
candisturbanimalmating,breedingandcommunications.Theoperationalnoiseofeveryday
facilityoperations(airconditioners,waterbasedandroadbasedtransportationnoise,etc.)and
theintermittentnoisefromoutdoorentertainmentvenues(musicorsportscrowds,patron
noise,carparknoise,etc.)andtransportationofsuppliesandvisitors.Thesecanhavediffering
areasofinfluence,analysisandmitigation.
Politicalboundaries:Intherealmofstandards,policies,plansandprogramsandsocio
economicculturalimpactstherearenotonlynaturalboundaries,butalsopoliticalboundaries
includinginternationalborders,regionalandlocalgovernmentswithvaryingrequirements,
values,andpractices.
1.2.3 AreaofInfluenceConsiderationsBasedonProjectPhaseandDurationofImpacts
SiteCharacterization:Theareaofinfluenceisusuallylimitedtotheimmediateareaofactivities.
InthecaseofCoastalDevelopment,theareaofinfluencetendstobelargerthanlandbased
becauseofthecomplexcoastalsystemsofcurrents,winds,andwaves.
Construction:Theareaofinfluenceincludestheprojectfootprintandimmediatesurroundings,
andthesocioeconomicregionssupplyingworkers.Again,specialattentionshouldbedirected
tocoastalconstruction,bothinwaterandlandbased.
Operations:Theareaofinfluenceincludestheprojectfootprintandsurroundingsareasaffected
activities,andthesocioeconomicregionssupplyingworkers.Coastaldevelopmentmayhave
additionaloperationalcomponentssuchasmaintenancedredgingofnavigationalchannels,
dockareasandmarinas,beachrenourishmentactivities,upkeepofcoastalengineering
structuresdesignedtoprotectthetourismcomplex,etc.
Closure:Theareaofinfluenceincludestheprojectfootprintandimmediatesurroundings,and
thesocioeconomicregionssupplyingworkers.
Durationofimpacts:Determiningthetemporalscoperequiresestimatingthelengthoftime
theimpactsoftheproposedactionwilllast.Morespecifically,thislengthoftimeextendsas
longastheimpactsmaysingly,orincombinationwithotherpotentialpotentialimpacts,be
significantontheresourcesofconcern.
1.2.4 AreaofInfluenceConsiderationsBasedonTypeofImpact
Aprojectsdirect,indirectandcumulativeimpactsmayaffecttheareaofinfluence.Generally,the
scopeofanalysisforassessingcumulativeimpactswillbebroaderthanthescopeofanalysisusedin
assessingdirectorindirecteffects.Spatialandtemporalboundariesshouldnotbeoverlyrestrictedin
cumulativeimpactanalysis.However,toavoidextendingdataandanalyticalrequirementsbeyond
thoserelevanttodecisionmaking,thecumulativeimpactassessmentcanstopatthepointwherethe
contributionofeffectsoftheaction,orcombinationofallactions,tothecumulativeimpactisnot
significant.Theimportantfactorindeterminingcumulativeimpactistheconditionoftheresource(i.e.,
towhatextentitisdegraded).Anappropriatespatialscopeofthecumulativeimpactanalysiscanbe
madebyconsideringhowtheresourcesarebeingaffected.Thisdeterminationinvolvestwobasicsteps:
1. Identifyingageographicareathatincludesresourcespotentiallyaffectedbytheproposed
project.
2. Extendingthatarea,whennecessary,toincludethesameandotherresourcesaffected,
positivelyornegatively,bythecombinedimpactsoftheprojectandotheractions.
98
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
1.3 Baseline
Impactsarealwaysassessedagainstabaseline.ThebaselineusedinanEIAisthenoaction
alternative.Thisisadescriptionoftheenvironmentintheabsenceoftheproposedprojectbut
includingconsiderationofotherchangespredictedtotakeplaceovertimeintheabsenceofthe
proposedproject.Thebaselineforassessingimpactsisdifferentfromexistingconditionsasitdoes
considerotherchangesthatmayoccurinfuturebutindependentoftheproject,e.g.,otherproject
startups,closuresormajormodifications.Thegeographicandpoliticalboundariesforassessingproject
impactswilldependupontheaffectedresourceandthenatureofthepotentialimpactsandmayalsobe
influencedbythedistancesspecifiedbytheorganizationresponsibleforEIAreview,likelyspecifiedin
theTermsofReferenceand/orEIAapplicationform.
SectionD,EnvironmentalSetting,goesintoconsiderabledetailonbaselinedatarequirements.
Acquisitionordevelopmentofaccuratebaselinedataisveryimportantinassessingtheenvironmental
impactsofaTourismproject.
1.4 EvaluationoftheSignificanceofImpacts
InassessingtheenvironmentalimpactsofaTourismprojectoneshoulddeterminethemagnitude,
locationandsignificanceoftheimpact.
1.4.1
QuantitativeThresholds
Ifregulatorycriteriaandstandardsexist(e.g.,airqualitystandards,waterqualitystandards,
radiationexposurestandards),thesecanserveasbenchmarksagainstwhichimpactscan
beassesseded.assessedExceedingthestandardsdefinitelywouldbeconsidered
significant.SomeoftheCAFTADRcountriesmaylackcertainstandardsthatmightbeusedfor
criteriafordeterminingthesignificanceofanimpact.InAppendixCthisguidelineprovidesa
rangeofstandardsusedinternationallyandforarangeofcountriesthatmaybeusedforthis
purposeinlieuofintheabsenceofcountrystandardsintheabsenceofregulatoryperformance
standards.
Ifadequatedataandanalyticalproceduresareavailable,specificthresholdsthatindicate
degradationoftheresourcesofconcernshouldbeincludedintheEIAanalysis.Thethresholds
shouldbepractical,scientificallydefensible,andfitthescaleoftheanalysis.Thresholdsmaybe
setasspecificnumericalstandards(e.g.,dissolvedoxygencontenttoassesswaterquality,
particulatematterlevelstoassessairquality,etc.),qualitativestandardsthatconsiderbiological
componentsofanecosystem(e.g.,riparianconditionandpresenceofparticularbiophysical
attributes),and/ordesiredmanagementgoals(e.g.,openspaceorunalteredhabitat).
Thresholdsshouldberepresentedbyameasurementthatwillreportthechangeinresource
conditioninmeaningfulunits.Thischangeisthenevaluatedintermsofboththetotalthreshold
beyondwhichtheresourcedegradestounacceptablelevelsandtheincrementalcontributionof
theproposedactiontoreachingthatthreshold.Themeasurementshouldbescientifically
based.
1.4.2 ProfessionalJudgment
Establishingcriteriaforinsignificantandsignificantimpactsmayalsorelyonprofessionaljudgment,but
theseshouldbewelldefinedintheassessment.Criteriaoftenneedtobeestablishedseparatelyfor
eachresource.Theideaofdirectandindirect,orsecondaryimpactsshouldalsobeconsidered,whereas
99
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
lossofjobsbypersonsandindustriesthatdependontheforestorothersystemsdependontheforest
wouldbeasecondaryorindirectimpact.
AreaofInfluence:Discussedinsubsection1.2.
PercentageofResourceAffected:Thiscanincludehabitat,landuse,andwaterresources.
PersistenceofImpacts:Permanentorlongtermchangesareusuallymoresignificantthan
temporaryones.Theabilityoftheresourcetorecoveraftertheactivitiesarecompleteis
relatedtothiseffect.
SensitivityofResources:Impactstosensitiveresourcesareusuallymoresignificantthan
impactstothosethatarerelativelyresilienttoimpacts.
StatusofResources:Impactstorareorlimitedresourcesareusuallyconsideredmoresignificant
thanimpactstocommonorabundantresources.
RegulatoryStatus:Impactstoresourcesthatareprotected(e.g.,endangeredspecies,wetlands,
airquality,culturalresources,waterquality)typicallyareconsideredmoresignificantthan
impactstothosewithoutregulatorystatus.Notethatmanyresourceswithregulatorystatus
arerareorlimited.
SocietalValue:Someresourceshavesocietalvalue,suchassacredsites,traditionalsubsistence
resources,andrecreationalarea
1.4.3
Forsomepurposesqualitativeassessmentcriteriamaybeusedsuchas:
None:Nodiscernibleorquantifiableimpacts.
Small:Environmentaleffectsareatthelowerlimitsofdetectionoraresominorthattheywill
neitherdestabilizenornoticeablyalteranyimportantattributeoftheresource.
Moderate:Environmentaleffectsaresufficienttonoticeablyalterimportantattributesofthe
resourcebutnottodestabilizethem.
Large:Environmentaleffectsareclearlynoticeableandaresufficienttodestabilizetheresource.
Parameterassumptionsandtheexperienceofthemodeler.
Theresultsofthepredictionsofimpactsareoftenreportedinsummarytablesandmatricestofacilitate
comparisonsacrossdifferentalternatives.
1.4.4 ChecklistsandMatrices
Checklistsandmatricesdonotconstitutemethodsforactuallyassessingthesignificanceofimpactsbut
rather,areusedtofacilitatethecharacterizationofthesignificanceofimpacts.Checklistsandmatrices
canbeusedtoassistintheidentificationofpossibleimpacts,categorizationofaprojectorvaluationof
thesignificanceofimpactsacrossawidespectrumofpotentialsourcesandimpacts.Theuseof
checklistsforidentifyingand,toalimitedextent,characterizing,environmentalimpactsisverycommon
throughoutexistingEIAprocesses.Achecklistforcestheassessmenttoconsiderastandardizedsetof
activitiesoreffectsforeachproposedaction,thusbringinguniformitytotheassessmentprocess.
Checklistscanbeusedtodetermineenvironmentalimpactthresholds,thusindicatingwhetherafull
scaleEIAisneededforaparticularprojectorwhetherafindingofnosignificantimpactmightbeissued.
Theevolutionfromchecklisttomatrixisintuitivelyandeasilyaccomplished.Achecklistcanbeviewed
asasinglecolumnsummaryofaproposedaction,withonlyacoarsecharacterizationofthenatureand
magnitudeofpotentialenvironmentalimpactsprovided.AnEIAmatrixprovidesafinerdegreeof
impactcharacterizationbyassociatingasetofcolumns(actions)witheachrow(environmental
attribute)ofthematrixandassigningsomevaluetotheeffect.
100
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
MatricesareverylikelythemostpopularandwidelyusedEIAmethodology.Onecommonapplicationis
inthecomparisonofalternativeactions.Alternativeactions(measures,projects,sites,designs)are
listedascolumnheadings,whiletherowsarethecriteriathatshoulddeterminethechoiceof
alternative.Ineachcellofthematrix,aconclusioncanbelistedindicatingwhetherthealternative
actionislikelytohaveapositiveornegativeeffectrelativetotheindicatedcriterion.Veryoften,the
conclusionisstatedasanumericalvalueorsymbolindicatingthelevelofintensityoftheeffect.There
isanopportunity,moreover,toapplyrelativeweightingtothevariouscriteriawhenevaluatingthe
completedmatrix.
TheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)RapidEnvironmentalAssessment(REA)checklists,LeopoldMatrix
approach,andthevaluationmatrixusedbyCostaRicatoassessenvironmentalfeasibilityarediscussed
inthefollowingsections.
1.4.3.1. RapidEnvironmentalAssessmentChecklists
RapidEnvironmentalAssessment(REA)checklistsallowarapid,initialassessmentofenvironmental
impactsdevelopedandusedbytheWorldBankandregionaldevelopmentbanks.TheAsian
DevelopmentBank(ADB)REAchecklistapproachisanexcellentmeansbywhichthepossible
environmentalandsocialimpactsofanygivenprojectcanbeinitiallyassessed.Theapproachassistsin
assuringthatfromthestarttherearenoseriouserrorsoromissionswithrespecttopossibleimpacts.
Theapproachisalsousefulincomparingpossibleenvironmentalandsocioeconomicimpactsof
alternativeprojectsand/orofthesameprojectondifferentsites.FigureF1presentsthecontentsof
theADBREAchecklistforprojectsingeneral.AppendixFinVolume2oftheseguidelinespresentsthe
ADBREAchecklistsforenergyprojects(Hydropower,PowerTransmission,SolarEnergy,ThermalPower
Plants,andWindEnergy).
1.4.3.2. LeopoldMatrix
TheLeopoldMatrixisaqualitativeEIAmethodpioneeredin1971bytheUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey
(Leopoldet.al.,1971).Itisusedtoidentifythepotentialimpactofaprojectontheenvironment.The
systemconsistsofamatrixwithcolumnsrepresentingthevariousactivitiesoftheproject,androws
representingthevariousenvironmentalattributesorfactorstobeconsidered.
TheoriginalLeopoldMatrixconsistedof100columnsrepresentingexamplesofcausativeactions,and
88rowsrepresentingenvironmentalcomponentsandcharacteristics(aportionofthematrixis
presentedinFigureF2).Asafirststep,thecolumnsthatcorrespondwiththenatureoftheproposed
actionarecheckedoff.Then,foreachcolumnthatismarked,thecellscorrespondingtoenvironmental
effectsareexamined.Twoscores(onascalefrom1to10)arelistedineachcell,separatedbyaslash
(/);thefirstscorerepresentsthemagnitudeofthepossibleimpact,whilethesecondscorerepresents
theimportanceofthepossibleimpact.Beneficialimpactsareindicatedbyaplus(+)signandnegative
impactswithaminus()sign.Theinterpretationofthematrixisbasedontheprofessionaljudgmentof
thoseindividualsperformingtheEIA.
Measurementsofmagnitudeandimportancetendtoberelated,butdonotnecessarilydirectly
correlate.Magnitudecanbemeasuredfairlyexplicitly,intermsofhowmuchareaisaffectedbythe
developmentandhowadversely,butimportanceisamoresubjectivemeasurement.Whileaproposed
developmentmayhavealargeimpactintermsofmagnitude,theeffectsitcausesmaynotactually
significantlyaffecttheenvironmentasawhole.
101
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
FigureF1:AsianDevelopmentBankrapidenvironmentalassessmentchecklistgeneral
SCREENINGQUESTIONS
YES
A.ProjectSiting
Istheprojectareaadjacenttoorwithinanyofthefollowing
environmentallysensitiveareas?
Culturalheritagesite
Legallyprotectedarea(corezoneorbufferzone)
Wetland
Mangrove
Estuarine
Specialareaforprotectingbiodiversity
B.PotentialEnvironmentalImpacts
Willtheprojectcause
Impairmentofhistorical/culturalareas;disfigurationoflandscapeor
potentialloss/damagetophysicalculturalresources?
Disturbancetopreciousecology(e.g.Sensitiveorprotectedareas)?
NO
REMARKS
Alterationofsurfacewaterhydrologyofwaterwaysresultingin
increasedsedimentinstreamsaffectedbyincreasedsoilerosionat
constructionsite?
Deteriorationofsurfacewaterqualityduetosiltrunoffandsanitary
wastesfromworkerbasedcampsandchemicalsusedin
construction?
Increasedairpollutionduetoprojectconstructionandoperation?
Noiseandvibrationduetoprojectconstructionoroperation?
Involuntaryresettlementofpeople?(physicaldisplacementand/or
economicdisplacement)
Disproportionateimpactsonthepoor,womenandchildren,
IndigenousPeoplesorothervulnerablegroups?
Poorsanitationandsolidwastedisposalinconstructioncampsand
worksites,andpossibletransmissionofcommunicablediseases
(suchasSTI'sandHIV/AIDS)fromworkerstolocalpopulations?
Creationoftemporarybreedinghabitatsfordiseasessuchasthose
transmittedbymosquitoesandrodents?
Socialconflictsifworkersfromotherregionsorcountriesarehired?
Largepopulationinfluxduringprojectconstructionandoperation
thatcausesincreasedburdenonsocialinfrastructureandservices
(suchaswatersupplyandsanitationsystems)?
Risksandvulnerabilitiesrelatedtooccupationalhealthandsafety
duetophysical,chemical,biological,andradiologicalhazardsduring
projectconstructionandoperation?
Riskstocommunityhealthandsafetyduetothetransport,storage,
anduseand/ordisposalofmaterialssuchasexplosives,fueland
otherchemicalsduringconstructionandoperation?
Communitysafetyrisksduetobothaccidentalandnaturalcauses,
especiallywherethestructuralelementsorcomponentsofthe
projectareaccessibletomembersoftheaffectedcommunityor
wheretheirfailurecouldresultininjurytothecommunity
throughoutprojectconstruction,operationanddecommissioning?
Generationofsolidwasteand/orhazardouswaste?
Useofchemicals?
Generationofwastewaterduringconstructionoroperation?
Source:AsianDevelopmentBank,
http://www.adb.org/documents/Guidelines/Environmental_Assessment/eaguidelines002.asp
102
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
FigureF2:SamplepagefromtheLeopoldMatrix
EvaluationMethod
(Rate+orandScore110)
Magnitude
Energy
Supply
RawMaterial
Preparation
Industrial
Processes
Gaseous
Emissions
Liquid
Effluents
Cooling
Water
Discharges
SolidWastes
Treatment
Transportation
CoastalZone
SubsurfaceWater
SeaQuality
AirQuality
Odors
Noise
Forests
Crops
Wetlands
SeaGrasses
RiverFlora
Mammals
Birds
Fish
Othervertebrates
Invertebrates
EcosystemsQuality
EcosystemsDestruction
Rural
Fisheries
Urban
Industrial
RecreationalUses
Landscape
Historical/Cultural
Heritage
WildernessQuality
PopulationDensity
Employment
Hazards
Importance
Water
Fauna
Biological
Ecosystems
Patrimony
Social
Social
LandUses
Environmental/SocialConditions
Flora
Air
Physical
Soil
Action
SoilQuality
RawMaterial
Building
Production Operations
Erosion
Geomorphology
Rivers
Total
Water
Supply
Total
103
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
1.4.3.3. ValuationMatrixinUseinCostaRica
SeveralvariantsoftheLeopoldMatrixhavebeenprepared.Onesuchvariantisthematrixrequiredfor
useinthepreparationofEIAsinCostaRica,theMatrizdeImportanciadeImpactoAmbiental(MIIA).1
TheMIIAisusedtocalculateanumericvaluefortheenvironmentalsignificanceofimpacts.Aswiththe
LeopoldMatrix,theMIIAusesactivitiesastheheadingsforthecolumnsinthematrixand
environmentalfactorsasheadingsfortherows.Foreachboxinthematrixascoreforeachof10
variablesisassignedbytheteamandavaluefortheoverallsignificanceiscalculatedusingthefollowing
formula:
I=[3IN+2EX+MO+PE+RV+SI+AC+EF+PR+MC]
Where: I=Significance
IN=Intensity(Levelofdestructionscoredas1[low]12[veryhigh])
EX=Extension(Sizeofareaofinfluencescoredas1[local]8[extremelyextensive])
MO=MomentofImpact(Timeofimpactrelativetoactionscoredas1[5ormoreyears
afteraction]4[immediate]andcanberaisedto8[anadditional4points]ifthe
impactisconsideredcritical)
PE=Persistence(Lengthoftimetheimpactwillbefeltscoredas1[<1year]4[>5
years])
RV=Reversibility(Abilityofimpactedresourcetonaturallyreturntopreactivity
conditionscoredas1[<1year]4[>5years])
SI=Synergy(Levelofsynergeticeffectsscoredas1[nosynergies]4[highly
synergetic])
AC=CumulativeEffects(Aretheeffectsoftheimpactcumulative?scoredas1[no]or4
[yes])
EF=Effect(Istheimpactdirectorindirect?scoredas1[indirect]or4[direct])
PR=Periodicity(scoredas1[irregular],2[periodic],or4[continuous])
MC=Recoverability(Abilityofhumanactionstorestoretheimpactedresourcetoits
preactivityconditionscoredas1[immediatelyandeasily]8[notpossible])
Theresultingscoreisevaluatedasfollows:
Lessthan25=acceptable
From25through50=moderate
From50through75=severe
Morethan75=critical
1
AfulldescriptionofthematrixcanbefoundinAnnex2ofDecreeNo.32966oftheMinistryoftheEnvironment
andEnergy(MINEA)forCostaRicaat:
http://www.setena.go.cr/documentos/Normativa/32966%20Guia%20para%20elaboracion%20de%20instrumento
s%20EIA%20(MIT%20IV).doc
104
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
1.5 DataRequirementsandSources
Datarequirementsaredeterminedbythetypesandlocationsofimpactstobepredicted,andbythe
modelandothertoolstobeused.Sourcesincludedirectmeasurementandmonitoring,existing
literature,fieldstudies,surveys.Aswithanynumericalmodelingexercise,thevalidityoftheoutputis
governedbytheappropriatenessofmodelselection,qualityofdataused,andtheexperienceofthe
modeler.Whendataareofunconfirmedquality,ofinsufficientquantity,arefromsurrogateoperations
andlocations,orareextrapolatedfromotherstudiesthenresultsshouldbedulycaveat.
Countrieswhichlacksomeofthedatarequiredbyexpertsortorunmodelsforimpactassessmentcan
usetheapproachoftheBestAvailableData(BAD)tosubstitutesimplifiedevaluationcriteriafor
estimatingpotentialimpactsintermsofriskratherthanamodeledestimateoftons/acre,
Further,somecountrieshavebuiltinadaptivemanagementandmonitoringtoovercomethese
uncertaintiesduringprojectimplementation,butthisshouldbedoneonlywherethereisabasic
confidencethatsignificantadverseimpactsareunlikelytooccurorthatrequiredlevelsofperformance
canbemet.
Finally,insomecircumstancesunlikelyscenariosfromaccidentsandnaturaldisastersposerisksthat
maybebeyondexistingbaselineandtrenddatabutneedtobeassessedtoboundpotentialimpactsand
toavoidand/orprepareforadequateresponse.TheTextBoxbelowdescribesapproachestobindthe
risksbydevelopingscenariosforthesecircumstances.
2 GENERALAPPROACHESFORPREDICTIONOFIMPACTS
2.1 PredictiveTools
Predictionofimpactsonphysical,biologicalandsocialeconomicculturalresourcesisaccomplishedby
usingavarietyofpredictivetechniques,withresultscomparedtoacceptedcriteria,toevaluatethe
significanceofanimpact.Therearearangeofpredictivetechniquesthatcanbeusedincluding
Experts/professionaljudgment
Extrapolationfrompasttrends/statisticalmodels
Scenariosbaseduponrisksandpotentialhazardsnotcapturedbypasttrends
Measuredresourceresponsesinothersimilargeographicareas
Modelingoftheresource
Geographicinformationsystems
Foranyofthesepredictionmethods,datarequirementsaredeterminedbythetypesandlocationsof
impactstobepredicted,andbytheconceptualorquantitativemodeltobeused.Aswithanynumerical
modelingexercise,thevalidityoftheoutputisgovernedbytheappropriatenessofmodelselection,
qualityofdataused,parameterassumptions.Whendataareofunconfirmedquality,ofinsufficient
quantity,arefromsurrogateoperationsandlocations,orareextrapolatedfromotherstudiesthen
resultsshouldbedulycaveated.
Theremainderofthissectionoftheguidelinesidentifiesquantitativemodelsforassessingimpactsas
examplesofscientificallyacceptedpractices,butcriteriaforapplyingaspecificmethodologyinany
givencircumstancesshouldbecarefullyassessedandjustified,datasourcesandassumptionsmade
105
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
clearandanyresultinguncertaintiesidentified.ItisimportantinthedevelopmentofanEIAthatmodels
areusedwiselyandthattheresultsarenotacceptedwithoutstrenuousreview.Quantitativemodels,
calibratedtoparticularsettingsandcircumstances,areparticularlyusefultoassessimpactstoairand
waterresourcesaswellaspotentialriskstohumansandbiota,andmayevenberequiredasa
consistentandobjectiveapproachtoevaluatingimpactswherethosemodelsarevalidatedforuseinthe
particularcircumstances.Oneotheradvantageofusingmodelsisthatsensitivityanalysescanbe
performedandwhatifscenarioscanbemodeledtoidentifythenatureandextentofimpactsand
identifywhichvariablescontributetoimpactsaswellasuncertaintyoftheresults.
2.2 GeographicInformationSystemsandVisualizationTools
Tounderstandthepotentialimpactsofaproject,itisimportanttobeabletovisualizeandcalculate
changeswhichmayoccur.Thiscanbedonebydevelopingmapswhichshowpreprojectandpost
projectconditions.Inmanycountries,geographicinformationsystems(GIS)areusedextensivelyfor
thispurpose.GIScaptures,stores,analyzes,manages,andpresentsdatathatislinkedtolocation.GIS
applicationsaretoolsthatallowuserstocreateinteractivequeries(usercreatedsearches),analyze
spatialinformation,editdata,maps,andpresenttheresultsofalltheseoperations.AGISincludes
mappingsoftwareanditsapplicationwithremotesensing,landsurveying,aerialphotography,
mathematics,photogrammetry,geography,andothertools.
U.S.EPAsNEPAssisttoolwasdevelopedtoprovideanewgenerationofGISapplicationstoassistwith
EIAscreeningwhichhasthefeaturesofa)instantaneouswebbasedaccesstodistributedsourcesof
information,b)spatialintegrationwitheasilyturnedonandoffdatalayers,andc)instantaneous
analysisusingpresetyes/noquestionsinanenvironmentwhichallowstheusertochangeassumptions
andbuffersforquantitativescreeningforinformationonkeyfeatures,theirproximity.Information
sourcesareannotatedusingmetadatawhichenablestheusertodeterminewhocollectedthe
information,howuptodateitisandthelike.ThistoolhasbeensharedwithalloftheCAFTADR
countrieswiththeirowninterfaces,datasources,andanalyticalquestions.
2.3 SelectingandApplyingQuantitativePredictiveTools
Modelsoftheexistingenvironment,calibratedtolocalconditions,areusedtointroducenew
assumptionsandpredictfutureconditions.Modelsprovideadisciplineforcingtheusertoidentifyand
justifykeyassumptionsandrangesofuncertaintyinthecapacityofthemodeltopredictaccurately
underarangeofconditions.
ItisimportantinthedevelopmentofanEIAthatmodelsareusedwiselyandthattheresultsarenot
acceptedwithoutstrenuousreview.Needlesstosay,theadvantageofusingquantitativemodelsisthat
sensitivityanalysescanbeperformedandwhatifscenarioscanbemodeledtoidentifythenatureand
extentofimpactsandidentifywhichvariablescontributetoimpactsaswellasuncertaintyoftheresults.
Whenlimitedbaselinedataareavailableortheexactnatureoftheprojectisnotknown,impact
determinationsusingmodelsshouldbebasedonanumberofassumptions.Eachoftheassumptions
hassomeuncertaintyassociatedwithit.Tocompensatefortheseuncertainties,conservative
assumptionsareusuallymadetoensurethatimpactsarenotunderestimated.Evenwithconservative
assumptions,impactsthatarepoorlyunderstood(e.g.,theresponseofresourcestotheenvironmental
changesbroughtaboutbytheprojectisnotknown)canbeunderestimatedorimproperlycharacterized.
Conservativeassumptionscanresultingreatlyoverestimatingimpactsandunnecessarycostsfora
projectifenvironmentalmeasuresarenotproperlydirectedandscaledtotheimpact.
106
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
Differentcountriesmayalsorequireoracceptcertainmodels.Itisimperativethatsuchrequirements
orpreferencesbedeterminedwellinadvanceofperformanceofmodeling.Thiswillassurethat
adequatetimeisallowedtocollectinputdatarequiredbythemodel(s)andthatresultsareacceptedby
organizationsthatshouldapprovetheEIA.
Thefollowingsubsectionspresentabriefoverviewofhowtheseanalyticalmethodscanbeusedin
assessingimpactsofproposedpowergenerationandtransmissionprojects.
ANALYZINGANDPREPARINGFORPOTENTIALRISK:USEOFBOUNDINGSCENARIOS
EIAstourismprojectsshouldincludeananalysisofrisks.Theanalysisshouldrepresenttherangeof
potentialimpactsofpotentialaccidentsanddestructivenaturalevents,includingthosefromlikely
scenariosaswellasthosefromlowprobability,highconsequencescenarios.(Thelatterare
sometimesreferredtoasworstcasescenariosbutthistermcanbemisleading.)Theanalysisofrisk
shouldbeconsideredinthedesignofallstructuresaswellasinthedevelopmentofspilland
catastrophicfailurecontingencyplans.Moderntourismprojectsutilizestateoftheartmodelsto
predictthepotentialenvironmentalimpactstowater,air,andotherresourcesaswellaspotential
exposurestopopulationsatrisk.Toavoidunderpredictingimpacts,modelsuseconservative
assumptionsandanalyzepotentialaccidentsornaturaldisasterswiththemostsevereconsequences
reasonablyforeseeabletooccur.Theseanalysesenabletheidentificationofcontrolstoprotect
humanhealthandtheenvironmentevenundertheseunlikelybutforeseeablesituations.This
analyticalapproachensuresthattheriskanalysesintheEIAboundthepotentialrisks.Thatis,the
analysisrepresentsthefullrangeofrisksandwillnotunderpredictthemostsevereconsequences.
Thereareunderstandablypolicydecisionsthatareinherentincarryingoutthistypeofanalysisasto
thethresholdfordefiningareasonablesetofassumptionsindevelopingthesescenarios.
Thisapproachhasbeenusedtodesigncontroltechnologies,fornaturalresourceprotection(wetlands
andsensitivehabitats),createdhabitats(beaches,etc.)aswellasfacilities.Inthecaseofunforeseen
weatherevents,hurricanes,earthquakes,volcaniceruptionsandotherevents,contingencyplans
shouldbeappliedto:
Emergencynotificationandevacuation
Firecontrol
Spillcleanupitisrecommendedthatspillkitsarekeptatstrategiclocationsthroughout
fixedfacilitytourismsites
Warningsystems
Medicalsupport
Otheritemsdealingwiththehealthandsafetyoftheworkersandthelocalcommunity
Inaddition,aprogramshouldbedevelopedtotrainpersonnelhowtoreacttoemergencysituations.
Inevaluatingthesescenarios,theregulatorshouldbeawareoftheenvironmentalandsocioeconomic
settingtoensurethattheconservativeassumptionsmadetodevelopthescenariosarereasonable.
Forinstance,watermanagementexpertsreviewinganEIAriskanalysisoftenrequirethat
impoundmentsbedesignedtohandlerunofffromamaximumprobablerainfallevent.Thecalculation
ofsuchaneventisbasedonmanyyearsofdata.Thesedatamaynotbeavailableforaparticular
drainageandinformationshouldbegatheredfromothersimilarareasifavailable.Inaddition,
climatechangemayincreasethefrequencyoflargestormeventspossiblymakinghistoricdataless
reliableforpredictivepurposes.Ittakesprofessionaljudgmenttoensurethattherightapproachis
taken.Itisalsoimportantforthereviewerstoensurethatincaseofadisasteroremergencythat
contingencyplansareinplace.
107
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
3 SOILSANDGEOLOGYIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS
Evaluationofimpactsduetoconstructionofatourismfacilityonsoilsandgeologyisusuallybasedon
professionaljudgmentaswellasonexistingliterature,fieldstudies,surveys,trendanalysisormeasured
resourceresponsesinothergeographicareas.ToolssuchasGISoverlayingactivitiesonmapsofsoils
andgeologyandgraphicsgeneratedfromcomprehensivedatabasesareusefultowardvisualizationand
determinationofthemagnitudeofpotentialimpacts.
3.1 SoilLossandErosionPotential
Forsoils,itisimportanttounderstandthepotentialforsoillossduetowindandwatererosion.TheUS
NaturalResourcesConservationService(NRCSARCundated)developedthewinderosionequation
(WEQ)expressedinfunctionformas:
E=f(I,K,C,L,V)
Where: E=thepotentialaverageannualsoilloss
I=thesoilerodibilityindex
K=thesoilridgeroughnessfactor
C=theclimatefactor
L=unsheltereddistanceacrossafield
V=theequivalentvegetativecover
Becausefielderodibilityvarieswithfieldconditions,aproceduretosolveWEQforperiodsoflessthan
oneyearwasdevised.Inthisprocedure,aseriesoffactorvaluesareselectedtodescribesuccessive
managementperiodsinwhichbothmanagementfactorsandvegetativecoversarenearlyconstant.
Erosivewindenergydistributionisusedtoderiveaweightedsoillossforeachperiod.Soillossesfor
individualperiodsaresummedtoestimateannualerosion.Soillossfromtheperiodsalsocanbe
summedformultiyearrotations,andthelossdividedbythenumberofyearstoobtainanaverage,
annualestimate.
TheNRCShasalsodevelopedtheWindErosionPredictionSystem(WEPS)thatincorporatesthisnew
technologyandisdesignedtobeareplacementfortheWEQ.UnlikeWEQ,WEPSisaprocessbased,
continuous,dailytimestepmodelthatsimulatesweather,fieldconditions,anderosion.Itisauser
friendlyprogramthathasthecapabilityofsimulatingspatialandtemporalvariabilityoffieldconditions
andsoilloss/depositionwithinafield.WEPScanalsosimulatecomplexfieldshapes,barriersnotonthe
fieldboundaries,andcomplextopographies.Thesaltation,creep,suspension,andPM10components
oferodingmaterialscanalsobereportedseparatelybydirectioninWEPS.WEPSisdesignedtobeused
underawiderangeofconditionsintheU.S.andeasilyadaptedtootherpartsoftheworld.
Forsoillossduetowatererosion,estimationcanbedoneusingRUSLEdescribedintheboxbelow.
108
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
SOILLOSS
Predictingsoillossandsedimentduetorainfallerosionisanimportantaspectinassessingtheimpactsof
activitiesthatmaycausedisturbanceoflargesurfaceareas.TheRevisedUniversalSoilLossEquation(RUSLE)is
anempiricalequationdevelopedbytheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA,1997)thatpredictsannual
erosion(tons/acre/yr)resultingfromsheetandrillerosionincroplands
(http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=5971).TheRUSLEemploysaseriesoffactors,each
quantifyingoneormoreoftheimportantsoillossprocessesandtheirinteractions,combinedtoyieldanoverall
estimateofsoilloss.Theequationis(USDA,1997):
A R K ( LS ) C P
Where: A=Annualsoilloss(tons/acre)resultingfromsheetandrillerosion
R=Rainfallrunofferosivityfactormeasuringtheeffectofrainfallonerosion.TheRfactoriscomputed
usingtherainfallenergyandthemaximum30minutesintensity(EI30);
K= Soilerodibilityfactormeasuringtheresistanceofthesoiltodetachmentandtransportationby
raindropimpactandsurfacerunoff.Soilerodibilityisafunctionoftheinherentsoilproperties,
includingorganicmattercontent,particlesize,permeability,etc.IntheUSDAsoilsdatasets,twoK
factorsaregiven,KwandKf.Soilerodibilityfactors(Kw)and(Kf)quantifysoildetachmentby
runoffandraindropimpact.Theseerodibilityfactorsareindexesusedtopredictthelongterm
averagesoilloss,fromsheetandrillerosionundercropsystemsandconservationtechniques.
FactorKwappliestothewholesoil,andKfappliesonlythefineearthfraction,whichisthe<2.0
mmfraction(USDA,1997).
L= Slopelengthfactoraccountingfortheeffectsofslopelengthontherateoferosion;
S= Slopesteepnessfactoraccountingfortheeffectsofslopeangleonerosionrates.
C= Covermanagementfactoraccountingfortheinfluenceofsoilandcovermanagement,suchas
tillagepractices,croppingtypes,croprotation,fallow,etc.,onsoilerosionrates.TheCfactoris
derivedfromlanduse/landcovertypes.
P= Erosioncontrolfactoraccountingfortheinfluenceofsupportpracticessuchascontouring,strip
cropping,terracing,etc.
Source:http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=5971
3.2 BeachErosion
Impactsfromandonbeacherosioncanbesignificant.Theconstructionoftourismfacilitiesonornear
thebeachmaybeimpactedbybeacherosion,andwhennotcarefullyplannedanddesigned,can
exacerbateerosionattheprojectsiteandevenoverthebroadercoastalregion.Shoreserode,accrete,
orremainstable,dependingontheratesatwhichsedimentissuppliedandremovedfromtheshore.
Constructionalongthecoastcaninterruptthesupplyofsedimentthatmovesalongthecoast,resulting
inincreaseddepositionorerosion.Increasederosionmaybeexperiencedfarfromtheprojectsite.
Excessiveerosionoraccretionmayendangerthestructuralintegrityorfunctionalusefulnessofabeach,
nearbytourismfacilities,orothercoastalstructures.Aregionalcharacterizationofcoastalandriverine
sedimenttransportratesandmagnitudes,aswellastheengineeringactivitieswithintheregion
(dredgingandplacementoflittoralresources),isabasiccomponentindesigningandevaluatingthe
responseofprojectswithinthewatershed.Theregionalsedimentbudgetisaquantificationofthese
naturalsedimenttransportprocessesandanthropogenicactivitiesandisavaluabletoolinassessing
beachimpacts.TheSedimentBudgetAnalysisSystem(SBAS)isaPCbasedapplicationforcalculating
anddisplayinglocalandregionalsedimentbudgets.
109
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
Thebeachconstantlyadjustsitsprofiletoprovideinresponsetowinds,waves,andwaterlevels.
Sedimentsmoveinbothalongtheshoreandacrossthenearshoreandbeachinresponsetothe
environmentalforcing.Naturalprotectivedunesareformedbywindsthatblowoverthebeachand
vegetationoftengrowsonthedunes.Thedunesystemprovidesaleveeagainstseaattackandprovides
areservoirofsand.Theresilienceofabeachfromexcessiveerosionandasalineofprotectionfor
coastalinfrastructureImpactsfromandonbeacherosioncanbesignificant.Theresilienceofabeach
fromdisturbancedependsgreatlyonthepresenceoffeaturessuchasdunesandvegetation.Beach
nourishmentiswidelyadoptedtomaintainawidebeachanddunesystemforadevelopedcoastal
communityifasuitablebeachfillisavailableinthevicinityofanerodingbeach.
Predictivetoolsareavailabletoaugmentprofessionaljudgmenttotakeintoaccountthechangesthat
mayoccurinthebeachsysteminresponsetowavesandwaterlevelsaswellasanychangesthatmay
occurduetotheconstructionofproposedtourismprojects.Thesetoolscanalsobeappliedtodesign
beachnourishmentprojects.
CoastalprocessmodelssuchasGENESISandSBEACHcanbeappliedtopredicttheresponseofthe
beachtotheconstructionoftourismfacilitiesandothercoastalstructuresaswellassistinthedesignof
beachnourishmentprojects.TheGENESISmodelprovidesestimatesoflongtermshorelinechangeand
theSBEACHmodelcalculatestheresponseofthebeachprofiletostormevents.TheGENESISmodel
includesasimplerepresentationofwavetransformationacrossthenearshoreregionorcanemploy
resultsfromamoresophisticatedwavetransformationmodelsuchasSTWAVE.TheBeachfxmodel
combinestheresultsofthesemodelsinaneventdrivenMonteCarloapproachthatcanincorporate
beachprofileresponsetostorms,shorelinechangedrivenbylongtermcoastalprocesses,andbeach
managementactivities.Beachfxisaplanningleveltoolthatcanevaluateproposedprojectalternatives
incomparisonwithawithoutprojectcondition.Themodeliscapableofquantifying,withuncertainty
thedamagespreventedorinducedbyaproject.Linkstothesemodelsandbriefdescriptionsare
providedinTableF4.
3.3 GeologicResourcesandHazards
Itisimportanttohaveathoroughunderstandingofthegeologichazardsthatareorcouldbeatthesite.
Theseinclude:
Landslidehazards:Typesofmovementsanddepths,suchasshallowordeepseated,
translationalorrotationallandslides,slumps,debrisflows,earthflows,masswasting,etc.Itis
importantthattheprojectdoesnotincreasethepotentialthehazardsonandoffsite.
Analyticalandnumericalapproachesshouldbeusedtoanalyzethispotentialproblem.
Seismichazards:Potentialforstronggroundshaking,surfacerupture,faultcreep,and/or
liquefaction.Deterministicseismichazardanalysismethodsshouldbeusedtoestimatemost
expectedseismichazards.
Volcanichazards:Potentialformoltenrock,rockfragmentsbeingpropelledgreatdistances,
dust,gases,ashfall,fumaroles,landslidesandmudflows.Potentialforvolcanicactivityinthe
areashouldbeassessedbyaliteraturesearch.
Othergeologichazards(e.g.,subsidence,rockfall):Insomelocalities,hazardareashavebeen
identifiedintheprocessofdevelopinglocalcriticalorsensitiveareaordinances.Contactthe
appropriatelocalplanningdepartmentstoobtainthemostcurrentinformation.Insome
localities,hazardareasarenotdelineatedonmaps,butaredefinedintermsoflandscape
110
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
characteristics(e.g.,slope,geologicunit,fieldindicators).Intheseinstances,hazardareas
shouldbemappedbyidentifyingwherethedefiningcharacteristicsapplytotheprojectarea.
3.4 DredgeandFillOperationsandTheirImpacts
Dredgingandthemanagementofdredgedmaterialscanhavesignificantenvironmentalimpacts.
Duringdredgingoperations,sedimentsarereleasedintothewatercolumncreatingturbidconditions
whichmayhaveenvironmentalconsequences.Someofthetoolsavailabletoassessthereleaseof
sedimentfromdredgingoperationsarepresentedinTableF1.
TableF1:Dredgeandfillmodels
MODEL
DREDGE
LINK
http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/pro
ducts.cfm?Topic=model&Type=dr
gmat
STFATE
gmat
LTFATE
gmat
PTM
http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/dot
s/doer/ptm.html
DESCRIPTION
DREDGEestimatesthemassrateatwhichbottom
sedimentsbecomesuspendedintothewatercolumnas
theresultofhydraulicandmechanicaldredgingoperations
andtheresultingsuspendedsedimentconcentrations.
Thesearecombinedwithinformationaboutsite
conditionstosimulatethesizeandextentoftheresulting
suspendedsedimentplume.
TheSTFATE(ShortTermFATEofdredgedmaterialdisposal
inopenwater)modelestimatesthereleaseofsediment
duringdiscretedischargesfrombargesandhoppers.
Modelsalsoexisttoestimatethefateofdredgedmaterial
duringandaftertheyareplaced.
LTFATEisasiteevaluationtoolthatestimatesthe
dispersioncharacteristicsofadredgedmaterialplacement
siteoverlongperiodsoftime,rangingfromdaysforstorm
eventstoayearormoreforambientconditions.
Simulationsarebasedontheuseoflocalwaveandcurrent
conditioninput.
PTM(ParticleTrackingModel)canalsobeappliedto
determinethefateofsediment.PTMisaLagrangian
particletrackerdesignedtodeterminethefateofmultiple
constituents(sediment,chemicals,debris,biota,etc)
releasedfromlocalsources(dredges,placementsites,
outfalls,propellerwash,etc)incomplexhydrodynamic
andwaveenvironments.Eachlocalsourceisdefined
independentlyandmayhaveseveralconstituents.Model
resultsincludethefateofeachconstituentfromeachlocal
source.PTMsimulatesparticletransportusingpre
calculated,periodicallysavedhydrodynamic(andwave)
modeloutputfromstateoftheartmodels.
Ifdredgingistobedoneinthevicinityofashoreline,theimpactofremovingsedimentfromthenear
shoreregiononadjacentshorelinesshouldbeevaluated.Whenapitorchannelisdredgedinthe
vicinityofashoreline,thereisapotentialforchangesinwavetransformationand,therefore,changesin
shorelineaccretionanderosionpatterns.Theseanalysescanbeconductedwithmodelssuchas
STWAVEandGENESIS(seeTableF4).
111
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
4 WATERRESOURCESIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS
4.1 SurfaceWaterImpactAssessmentTools
Whenassessingsurfacewaterimpacts,twoinitialquestionsshouldbeasked:
1) Willtheprojectaltersurfacewaterflowinthecatchment?
2) Willtheprojectaffectsurfacewaterqualityinthecatchmentandifthereisconflictoverwater
use,amongothers?
3) Willtheprojectaltertheflowofthewater?
4) Willtherebeanyconflictsinuseofthewater?
Iftheanswertooneorbothquestionsisyes,aneffortshouldbemadetodeterminethemagnitudeand
natureoftheimpact.Thisincludesbutisnotlimitedto:
Anestimateofvolumeofwaterusedandvolumeofwaterconsumed.
Impactsofdischargesofpollutedwateronthereceivingwaterbody.
Estimatesofdischargevolumesandqualitycharacteristics.
Characterizationofexistingquantity,qualityandperformanceofthereceivingbody.
Changesinthesecharacterizationsprojectedfromreceivingthedischarges.
Longandshorttermeffectsofwaterdiversionsandimpoundmentsontheriverorstreams
includingitsfloodplaincharacteristicsanditsstructuralstabilityaswellaseffectsonthewatertable.
Effectsonfloodcharacteristicsinthewatershed.
Forsurfacewater,ausefulwaytoorganizethisanalysisistotakeawatershedapproach,aspresentedin
theboxbelow.
Impactsonsurfacewaterqualitywilldependlargelyontheassimilativecapacityofthereceivingwater.
Theassimilativecapacityofthereceivingwaterbodydependsonnumerousfactorsincluding,butnot
limitedto:
thetotalvolumeofwater,
flowrate,
flushingrateofthewaterbody,and
theloadingofpollutantsfromothereffluentsources.
Wastewaterandwaterqualitybaselinemeasurementsofwaterqualityshouldbetakentoassurethat
receivingwatersareabletoassimilatethewastestreamandthatincrementaleffluentswillnotcause
waterqualityviolateapplicablestandards.
Basedontheresultsoftheanalyses,indicatorsofwaterqualityandquantityareusedtosetthresholds.
Forwaterquality,specificconcentrationsandlevelsofpH,oilywastes,additives,turbidity,dissolved
oxygen,andtemperaturecanbeused.Theintendedusesofthewaterbodywillinfluencethesettingof
thresholdlevels.TheWHOguidelinesforrecreationaluseareanexampleofhealthbasedguideline
valuesforreceivingwatersbasedonintendeduse.
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/guidelines/en/index.html.
112
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
WATERSHEDAPPROACH
Itisimportanttoevaluateimpactsofanenergygenerationand/ortransmissionprojectinrelationtothe
entirewatershed.Watershedmanagementinvolvesboththequantityofwater(surfaceandgroundwater)
availableandthequalityofthesewaters.Understandingtheimpactoftheprojectonboththequantityand
qualityofwatershouldtakeintoaccountthecumulativeimpactsofotheractivitiesinthesamewatershed.
Awatershedbasedimpactassessmentapproachinvolvesthefollowing10steps:
1. Identifyandmaptheboundariesofthewatershedinwhichtheprojectislocatedandplacethe
projectboundariesonthemap
2. Identifythedrainagepatternandrunoffcharacteristicsinthewatershed
3. Identifythedownstreamrivers,streams,wetlands,lakesandotherwaterbodies
4. Determinethecurrentandprojectedconsumptiveandnonconsumptiveusesofthewaterinthese
resources
Drinkingwater
Irrigation
Aquaculture
Industry
Recreation
Supportofaquaticlife
Navigation
5. Estimatetheimpactoftheprojectontheconsumptiveandnonconsumptiveuseofwater
6. Determinetheexistingqualityofthewaterintheseresources
7. Determinethenatureandextentofpollutantsdischargedthroughoutthewatershed
8. Determinetheanticipatedadditionalpollutantsdischargefromtheproposedactivity
9. Identifyotheranticipatedadditionaldevelopmentsplannedorprojectedforthewatershed
10. Identifystakeholdersinvolvedinwatershedandencouragetheirparticipationinprojectdesign
AppendixCidentifiessomeofthecurrentparametersandrequirementsinplaceinCAFTADRcountries,
theUnitedStates,othercountriesandinternationalorganizationsasapointofreferenceintheabsence
oflocalcriteriaotherrecognizedcriteria.Italsoincludeswaterqualitystandardsettingmodelsas
examplesoftheproceduresforsettingeffluentlimitsforparticularwaterbodiesandwatersheds.
Numericalstandardsfordissolvedoxygenandwatertemperaturecouldbeusedtodetermine
significanceofimpactstocoldwaterfisheries.Prescribedstandardsforstreamconditionwouldbeused
todeterminethresholdsforsuccessfulfishspawningorotherdefineduses.Thisinformationcanalsobe
usedtodeterminepotentialimpactstodownstreamwatersupplies.
Thresholdsforadeclineinwaterqualitycanalsotaketheformofthepresenceanddistributionoflarval
andadultmacroinvertebratesandfishspeciesorbioassaysperformedonindicatorspeciesinthe
laboratory.Theymayalsobesetasthesizeandamountofriparianbufferzones.Conditionofriparian
zonesandchangesinpercentofbufferareascanindicateadeclineinwaterqualityduetosoilerosion,
sedimentloading,andcontaminantrunoff.
Theassessmentofimpactstosurfacewatercanbedoneanalyticallyorusingnumericalmodels.
Analyticalapproachesincludethedevelopmentofwaterbalanceorusingacceptedformulas.More
sophisticatednumericalmodelscanalsobeusedwithintheconstraintsasoutlinedaboveforair
pollutionmodels.
113
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
4.1.1 Temperature
Manygovernments,includingseveralStates,donothaveregulatorycriteriafortemperature.Inthe
absenceofnumericalcriteria,onemightsuggesttheuseofinferentialcriteriarelatedtotheresource
potentiallyaffected.Asurrogatefortemperatureisdissolvedoxygenwhereinthehigherthe
temperaturethelessoxygencanbedissolvedinthewater.
4.1.2 WaterBalance
Anaccurateunderstandingofthesitewaterbalanceisnecessarytosuccessfullymanagestormrunoff,
streamflows,andpointandnonpointsourcepollutantdischargesfromatouristfacilitysite.Natural
systemwatersarefedtothesitethroughrainfall,seepsandsprings,groundwaterandsurfacewater.
Waterislostfromthesystemthroughsurfacewaterrunoff,infiltration,andevaporation.Eachofthese
factorsisquitevariableanddifficulttopredict.Processandcoolingwateruseisreasonablyconstant
andpredictable.Waterislostfromthesystemwaterthroughevaporation;facilitiessuchascooling
towersandsedimentationorcoolingpondsmayresultinsignificantevaporativelosses.Spreadsheets
areacommonwaytoevaluatewaterbalancesonthesite.Whatifscenarioscanbeeasilyrunbasedon
probabilitiesofrainfalleventsoccurringandchangeableweatherpatternssuchasthoseassociatedwith
climatechange.
4.1.3 AnalyticalApproach
Thefollowingmethodsareusedtodeterminechangesinrunoffcharacteristicsandsedimentyielddue
tosurfacedisturbances,primarilyduringconstruction.ThemethoddescribedbytheSCS(1972)and
updatedinSCS,1985NaturalEngineeringHandbook,Section4,Hydrology,U.S.Departmentof
Agriculture,SoilConservationService,Washington,D.C.,March,1985isthemostcommontechnique
forestimatingthevolumeofexcessprecipitation(i.e.,runoff)afterlossestoinfiltrationandsurface
storage.Themethodinvolvesestimatingsoiltypeswithinawatershedandapplyinganappropriate
runoffcurvenumbertocalculatethevolumeofexcessprecipitationforthatsoilandvegetationcover
type.Thismethodwasdevelopedforagriculturalusesandcanbeusedfortourismsitesifsufficient
dataisavailabletoestimatecurvenumbers.Curvenumbersareapproximatevaluesthatdonot
adequatelydistinguishthehydrologicconditionsthatoccurondifferentrangeandforestsitesand
acrossdifferentlandusesforthesesites.(Youmayalsobeabletoorderprintedcopiesfromthe
NationalTechnicalInformationServiceorbycalling18005536847.RequestdocumentnumberPB86
180494)
Amoreappropriatetechniquefordevelopingandanalyzingrunoffatsomesitesutilizestheunit
hydrographapproachasdefinedindetailat
http://www.nohrsc.noaa.gov/technology/gis/uhg_manual.html.Aunithydrographisahydrographof
runoffresultingfromaunitofrainfallexcessthatisdistributeduniformlyoverawatershedorsubbasin
inaspecifieddurationoftime(Barfieldetal.,1981).Unithydrographsareusedtorepresenttherunoff
characteristicsforparticularbasins.Theyareidentifiedbythedurationofprecipitationexcessthatwas
usedtogeneratethem;forexample,a1hourora20minuteunithydrograph.Thedurationofexcess
precipitation,calculatedfromactualprecipitationeventsorfromdesignstorms,isappliedtoaunit
hydrographtoproducearunoffhydrographrepresentingastormofthatduration.Forexample,2hours
ofprecipitationexcesscouldbeappliedtoa2hourunithydrographtoproduceanactualrunoff
hydrograph.Thisrunoffvolumecanbeusedasinputtorouteflowsdownachannelandthroughan
outletorfordirectinputtothedesignofastructure.
114
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
CommonmethodstodevelopanduseunithydrographsaredescribedbySnyder(1938),Clark(1945),
andSCS(1972).Unithydrographsoraveragehydrographscanalsobedevelopedfromactualstream
flowrunoffrecordsforbasinsorsubbasins.TheSCS(1972)methodisperhapsthemostcommonly
appliedmethodtodevelopunithydrographsandproducerunoffhydrographs.TheSCS(1972)
publicationrecommendedusingtheSCSTypeI,TypeIAorTypeIIcurvesforcreatingdesignstormsand
usingthecurvenumbermethodtodetermineprecipitationexcess.Anothertechniquetodetermine
runofffrombasinsorsubbasinsistheKinematicWaveMethod.Thismethodappliesthekinematic
waveinterpretationoftheequationsformotion(Linsleyetal.,1975)toprovideestimatesofrunofffrom
basins.Ifappliedcorrectly,themethodcanprovidemoreaccurateestimatesofrunoffthanmanyofthe
unithydrographproceduresdescribedabove,dependingonthedataavailableforthesite.Themethod,
however,requiresdetailedsiteknowledgeandtheuseofseveralassumptionsandgoodprofessional
judgmentinitsapplication.
Aspreviouslyindicated,onlypeakrunoffratesatagivenfrequencyofoccurrenceareusedtodesign
manysmallerhydrologicfacilities,suchasconveyancefeatures,roadculvertsordiversionditches.The
hydrographmethodslistedabovecanbeusedtoobtainpeakrunoffrates,butothermethodsareoften
employedtoprovidequick,simpleestimatesofthesevalues.Acommonmethodtoestimatepeak
runoffratesistheRationalMethod.Thismethodusesaformulatoestimatepeakrunofffromabasinor
watershed:
Q=CiA
Where: Q=thepeakrunoffrateascubicfeetpersecond
C=therunoffcoefficient
i=therainfallintensityasinchesperhour
A=thedrainageareaofthebasinexpressedasacres
AcomprehensivedescriptionofthemethodisgivenbytheWaterPollutionControlFederation(1969).
ThecoefficientCistermedtherunoffcoefficientandisdesignedtorepresentfactorssuchas
interception,infiltration,surfacedetention,andantecedentsoilmoistureconditions.Useofasingle
coefficienttorepresentallofthesedynamicandinterrelatedprocessesproducesaresultthatcanonly
beusedasanapproximation.Importantly,themethodmakesseveralinappropriateassumptionsthat
donotapplytolargebasinsorwatersheds,including:(1)rainfalloccursuniformlyoveradrainagearea,
(2)thepeakrateofrunoffcanbedeterminedbyaveragingrainfallintensityoveratimeperiodequalto
thetimeofconcentration(tc),wheretcisthetimerequiredforprecipitationexcessfromthemost
remotepointofthewatershedtocontributetorunoffatthemeasuredpoint,and(3)thefrequencyof
runoffisthesameasthefrequencyoftherainfallusedintheequation(i.e.,noconsiderationismadefor
storageconsiderationsorflowroutingthroughawatershed)(Barfieldetal.,1981).Adetaileddiscussion
ofthepotentialproblemsandassumptionsmadebyusingthismethodhasbeenoutlinedbyMcPherson
(1969).
OthermethodscommonlyusedtoestimatepeakrunoffaretheSCSTR20(SCS,1972)andSCSTR55
methods(SCS,1975).LiketheRationalMethod,thesetechniquesarecommonlyusedbecauseoftheir
simplicity.TheSCSTR55methodwasprimarilyderivedforuseinurbansituationsandforthedesignof
smalldetentionbasins.Amajorassumptionofthemethodisthatonlyrunoffcurvenumbersareused
tocalculateexcessprecipitation.Ineffect,thewatershedorsubbasinisrepresentedbyauniformland
use,soiltype,andcover,whichgenerallymaynotbetrueformostwatershedsorsubbasins.
115
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
TheRationalMethodandtheSCSmethodsgenerallylackthelevelofaccuracyrequiredtodesignmost
structuresandcomputeawaterbalance.Thisisbecausetheyemployanumberofassumptionsthatare
notwellsuitedtolargewatershedswithvariableconditions.However,thesemethodsarecommonly
usedbecausetheyaresimpletoapplyandbothBarfieldetal.(1981)andVanZyletal.(1988)suggest
thattheyaresuitableforthedesignofsmallroadculvertsornoncriticalcatchments.VanZyletal.
(1988)suggestedthattheRationalMethodcanbeusedtodesigncatchmentsoflessthan5to10acres.
Itisimportantthatthedesignengineerandthehydrologistexercisegoodprofessionaljudgmentwhen
choosingamethodfordeterminingrunoffasdiscussedabove.Techniquesshouldbesufficientlyrobust
tomatchtheparticulardesigncriteria.Itisparticularlyimportantthatcriticalstructuresnotbe
designedusingrunoffinputestimatesmadebyextrapolatinganapproximation,suchasthatproduced
bytheRationalMethod,toareasorsituationswhereitisnotappropriate.Robustmethodsthatemploy
asitespecificunithydrographortheKinematicWaveMethodwillproducemoreaccuratehydrological
designs,butrequiresmoreexpertise,timeandexpense.
4.1.4 NumericalModels
Thereareseveralnumericandanalyticalcomputermodelsthatareavailablebothinthepublicdomain
andcommerciallythatcanbeusedtoestimateimpactstosurfacewaterfromtouristoperations.These
modelshavebeenusedtoassessimpactsofdisturbanceoflocalsoilsandgeologytoaquaticandmarine
biologybasedonchangestochemistry,environmentaleffectsoftracemetalloading,contaminant
transport,sedimentationanddeposition,changestofloodplains,floodingcharacteristic,andothers.
TableF2presentsalistofmodelswhicharecommonlyused.Mostofthesemodelsareavailablefor
downloadonthewebpagesindicatedinthefollowingtable.
TableF2:Surfacewatermodels
MODEL
CORMIX
CornellMixing
ZoneExpert
System
LINK
http://www.epa.gov/waterscienc
e/models/cormix.html
EXAMS
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/swater/
exams
HSCTM2D
hsctm2d
hspf
HSPF
DESCRIPTION
Water qualitymodelinganddecisionsupportsystem
designedforenvironmentalimpactassessmentofmixing
zonesresultingfromwastewaterdischargefrompoint
sources.Thesystememphasizestheroleofboundary
interactiontopredictplumegeometryanddilutionin
relationtoregulatorymixingzonerequirements.Asan
expertsystem,CORMIXisauserfriendlyapplicationwhich
guidesthewaterqualityanalystsinsimulatingasite
specificdischargeconfiguration.Tofacilitateitsuse,
ampleinstructionsareprovided,suggestionsforimproving
dilutioncharacteristicsareincluded,andwarning
messagesaredisplayedwhenundesirableoruncommon
flowconditionsoccur
Aquaticbiology,assessment,biology,chemistry,
compliance,environmentaleffects,metals,NPSrelated,
permits,pesticides,pointsource(s),rivers,streams,
surfacewater,test/analysis
Hydrology,sediment,contaminant,transport,finite
elementmodel,river,estuary
Assessment,biology,compliance,deposition,discharge,
environmentaleffects,estuaries,hydrology,lakes,metals,
monitoring,NPSrelated,NPDES,nutrients,permits,
pesticides,pointsource(s),rivers,sediment,streams,
surfacewater,test/analysis,TMDLrelated,toxicity
116
Tourism
MODEL
HSPFToolkit
LINK
www.epa.gov/athens/research/m
odeling/ftable
PRZM3
www.epa.gov/ceampubl/gwater/
przm3
QUAL2K
www.epa.gov/athens/wwqtsc/ht
ml/qual2k.html
SERAFM
serafm
vplume
www.epa.gov/athens/wwqtsc/ht
ml/wasp.html
VisualPlumes
WASP
HECRAS
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/s
oftware/hecras/
HECResSim
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/s
oftware/hecressim/
GSFLOW
http://water.usgs.gov/software/li
sts/surface_water
SMS(Surface
www.emsi.com.(availablein
WaterModeling Spanish)
System)
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
DESCRIPTION
Assessment,compliance,discharge,environmental
effects,hydrology,permits,rivers,sediment,streams,
surfacewater,TMDLrelated,toxicity
Assessment,discharge,environmentaleffects,hydrology,
landusemanagement,metals,pesticides,surfacewater,
test/analysis
Aquaticbiology,assessment,compliance,discharge,
environmentaleffects,hydrology,NPSrelated,point
source(s),surfacewater,test/analysis,TMDLrelated
Exposure,assessment,mercury,hg,surfacewater,pond,
stream,river
Surface,water,jet,plume,model,quality,contaminant,
TMDL
Aquaticbiology,assessment,compliance,discharge,
environmentaleffects,hydrology,metals,NPSrelated,
pointsource(s),surfacewater,test/analysis,TMDLrelated
TheHydrologicEngineeringCentersRiverAnalysisSystem
(HECRAS)isacomputerprogramthatmodelssteadyflow,
unsteadyflow,sedimenttransport/mobilebed
computations,andwatertemperaturethroughnatural
riversandotherchannels.Theprogramisone
dimensional,meaningthatthereisnodirectmodelingof
thehydrauliceffectofcrosssectionshapechanges,bends,
andothertwoandthreedimensionalaspectsofflow
HydrologicEngineeringCenterReservoirSystem
Simulationprogram,tomodelreservoiroperationsatone
ormorereservoirswhoseoperationsaredefinedbya
varietyofoperationalgoalsandconstraints
Groundwaterandsurfacewaterflowmodel.Itcanbe
usedtoevaluatetheeffectsofsuchfactorsaslanduse
change,climatevariability,andgroundwaterwithdrawals
onsurfaceandsubsurfaceflow.Incorporatessimulating
runoffandinfiltrationfromprecipitation;balancingenergy
andmassbudgetsoftheplantcanopy,snowpack,andsoil
zone;andsimulatingtheinteractionofsurfacewaterwith
groundwater,inwatersheds
TheSurfaceWaterModelingSystem(SMS)isa
comprehensiveenvironmentforone,two,andthree
dimensionalhydrodynamicmodeling.Apreandpost
processorforsurfacewatermodelinganddesign,SMS
includes2Dfiniteelement,2Dfinitedifference,and3D
finiteelementand1Dbackwatermodelingtools.The
modelallowsforfloodanalysis,waveanalysis,and
hurricaneanalysis.SMSalsoincludesagenericmodel
interface,whichcanbeusedtosupportothermodels
whichhavenotbeenofficiallyincorporatedintothe
system
117
Tourism
MODEL
Watershed
Modeling
Software
(WMS)
LINK
www.emsi.com.(available in
Spanish)
IBMInstream
Flow
Assessment
http://my.epri.com/portal/server.
pt?space=CommunityPage&cache
d=true&parentname=ObjMgr&pa
rentid=2&control=SetCommunity
&CommunityID=404&RaiseDocID
=TR
http://www.fort.usgs.gov/Produc
ts/Software/PHABSIM/
http://www.fort.usgs.gov/produc
ts/Publications/15000/chapter1.h
tml#overview
PHABSIM
MARS
http://my.epri.com/portal/server.
pt?space=CommunityPage&cache
d=true&parentname=ObjMgr&pa
rentid=2&control=SetCommunity
&CommunityID=404&RaiseDocID
=000000000001008490&RaiseDo
cType=Abstract_id
SNTEMP
http://www.fort.usgs.gov/Produc
ts/Software/SNTEMP/
BASINS
http://water.epa.gov/scitech/dat
ait/models/basins/index.cfm
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
DESCRIPTION
TheWatershedModelingSystemsoftwareisa
comprehensivegraphicalmodelingenvironmentforall
phasesofwatershedhydrologyandhydraulics.TheWMS
softwareincludespowerfultoolstoautomatemodeling
processessuchasautomatedbasindelineation,geometric
parametercalculations;GISoverlaycomputations(CN,
rainfalldepth,roughnesscoefficients,etc.),crosssection
extractionfromterraindata,andother.Hydraulicmodels
supportedintheWMSsoftwareincludeHECRASandCE
QUALW2
Habitatbasedmodelingforfisheries.Individualbased
StreamFishModelscanimprovethecosteffectiveness
conductioninstreamflowassessmenttraditionally
conductedusingIFIM
PHABSIMisacollectionofhydraulicandhabitatmodels
usedtodeterminetherelativevalueofatargetedhabitat
foraparticularfishspeciesorotheraquaticorganismover
arangeofflows.PHABSIMisacomponentofthelarger
IFIM(InstreamFlowIncrementalMethodology),whichisa
problemsolvingprocessforaddressingwaterresource
issues.Fielddatatoinputintothemodelsinclude
measurementsofflow,velocity,anddepth;substrate
composition;andvisualhabitatuseobservationsof
targetedfishspecies
Modelscontaminatedsurfacewatersediments.Three
interconnectedhydrodynamic,sediment,andchemical
fateandtransportmodelssimulatethefateandtransport
oforganiccompounds,whileallowingevaluationofsite
remediationalternativessuchasnaturalattenuation,
dredging,andcapping
StreamNetworkandStreamTemperatureModel
simulatessteadystatestreamtemperaturesthroughouta
dendriticstreamnetworkhandlingmultipletimeperiods
peryear.Helpsformulateinstreamflow
recommendations,assesstheeffectsofalteredstream
flowregimes,assesstheeffectsofhabitatimprovement
projects,andassistinnegotiatingreleasesfromexisting
storageprojects
TheWatershedModelSystemsoftwareiscomprehensive
forbothpointandnonpointsources.amultipurpose
environmentalanalysissystemthatintegratesa
geographicalinformationsystem(GIS),nationalwatershed
data,andstateoftheartenvironmentalassessmentand
modelingtoolsintooneconvenientpackage
118
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
4.2 GroundwaterImpactAssessmentTools
Ifgroundwaterisextractedforuseinfacilitythenathoroughunderstandingofthesitehydrogeologyis
requiredtoadequatelycharacterizeandevaluatepotentialimpacts.Aquiferpumptestsanddrawdown
testsofwellsneedtobeconductedundersteadystateortransientconditionstodetermineaquifer
characteristics.Ifpossible,itisimportantthatthesetestsbeperformedatthepumpingratesthat
wouldbeusedbyatouristactivityfordurationsadequatetodetermineregionalimpactsfrom
drawdownandpotentialchangesinflowdirection.Thesetestsrequirepriorinstallationofan
appropriatenetworkofobservationwells.Transmissivities,storagecoefficientsandverticaland
horizontalhydraulicconductivitiescanbecalculatedfromproperlydesignedpumptests.These
measurementsarenecessarytodeterminethevolumeandrateofgroundwaterdischargeexpected
duringoperationsatafacilitytoevaluateenvironmentalimpacts(needtomentionexamplelarge
waterusertouristprojectlikeaswimparkorgolfcoursecouldresultinsaltwaterintrusioninthe
coastalsetting).Testsshouldbeperformedforallaquifersthatcouldbeaffectedbytheprojectto
ensureadequatecharacterizationoftherelationshipsbetweenhydrostratigraphicunits(USEPA,2003).
Characterizationstudiesshoulddefinetherelationshipsbetweengroundwaterandsurfacewater,
includingidentifyingspringsandseeps.Significantsourcesorsinkstothesurfacewatersystemalso
needtobeidentified.Hydrogeologicalcharacterizationsshouldincludegeologicdescriptionsofthesite
andtheregion.Descriptionsofrocktypes,intensityanddepthofweathering,andtheabundanceand
orientationoffaults,fractures,andjointsprovideabasisforimpactanalysisandmonitoring.Although
difficulttoevaluate,thehydrologicaleffectsoffractures,joints,andfaultsareespeciallyimportantto
distinguish.Watermovesmoreeasilythroughfaults,fracturesanddissolutionzones,collectively
termedsecondarypermeability,thanthroughrockmatrices.Secondarypermeabilitycanpresent
significantproblemsforsomeprojectsbecauseitcanresultinagreateramountofgroundwater
dischargethanoriginallypredicted.Forexample,faultsthatjuxtaposerockswithgreatlydifferent
hydrogeologicalpropertiescancauseabruptchangesinflowcharacteristicsthatneedtobe
incorporatedintofacilitydesigns.
Aswithairandsurfacewaterresources,thereanalyticalandnumericalapproachescanbeusedin
assessinggroundwater.
4.2.1 AnalyticalApproach
Acommonmethodtoanalyzegroundwaterinrelationtoaprojectthatusessubstantialamountsof
waterreliesonasimpleanalyticalsolutioninwhichthefacilityoperationisapproximatedasawell.This
methodusestheconstantheadJacobLowman(1952)equationtocalculateflowrates.Itgenerally
yieldsaconservativeoverestimateofthepumpingratesrequiredtosatisfycoolingrequirements(Hanna
etal.,1994).Inaddition,anunderstandingofgroundwatercanbegainedbydevelopingawater
balanceforthesiteasdescribedabove.Finally,implicationsoftheeffectsofgroundwaterqualitycan
begainedbasedonfieldstudies.
4.2.2 NumericalApproach
Theuseofcomputermodelshasincreasedtheaccuracyofhydrogeologicalanalysesandimpact
predictionsandspeededsolutionofthecomplexmathematicalrelationsthroughuseofnumerical
solutionmethods.However,computermodelinghasnotchangedthefundamentalanalyticalequations
usedtocharacterizeaquifersanddeterminegroundwaterquantities.Modelsareusedtodetermine
drawdownintheaquiferduetoconsumptiveuse,contaminatetransport,surfacewaterquality,and
119
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
otherfactors.TableF3presentsabriefdescriptionofgroundwatermodelsusedtoassessimpactsof
dischargesandconsumptivewaterusethatareavailablethroughthepublicdomainandcommercially.
TableF3:Groundwaterandgeochemicalcomputermodels
MODEL
MODFLOW
LINK
http://water.usgs.gov/soft
ware/lists/groundwater
MT3D
http://water.usgs.gov/soft
ware/lists/groundwater
VisualMODFLOW
www.visualmodflow.com.
(availableinSpanish)
GWVistas
www.esinternational.com/g
roundwatervistas.html
(classesareavailablein
Spanish)
GMS(Groundwater
ModelingSystem)
www.emsi.com
HYDROGEOCHEM
http://www.scisoftware.co
m/products/hydrogeochem
_overview/hydrogeochem_
overview.html
DESCRIPTION
MODFLOWisafinitedifferencecodedevelopedbythe
UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey(McDonaldandHarbaugh,
1988).MODFLOWisawidelyacceptednumericalflow
modelingcodeandhasbeenusedaroundtheworldto
evaluatetheimpactsofactivitiesthatmayresultin
disturbanceoflargesurfaceareas.MODFLOWtranslates
conceptualmodel(s)ofthesiteintonumericalmodelsusing
discretizationofspaceandtime.Discretizationofthe
spatialdomainisdonebyconstructingagriddesignating
cellsofspecifiedwidth,length,andthickness.
MT3Disasolutetransportcodealsolinkedtothe
MODFLOWbasemodel.TheflowdomainusingMODFLOW
islinkedtoMT3D,whichthensimulatescontaminant
transportusingdispersionandchemicalreactions.
Allowsforapplicationsin3Dgroundwaterflowand
contaminanttransportmodelingutilizinganeasytouse
graphicaluserinterface.Informationisavailableforthis
packagethroughScientificSoftwareGroup.
Thissoftwareisfor3Dgroundwaterflowandcontaminant
transportmodeling,calibrationandoptimizationusingthe
MODFLOWsuiteofcodes.Theadvancedversionof
GroundwaterVistasprovidestheidealgroundwaterrisk
assessmenttool.Informationofthissoftwareisavailable
throughESILt.
GMSprovidessoftwaretoolsforeveryphaseofa
groundwatersimulationincludingsitecharacterization,
modeldevelopment,calibration,postprocessing,and
visualization.GMSsupportsbothfinitedifferenceand
finiteelementmodelsin2Dand3DincludingMODFLOW
2000,MODPATH,MT3DMS/RT3D,SEAM3D,ART3D,
UTCHEM,FEMWATER,PEST,UCODE,MODAEMandSEEP2D.
InformationisavailablethroughEnvironmentalMonitoring
Systems,Inc.
HYDROGEOCHEM isacoupledmodelofhydrologictransport
andgeochemicalreactioninsaturatedunsaturatedmedia.
120
Tourism
MODEL
MIKESHE
LINK
http://www.crwr.utexas.ed
u/gis/gishyd98/dhi/mikeshe
/Mshemain.htm
SEAWAT
http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/
seawat/
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
DESCRIPTION
MIKESHE isanadvancedintegratedhydrologicalmodeling
system.Itsimulateswaterflowintheentirelandbased
phaseofthehydrologicalcyclefromrainfalltoriverflow,via
variousflowprocessessuchas,overlandflow,infiltration
intosoils,evapotranspirationfromvegetation,and
groundwaterflow.MIKESHEhasbeenappliedinalarge
numberofstudiesworldwidefocusingone.g.conjunctive
useofsurfacewaterandgroundwaterfordomesticand
industrialconsumptionandirrigation,dynamicsinwetlands,
andwaterqualitystudiesinconnectionwithpointandnon
pointpollution.
ThisacombinedversionofMODFLOWandMT3DMS,is
usedtosimulatethevariabledensityflowpatternsdueto
saltwaterintrusion.Itisdesignedtosimulatethree
dimensionalvariabledensitygroundwaterflowcoupled
withmultispeciessoluteandheattransport.Theprogram
hasbeenusedforawidevarietyofgroundwaterstudies
includingthosefocusedonbrinemigrationincontinental
aquifersaswellasthosefocusedonsaltwaterintrusionin
coastalaquifers.
4.3 CoastalWatersResourceImpactAssessmentTools
Coastaldevelopmentisdifficultsinceitisconstructiononadynamicfoundation.Naturalprocessesof
wind,wave,currents,etc.areconstantlychangingthecontoursofthedevelopmentsite.(Seediagram
below).Notonlythefacility,butalsomeasurestakentostabilizethesiteshouldbeanalyzedfor
impacts.Forexample,abreakwaterdesignedtoprotectadockormarinamaycausesanddepositionin
anareacontainingculturalartifactsornaturalaestheticsforsnorkeling.Anywaterornearwater
constructionmayimpactthenaturalprocessesattheshoreline.
OnecomprehensivedocumentwhichcoversallaspectsofcoastalengineeringistheU.S.ArmyCorpsof
Engineers,CoastalEngineeringManual(CEM)(EM111021100)whichprovidesasingle,comprehensive
technicaldocumentthatincorporatestoolsandprocedurestoplan,design,construct,andmaintain
coastalprojects.Itcanbedownloadedforfreeathttp://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/cem.Thisengineering
manualincludesthebasicprinciplesofcoastalprocesses,methodsforcomputingcoastalplanningand
designparameters,andguidanceonhowtoformulateandconductstudiesinsupportofcoastal
flooding,shoreprotection,andnavigationprojects.Additionalsectionsarebeingaddedonnavigation
andharbordesign,dredginganddisposal,structurerepairandrehabilitation,wetlandandlowenergy
shoreprotection,riskanalysis,fieldinstrumentation,numericalsimulation,theengineeringprocess,and
othertopics.
Manycoastalresortsincorporateabeachfrontarea.Inwatersupportingconstruction(dock,
breakwaters,etc.)oftenalterthesanddepositionpatternsandbeachnourishmentisrequired.The
guidancedocumentShoreProtectionAssessmentBeachNourishmentcanbefoundat
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/Media/7/4/7/HowBeachNourishmentWorks.pdf.Itexplainsthenormal
coastalprocessesandprovidesguidanceonbestmanagementpractices.Itcanbeusefulinpredicting
impactsofvariousconstructionlayoutsandmethodologies.
121
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
FigureF3Complexcoastalprocesses
Source:USACE,2007ShorelineAssessmentBeachNourishment
HazardsVulnerability.Anotherlayerofconcernforcoastaldevelopmentisthattourismactivitiesoften
takeplaceinregionspronetonaturalhazards.Thehazardpotentialneedstobeassessedwhen
planningtourismprojectssothatprojectscanhaveappropriatelayoutandstructuraldesignsand
evacuationplanningandroutesarefactoredinforthelargenonnativepopulous.Someofthese
hazardsinclude:
TropicalWeatherSystems
Hurricanes
StormSurges
Earthquakes/Tsunamis
VolcanicEruptions
ElectricalStormsandForestFires
FloodsandLandslides
SeaLevelRise
TheUnitedStatesFederalEmergencyManagementAgencys(FEMA)HazusMHmodelcombines
science,engineeringandmathematicalmodelingwithGIStechnologytoestimatelossesoflifeand
122
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
propertyandshowsthoselossesonamap(FigureF4).Hazusestimatesimpactstothephysical,social,
andeconomicvitalityofacommunityfromearthquakes,hurricanewinds,andfloods.Itcreates
customizedmapsandgraphicstoshowbuildings,roads,rivers,coastlines,andinfrastructuredamages.
Visualizingthehazardriskcompelsplannerstorecognizetheneedformitigationandemergency
planning.
FigureF4:HazusMH5stepriskassessment
Source:http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/hazus/hz_overview.shtm
Bothtourismdevelopmentimpactsassessmentandhazardsanalysescanbeandoftenareaidedbythe
useofphysical,analytical,numericalandstatisticalmodels.Someofthemodelsavailablearelistedin
thetablebelow.Theseincludemodelsforstormsurges,hurricanes,windandpressurefields,scour
aroundbridgeabutments,etc.Additional,coastal,hydraulic,hydrologicandstatisticalmodelswhich
maybeusefularelistedontheFEMAwebsitehttp://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/fhm/en_coast.shtm.
Modelsareoftenlinkedtogethertoanalyzeasituation.Forexample,FEMAroutinelyutilizesmodelsto
performHazardAnalysisandMappingfortheirNationalFloodInsuranceProgram.Forafloodplain
mappingprojectFEMAusedasuiteofstateoftheartnumericalwind,wave,andsurgemodelsto
computestillwaterelevationsalongthecoast.Themodelsuite(FigureF5)consistsoftheHurricane
123
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
BoundaryLayer(HBL)windmodelfortropicalstorms(hurricanes)andPlanetaryBoundaryLayer(PBL)
modelforextratropicalstorms;thewavefieldmodelSimulatingWavesNearshore(SWAN),andthe
stormsurgeandtidalmodelADvancedCIRCulationforModelforOceanic,CoastalandEstuarineWaters
(ADCIRC).FEMAalsousestheoffshorewavemodelWAMandthenearshorewavetransformation
modelSTWAVEforfloodmappingprojects.
FigureF5:FEMAfloodplainmappingmodelsuite
Source:FEMAhttp://www.r3coastal.com/home/stormsurgestudy/numericalmodelsetup
Thesesophisticatedmodelingsystemsarecapableofassessingthestormdamagereductionpotentialof
naturalfeaturessuchaswetlandsandbarrierislands.FormoreinformationseeWamsleyetal.2009
andWamsleyetal.2010.
124
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
TableF4:Hazardsanalysisandcoastalmodels
MODEL
SMSSurfaceWater
ModelingSystem
LINK
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.m
il/sms
RMA2
il/rma2
DESCRIPTION
TheSurfaceWaterModelingSystem(SMS)isa
comprehensiveenvironmentforone,two,andthree
dimensionalhydrodynamicmodeling.Apreandpost
processorforsurfacewatermodelingdesign,SMS
includes2Dfiniteelement,2Dfinitedifference,3D
finiteelementand1Dbackwatermodelingtools.The
numericmodelssupportedinSMScomputeavariety
ofinformationapplicabletosurfacewatermodeling.
SupportedmodelsincludetheUSACEERDCsupported
TABSMD(GFGEN,RMA2,RMA4,SED2DWES),
ADCIRC,ADH,CGWAVE,CMSFlow(formallyM2D)and
CMSWave,STWAVE,andPTMmodels.Primary
applicationsofthemodelsincludecalculationofwater
surfaceelevationsandflowvelocitiesforshallow
waterflowproblems,forbothsteadystateordynamic
conditions.Additionalapplicationsincludethe
modelingofcontaminantmigration,salinityintrusion,
sedimenttransport(scouranddeposition),wave
energydispersion,waveproperties(directions,
magnitudesandamplitudes)andothers.
RMA2isatwodimensionaldepthaveragedfinite
elementhydrodynamicnumericalmodel.Itcomputes
watersurfaceelevationsandhorizontalvelocity
componentsforsubcritical,freesurfaceflowintwo
dimensionalflowfields.RMA2computesafinite
elementsolutionoftheReynoldsformoftheNavier
Stokesequationsforturbulentflows.Frictionis
calculatedwiththeManningsorChezyequation,and
eddyviscositycoefficientsareusedtodefine
turbulencecharacteristics.Bothsteadyandunsteady
state(dynamic)problemscanbeanalyzed.The
programhasbeenappliedtocalculatewaterlevels
andflowdistributionaroundislands;flowatbridges
havingoneormorereliefopenings,incontractingand
expandingreaches,intoandoutofoffchannel
hydropowerplants,atriverjunctions,andintoandout
ofpumpingplantchannels;circulationandtransportin
waterbodieswithwetlands;andgeneralwaterlevels
andflowpatternsinrivers,reservoirs,andestuaries.
125
Tourism
MODEL
BOUSS2D
LINK
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=SOFTWAR
E;23
WAMWave
PredictionModel
E;8
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
DESCRIPTION
BOUSS2Disacomprehensivenumericalmodelfor
simulatingthepropagationandtransformationof
wavesincoastalregionsandharborsbasedonatime
domainsolutionofBoussinesqtypeequations.The
governingequationsareuniformlyvalidfromdeepto
shallowwaterandcansimulatemostofthe
phenomenaofinterestinthenearshorezoneand
harborbasinsincludingshoaling/refractionover
variabletopography,reflection/diffractionnear
structures,energydissipationduetowavebreaking
andbottomfriction,crossspectralenergytransferdue
tononlinearwavewaveinteractions,breaking
inducedlongshoreandripcurrents,wavecurrent
interactionandwaveinteractionwithporous
structures.Manyprocessesatinletsandharborscan
bestudiedusingBOUSS2D.BOUSS2Dcanbeapplied
toawidevarietyofcoastalandoceanengineering
problems,includingcomplexwavetransformation
oversmallcoastalregions(15km),waveagitationand
harborresonancestudies,wavebreakingover
submergedobstacles,breakinginducednearshore
circulationpatterns,wavecurrentinteractionnear
tidalinlets,infragravitywavegenerationbygroupsof
shortwaves,andwavetransformationaroundartificial
islands.
TheglobaloceanWavepredictionModelcalledWAM
isathirdgenerationwavemodel.WAMpredicts
directionalspectraaswellaswavepropertiessuchas
significantwaveheight,meanwavedirectionand
frequency,swellwaveheightandmeandirection,and
windstressfieldscorrectedbyincludingthewave
inducedstressandthedragcoefficientateachgrid
pointatchosenoutputtimes.Themodeliscontinually
updatedtoincorporatethelatestresultsofresearch.
Theverificationhasbeencarriedoutinthreeareas
whereNationalOceanicandAtmospheric
Administration(NOAA)mooredbuoysareavailableon
theGlobalTelecommunicationsSystem(GTS).Itis
hopedthatthebuoyschosenwillallowthe
identificationofbothsuccessesandfailuresinWAM
modelphysicsandwillminimizeshortcomingsdueto
subgridscaleeffects.
ModelAssumptions:
Timedependentwaveactionbalanceequation.
Wavegrowthbasedonseasurfaceroughnessand
windcharacteristics.
NonlinearwaveandwaveinteractionbyDiscrete
InteractionApproximation(DIA).
Freeformofspectralshape.
Highdissipationratetoshortwaves.
126
Tourism
MODEL
ADCIRCThe
Advanced
CirculationModel
LINK
il/adcirc
CGWAVE
E;21
WISWAVE
E;7
STWAVE(Steady
Statespectral
WAVE)
E;9
SED2D
il/sed2d
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
DESCRIPTION
TheADvancedCIRCulationmodel(ADCIRC),isatwo
dimensional,depthintegrated,barotropictime
dependentlongwave,hydrodynamiccirculation
model.ADCIRCcanbeappliedtocomputational
domainsencompassingthedeepocean,continental
shelves,coastalseas,andsmallscaleestuarine
systemsforsimulationsthatrequiremonthstoyears
time.Inasinglesimulation,ADCIRCcanprovidetide
andstormsurgeelevationsandvelocities
correspondingtoeachnodeoveraverylargedomain
encompassingregionaldomainssuchasthewestern
NorthAtlanticOcean,theCaribbeanSea,andtheGulf
ofMexico.
CGWAVEisageneralpurposewavepredictionmodel
forsimulatingthepropagationandtransformationof
oceanwavesincoastalregionsandharbors,and
appropriateformodelingthemostsignificantphysical
processesinchannels,inletsandharbors,opencoastal
regions,aroundislandsandstructures.
TheWISWAVEisasecondgenerationwavemodel
developedundertheWIS.Themodelpredicts
directionalspectraaswellasintegratedwave
propertiessuchassignificantwaveheight,peakwave
period,vectormeanwavedirection,andseaandswell
componentsaccordingtoatmospherewindinput.
WaveInformationStudiesprovidesanationalresource
oflongtermwavefieldclimatologiesforU.S.coastal
watersthatsynthesizesobservations,multidecade
hindcastsandstormeventarchivestomeet
tomorrow'scoastalengineeringneedstoday.
STWAVEisaneasytoapply,flexible,robust,half
planemodelfornearshorewindwavegrowthand
propagation.STWAVEsimulatesdepthinducedwave
refractionandshoaling,currentinducedrefraction
andshoaling,depthandsteepnessinducedwave
breaking,diffraction,parametricwavegrowthbecause
ofwindinput,andwavewaveinteractionandwhite
cappingthatredistributeanddissipateenergyina
growingwavefield.STWAVEisbeingextendedfroma
halfplanemodeltoafullplanemodel(including
propagationandgenerationfromalldirections).
SED2Datwodimensionalnumericalmodelfordepth
averagedtransportofcohesiveorarepresentative
grainsizeofnoncohesivesedimentsandtheir
deposition,erosion,andformationofbeddeposits.
127
Tourism
MODEL
SWANModel
DelftUniversityof
Technology,The
Netherlands.
LINK
http://www.citg.tudelft.nl/liv
e/pagina.jsp?id=f928097d
81bb4042971b
e028c00e3326
EmpiricalSimulation http://chl.erdc.usace.army.m
Technique(EST)
E;27
GENESIS
E;34&g=14
SHARP
http://water.usgs.gov/softw
are/SHARP/
SEAWATVersion4
http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/s
eawat/
SBEACH
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=Software;
31
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
DESCRIPTION
SWANisathirdgenerationwavemodelthatcomputes
random,shortcrestedwindgeneratedwavesin
coastalregionsandinlandwaters.Thecurrentversion
ofSWANis40.81.
Wavepropagationintimeandspace,shoaling,
refractionduetocurrentanddepth,frequency
shiftingduetocurrentsandnonstationarydepth.
Wavegenerationbywind.
Threeandfourwaveinteractions.
Whitecapping,bottomfrictionanddepthinduced
breaking.
Dissipationduetovegetation.
Waveinducedsetup.
Propagationfromlaboratoryuptoglobalscales.
Transmissionthroughandreflection(specularand
diffuse)againstobstacles.
Diffraction.
EmpiricalSimulationTechnique(EST)isastatistical
modeltocomputesitespecificstageversusfrequency
relationshipsforsitespecificlocations.ESTisa
statisticalprocedureforsimulatinglifecyclerisk
analysisofeventssuchasstormsandtheir
correspondingenvironmentalimpacts.TheESTis
basedona"bootstrap"resamplingwithreplacement,
interpolation,andsubsequentsmoothingofobserved
and/orcomputedsitespecifichistoricalevents.
GENESIS (GENEralizedModelforsimulatingShoreline
Change)simulatesthelongtermplatformevolution
ofthebeachinresponsetoimposedwaveconditions,
coastalstructures,andotherengineeringactivity(e.g.,
beachnourishment).
Aquasithreedimensional,numericalfinitedifference
modeltosimulatefreshwaterandsaltwaterflow
separatedbyasharpinterfaceinlayeredcoastal
aquifersystems.
SEAWATisagenericMODFLOW/MT3DMSbased
computerprogramdesignedtosimulatethree
dimensionalvariabledensitygroundwaterflow
coupledwithmultispeciessoluteandheattransport.
Theprogramhasbeenusedforawidevarietyof
groundwaterstudiesincludingthosefocusedonbrine
migrationincontinentalaquifersaswellasthose
focusedonsaltwaterintrusionincoastalaquifers.
SEAWATusesthefamiliarstructureofMODFLOWand
MT3DMS.
SBEACH (StorminducedBEAchCHangeModel)
simulatescrossshorebeach,berm,andduneerosion
producedbystormwavesandwaterlevels.Thelatest
versionallowssimulationofduneerosioninthe
presenceofahardbottom.
128
Tourism
MODEL
Beachfx
LINK
il/chl.aspx?p=s&a=PUBLICATI
ONS!461
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
DESCRIPTION
Beachfxisacomprehensivenewanalyticalframework
forevaluatingthephysicalperformanceandeconomic
benefitsandcostsofshoreprotectionprojects,
particularly,beachnourishmentalongsandyshores.
Themodelhasbeenimplementedasaneventbased
MonteCarlolifecyclesimulationtoolthatisrunon
desktopcomputers.
5 AIRRESOURCESIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS
Inevaluatingthepotentialimpactsofatouristprojectonambientairquality,predictionshouldbemade
todeterminetheextenttowhichambientairqualitystandardsmaybecompromised.Thepredictions
shouldassessthelikelihoodofairpollutionfromthefacility,transportationtoandfromthearea(land
basedandwaterbased),dumps,andmaterialsstorageandhandlingfacilities,identifytheareasof
maximumimpact,andassesstheextentoftheimpactsatthesesites.Althoughanalyticalapproaches
canbeused,internationalexperienceindicatesthatnumericmodelingisthemostappropriatemethod
toevaluatetheimpactsofatourismprojectonairresources.Quantitativemodelscanbeusedto
calculatethecontaminantsinairandtocomparetheresultstonumericalairqualitystandards.
Atthefacilitylevel,impactsshouldbeestimatedthroughqualitativeorquantitativeassessmentsbythe
useofbaselineairqualityassessmentsandatmosphericdispersionmodelstoassesspotentialground
levelconcentrations.Localatmospheric,climaticandairqualitydatashouldbeappliedwhenmodeling
dispersion.
Initially,theGaussiananalyticalmodelwasdevelopedinthe1930sandstillisthemostcommonlyused
modeltype.ItassumesthattheairpollutantdispersionhasaGaussiandistribution,meaningthatthe
pollutantdistributionhasanormalprobabilitydistribution.Gaussianmodelsaremostoftenusedfor
predictingthedispersionofcontinuous,buoyantairpollutionplumesoriginatingfromgroundlevelor
elevatedsources.Gaussianmodelsmayalsobeusedforpredictingthedispersionofnoncontinuousair
pollutionplumes(calledpuffmodels).TheprimaryalgorithmusedinGaussianmodelingisthe
GeneralizedDispersionEquationforaContinuousPointSourcePlumeandcanbefoundinTurner
(1994).
Overtime,othernumericairdispersionmodelshavebeendeveloped.Theseincludescreeningmodels
forsinglesourceevaluations(SCREEN3orAIRSCREEN),aswellasmorecomplexandrefinedmodels
(AERMODorADMS).Modelselectionisdependentonthecomplexityandgeomorphologyofthe
projectsite(e.g.mountainousterrain,urbanorruralarea).TableF5presentsalistofcommonlyused
models.Notethatmodelsarecontinuouslyupdatedandimproved.Alsonotethatcertainmodelsare
appropriateforspecificapplications,suchasincomplexterrain,shorelineenvironments,forpoint,area,
lineandormobilesources,andforspecificpollutants(e.g.,gases,particles,heavierthanairgases).A
generalsummaryofappropriateapplicationsisprovidedintheDescriptioncolumnofTableF4.Most
ofthesemodelsarefreetothepublic,readilyavailableontheUSEPAAPTICWebsiteandcanbedown
loadedfollowingthelinkspresentedintheLinkcolumn.
129
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
TableF5:Airpollutionmodels
MODEL
AERMOD
LINK
http://www.epa.gov/scram
001/dispersion_prefrec.htm
#rec
DESCRIPTION
Asteadystateplumemodelthatincorporatesair
dispersionbasedonplanetaryboundarylayer
turbulencestructureandscalingconcepts,including
treatmentofbothsurfaceandelevatedsources,and
bothsimpleandcomplexterrain.
CALPUFF
http://www.epa.gov/scram Anonsteadystatepuffdispersionmodelthat
001/dispersion_prefrec.htm simulatestheeffectsoftimeandspacevarying
#rec
meteorologicalconditionsonpollutiontransport,
transformation,andremoval.CALPUFFcanbeapplied
forlongrangetransportandforcomplexterrain.
BLP
http://www.epa.gov/scram AGaussianplumedispersionmodeldesignedtohandle
001/dispersion_prefrec.htm uniquemodelingproblemsassociatedwithaluminum
#rec
reductionplants,andotherindustrialsourceswhere
plumeriseanddownwasheffectsfromstationaryline
sourcesareimportant.
CALINE3
http://www.epa.gov/scram AsteadystateGaussiandispersionmodeldesignedto
001/dispersion_prefrec.htm determineairpollutionconcentrationsatreceptor
#rec
locationsdownwindofhighwayslocatedinrelatively
uncomplicatedterrain.
CAL3QHC/
http://www.epa.gov/scram CAL3QHCisaCALINE3basedCOmodelwithqueuing
CAL3QHCR
001/dispersion_prefrec.htm andhotspotcalculationsandwithatrafficmodelto
#rec
calculatedelaysandqueuesthatoccuratsignalized
intersections;CAL3QHCRisamorerefinedversion
basedonCAL3QHCthatrequireslocalmeteorological
data.
CTDMPLUS
http://www.epa.gov/scram ComplexTerrainDispersionModelPlusAlgorithmsfor
001/dispersion_prefrec.htm UnstableSituations(CTDMPLUS)isarefinedpoint
#rec
sourceGaussianairqualitymodelforuseinallstability
conditionsforcomplexterrain.Themodelcontains,in
itsentirety,thetechnologyofCTDMforstableand
neutralconditions.
ISC3
http://www.epa.gov/ttncat TheIndustrialSourceComplexModel(ISC3)isasteady
c1/cica/9904e.html(In
stateGaussianplumemodelwhichcanbeusedto
Spanish)
assesspollutantconcentrationsfromawidevarietyof
sourcesassociatedwithanindustrialcomplex.ISC3
operatesinbothlongtermandshorttermmodes.
SCREEN3
http://www.epa.gov/ttncat SCREEN3isasinglesourceGaussianplumemodel
c1/cica/9904e.html(in
whichprovidesmaximumgroundlevelconcentrations
Spanish)
forpoint,area,flare,andvolumesources.
PCRAMMET
http://www.epa.gov/ttncat PCRAMMETisapreprocessorformeteorologicaldata
c1/cica/9904e.html(in
thatisusedwiththeIndustrialSourceComplex3(ISC3)
Spanish)
regulatorymodelandotherEPAmodels.
Note:Othermodelsusedforvehicleemissions,e.g.MODAL,andcomplexpollutantinteractionsand
photochemicalreactions.
130
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
6 NOISEIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS
AccordingtotheOccupationalSafetyandHealth
BENCHMARKSFORNOISE
AdministrationOSHA(2006)exposuretohigh
Activity/Object
dB(A)
levelsofnoiseforlongdurationsmayleadto
QuietBedroom
2030
hearingloss,createphysicalandpsychological
Daytimelevelsinquietresidentialarea 3545
stress,reduceproductivity,interferewith
Conversationat1meter
50
communication,andcontributetoaccidentsand
Busycentraloffice
5060
injuriesbymakingitdifficulttohearwarning
Lawnmowerat15meters
70
signals.Toestimatenoiseemissionsduring
Jackhammerat1meter
100
constructionandoperationofatourismfacility,
Jetaircrafttakingoffat25meters
140
baselinemonitoringandoperationalmonitoring
maybenecessary.Thisinformationcanbe
analyzedusingempiricalornumericalmodelingtechnique.Pointsourcepropagationcanbeanalyzed
usingbasicanalyticalequationsbasedonattenuationofsoundenergyastheinverseofthesquareof
thedistancefromthenoisesource.Numericalmodelingtechniqueshavealsobeendevelopedforthe
additiveeffectofmultiplesources.Theresultsofthemodelsarethencomparedtotheappropriate
standards.Forinstance,themaximumpermissibleoccupationalnoiseexposurelimitintherangeof90
85Aweighteddecibels(dB(A))Leqfor8hourperday(40hourperweek).TheAweighteddecibelscale
approximatesthesensitivityofthehumaneartovariousfrequenciesfrom32to20,000Hertz(Hz).
Mostadvancedmodelsprovidegraphicoutputsofnoiseimpacts(isophons),whichcanthenbeoverlaid
onmapsofcriticalreceptors.NoisestandardsaretypicallyexpressedasdB(A)however,itisadvisable
toproduceimpactsbasedoctavebandsaswell,asdB(A)arebasedonaweightedsummationofall
bands,andknowledgeoftheoctavebandanalysisfromspecificsourcesisusefulindevisingtheproper
noisecontrolstrategy.
Justastherearemanytypesandsourcesofnoise,therearemanynoisemodels.Themostbroadly
applicablenoisemodelistheComputerAidedNoiseAbatement(CadnaA)model.
http://www.datakustik.com/en/products/cadnaaTherearealsosimplermodelsbasedonthesound
pressurelevels(SPL)measuredatknowndistancesandatknowndirectionsfromanoisesource,with
subsequentcalculationofattenuationasafunctionofdistancefromthenoisesource.Trafficspecific
modelsarealsoavailable,forexampletheUSFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA)TrafficNoise
Model(TNM)http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/tnm/index.htm
OutdoorEntertainmentVenues:Noisefromliveperformancesandentertainmentvenuescandisturb
householdactivities,disruptsleepandinterferewithbusinessactivities.Ifthenoiseisparticularlyloud,
penetratingorprolonged,theimpactscancauseirritationandannoyance.Itisessentialthatnoisefrom
livemusicandentertainmentvenuesismanagedinawaythatpromotesandensuresabalance
betweentheuseandenjoymentofmusicvenuesandtheprotectionofamenityforsurrounding
businessesandneighboringhouseholds.
PatronNoise:Noisefrompatronsapproachingorleavingentertainmentvenuesisafrequentcauseof
complaint.Planningauthoritiesshouldconsidertheimpactofpatronnoiseandotherbehavioronthe
amenityvalueamenityvalueofthelocalitywhenassessingproposalstodeveloptourismentertainment
venues.
131
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
CarParkNoise:Carparksassociatedwithentertainmentvenuestendtobeagatheringplaceforpatrons
astheyarriveatorleavethevenue.Venuepatronsoftenhavelittleregardfortheamenityofresidents
inpropertiesadjacentthecarpark.Thenoiseofslammingcardoors,revvingcarenginesandsquealing
tirescanbedisturbing.
7 AESTHETIC/VISUALRESOURCEIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS
Itisrecommendedthataprojectbegraphicallysuperimposedonbaselinepanoramicviewsofthe
proposedprojectsitefromdifferentpotentialviewpointssuchascommunities,roads,anddesignated
scenicviewingareas,toprovideabetterunderstandingofpotentialvisualimpactsasafunctionof
direction,distanceandtimeofday.
ZoneofVisualInfluence(ZVI)mapsshowtheextentofvisibilityofaproposeddevelopmentfromthe
surroundinglandscape.Theycanalsobeusedtoassessthecumulativevisualimpactofsimilar
developmentswithinanarea.Wireframeviewsgiveanoutlineimageofthecontoursofthelandfroma
selectedviewpoint.Thisgivesapictureoftheproposeddevelopmentwithoutobstructionfrom
surroundingbuildingsandvegetationPhotomontagesarecomputeraidedphotographsofaproposed
development,showingapictureofhowadevelopmentwillappearafterconstruction.Animageofthe
proposeddevelopmentissuperimposedontothephotograph(http://www.fehilytimoney.ie/expertise
services/visualimpactassessmentzvimapswireframeviews.html).Thecolorphotomontageis
probablythemostfrequentlyusedtechnique.Suchatechniquehastheadvantageofaccurately
portrayingthelandscapeinameaningfulandeasilyrecognizableform.Invideomontagetechniques
havebeendevelopedtodemonstratetheimportanteffectsofmovement.Thisisbasicallyavideo
recordofasiteoverwhichacomputergeneratedanimatedphotomontageissuperimposed(Thomas
1996).ComputerprogramssuchasGIS,CAD,Autodesk3DSMax,AdobePhotoshop,AdobeIllustrator
softwareandotherspecializedsoftware,usedtomodelthevisualimpactofdevelopments.These
modelsaredescribedinTableF6.
132
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
TableF6:Visualimpactanalysistools
TOOL
DESCRIPTION
ArcGISisasuiteofGIStools(ArcView,ArcGISServer,etc.)forworkingwith
mapsandgeographicinformation.Itisusedforassembling,storing,
manipulatinganddisplayinggeographicallyreferenceddata.ArcGISisa
powerfultoolwherebylayersofdataonavarietyoftopicscanbecollated,
sieved,selectedorsuperimposed.
U.S.EPAhasdevelopedanapplicationforscreeningprojectsforEIAwhichuses
theofftheshelfsoftwareofArcGISServertocreateinstantaneousaccessto
distributedsourcesofdata,integratethedataspatially,andprovideananalysis
ofkeyrelationshipsofenvironmentandsocialeconomicculturalfeaturesin
bothastandardizedandflexiblemanner.Thistoolhasbeenadaptedforusein
CAFTADRcountriesanddeployedthroughouttheregion.
AutoCad
Incomputeraideddesign(CAD),usersemployinteractivegraphicstodesign
componentsandsystemsofmechanical,electrical,electromechanical,and
electronicdevices,includingstructuressuchasbuildings,automobilebodies,
airplaneandshiphulls,verylargescaleintegrated(VLSI)chips,andtelephone
andcomputernetworks.CADhasbeenaroundsincetheearly1960s;itsuse
facilitatesthedesignofobjectsthroughcomputers.EarlyCADsoftware
packagesonlyworkedinwireframe(simplelinemodels)ona2Dplane,
nowadaystheycanoperatein3Dusingvariousshadingtechniquestoproduce
realisticrenderedimages.
Autodesk3DSMax,Maya,Bryce 3Dmodelingandanimationapplicationssuchas3DSMaxdiffertoCADinthat
(CorelCorporation,2002),Vue
theyhavetheabilitytocreaterealisticenvironmentsbymeansofcomplex
DEsprit(EonSoftware,2002)
animations,lightingandshadows,detailedsurfacetexturing,reflective
surfaces,environmentaleffectssuchasfogandrainandmanyotherfunctions.
andLightwave(NewTek,2002)
Photoshop(AdobeSystemsInc., Imageeditingsoftwareapplicationsareusedtocreateandeditimages.These
2011),PaintShopProX3(Corel
softwarepackagesallowtheusertodevelopphotomontageandvisualization
2010),CorelDRAWX5(Corel
offutureprojects.
Corporation,2010)andMattis
andKimballs(GIMP,2010)
Source:BasedonCox,2003
ArcGIS
8 FLORA,FAUNA,ECOSYSTEMSANDPROTECTEDAREASIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS
Aswithsoilsandgeology,biologicalimpactassessmentisbasedonstudies,literaturereviewand
professionaljudgment.Astoprovideanunderstandingofthecriticalityofhabitatandecosystemsand
thesensitivelifestages.AdescribedinSectionD,EnvironmentalSetting.Resultsofsoil,water,air,and
noiseimpactmodelingorothermeansofquantificationshouldbeoverlaidonmapsshowinglocationof
flora,fauna,ecosystems,threatenedandendangeredspecieshabitats,andprotectedareas,to
determinethepossibilityofadverseimpacts.Inaddition,somecomputermodelsareavailabletohelp
predicthabitatimpactsforaquaticandterrestrialfloraandfauna.Thesearediscussedattheendofthis
subsection.Thedesignoftheproposedprojectdesignalsoshouldbereviewedastowhetheritwill
alteraccesstolight(shadeimpacts),water,foodsourcesandwhethercriticalhabitatwillbe
fragmented.
Beyondlookingatthesecomponentsindividually,anEIAneedstobeintegrated,i.e.toaddressthe
relationshipsbetweenbiophysical,socialandeconomicaspectsinassessingprojectimpacts(IAIA1999).
133
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
AddressingtheserelationshipsreliesonanintegratingtheEnvironmentalSettingwiththeimpact
assessment.ThisapproachiscalledanEcosystemServicesApproach.
Anecosystemservicesapproachrecognizestheintrinsicandcomplexrelationshipsbetweenbiophysical
andsocioeconomicenvironments.Itintegratestheseaspectsbyexplicitlylinkingecosystemservices
(thebenefitspeoplederivefromecosystems),theircontributiontohumanwellbeing,andthewaysin
whichpeopleimpactecosystemscapacitytoprovidethoseservices.Theapproachreliesonasuiteof
toolssuchasaconceptualframeworklinkingdriversofchange,ecosystemsandbiodiversity,ecosystem
services,andhumanwellbeing(MA2005);guidelinesforprivatesectorcompaniestoassessrisksand
opportunitiesrelatedtoecosystemservices(Hansonetal.2008),andmanualforconductingecosystem
servicesassessments(UNEPtobepublished).
Inthecontextofenvironmentalimpactassessments,theecosystemservicesapproachprovidesamore
systematicandintegratedassessmentofprojectimpactsanddependenciesonecosystemservicesand
theconsequenceforthepeoplewhobenefitfromtheseservices.IthelpsEIApractitionerstogobeyond
biodiversityandecosystemstoidentifyandunderstandthewaysnaturalandhumanenvironment
interrelates.Thisholisticunderstanding,fromdescriptionoftheEnvironmentalSettingtotheimpact
assessment,willleadtheEIApractitionerthroughanewsetofquestionsorganizedaroundthe
conceptualframeworkshownbelow:
Whataretheecosystemservicesimportantforlocalcommunities?
o Whichserviceswilltheprojectpotentiallyimpactinasignificantway?
o Howdoestheimpactononeecosystemserviceaffectthesupplyanduseofother
ecosystemservices?
Whataretheunderlyinglevelofbiodiversityandthecurrentcapacityoftheecosystemsto
continuetoprovideecosystemservices?
Whataretheconsequencesoftheseecosystemserviceimpactsonhumanwellbeing,for
examplewhataretheeffectsonlivelihoods,income,andsecurity?
Whatarethedirectandindirectdriversofecosystemchangeaffectingthesupplyanduseof
ecosystemservices?Howwilltheprojectcontributetothesedirectandindirectdriversof
change?
SystematicallyexaminingalltheboxesintheframeworkpresentedinFigureF6carriesthefollowing
promises:
Sinceecosystemservicesbydefinitionarelinkedtodifferentbeneficiaries,anyecosystem
servicechangescanthenbeexplicitlytranslatedintoagainorlossofhumanwellbeing.
Itwillhighlighttheimpactonallimportantecosystemservicesprovidedbytheareasuchas
erosioncontrol,pollination,waterregulation,andpollutantremoval.
ItwillensurethattheEIAaccountsfortheeffectsoftheprojectonexistingdirectandindirect
driversofecosystemchangethatinturncouldimpacttheecosystemservicesprovidedbythe
area.
Itwillimprovetheprojectsmanagementofrisksandopportunitiesarisingfromecosystem
services.
134
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
FigureF6:Conceptualframeworktoassessecosystemservices
Source:AdaptedfromtheMillenniumEcosystemsAssessment,MA2005
8.1 TerrestrialResourcesImpactAssessmentTools
Habitatbasedapproachesarecommonlyusedtopredicttheimpactoftourismdevelopmenton
terrestrialhabitats.Ahabitatbasedapproachprovidestheabilitytoidentify,document,predict,and
comparepotentialpotentialchangesinwildlifehabitatforvariousdevelopmentactionsoralternatives.
AnexampleofahabitatbasedapproachistheHabitatEvaluationProcedures(HEP)developedbytheUS
FishandWildlifeService.HEPprovidesamechanismforpredictingchangesinqualityandquantityof
wildlifehabitatforselectedwildlifespeciesovertimeunderalternativefuturescenariosandfor
comparingenvironmentalmeasuresoptions.HEPreliesonhabitatsuitabilitymodelsthatuse
measurementsofimportantcharacteristicstoratehabitatqualityonascaleof0(unsuitable)to1
(optimal).Theindexvalueismultipliedbytheareaofavailablehabitattodeterminehabitatunitsunder
baselineandotherscenarios.TheHEPhandbookisavailableonlineat
http://www.fws.gov/policy/ESMindex.html
Predictedimpactsonairandwaterquality,mechanicalimpactsonfloraandfauna,andimpactsofnoise
andlightshouldthenbegraphicallyoverlaidonthedocumenteddomainsandrangesofplantsand
animalstoassurethatimpactsarenotlikelytoexceedthosewhichmightinterferewiththelongterm
healthofimpactedpopulations.
8.2 AquaticResourcesImpactAssessmentTools
TheUSFishandWildlifeHEPapproachcanalsobeusedforaquatichabitats.Developmentofother
analyticalmodelsforassessmentofaquaticresourceimpactshasprimarilyfocusedonestablishing
135
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
relationshipsbetweenriverflowandfishhabitatquantity.Flowversusfishhabitatmodelshave
generallybeenappliedinsituationsofproposalsforseasonalwaterstorageandreleaseassociatedwith
floodcontrolorhydroelectricoperation,andwaterdiversionsforirrigation,hydroelectricgeneration,
andotherwateruses.
Themodelsgenerallycomeintwotypes:standardsettingandincremental.Astandardsettingmodel
followsafixedrule,andtherefore,providesasingleanswerorstandard.Standardsettingmodelstend
toberelativelygeneric(i.e.,notsitespecific),quick,andofloweffortandcost.Incrementalmodels
predictarangeofconditionsforarangeofinputs.Incrementalmodelstendtobesitespecificandof
relativelyhigheffortandcosttocalibrate.Becauseincrementalmodelsprovidearangeofoutputs,such
modelsareusefulwherenegotiationsaredesiredornecessary.Theneedtoevaluatethepotential
impactstoaquaticlifeofatourismprojectisdependentofitsproximitytorivers,lakesandotherbodies
ofwater.Itisalsodependentoniffishingorotherwatersportswillbepromotedinarea.Itmayormay
notbenecessarytomodelthepotentialimpactsdependingonthesefactors.TableF2includesthe
mostcommonlyusedanalyticalmodelsforassessmentofaquaticresourceimpacts.
9 SOCIOECONOMICCONDITIONS,INFRASTRUCTUREANDLANDUSE
Whenanactivity,suchasdevelopmentorexpansionofatourismprojectisexpectedtoacceleratesocial
changeatthelocallevel,itisnecessarytohavedetailed(sometimeshouseholdlevel)socioeconomic
andculturaldatafromthedirectlyaffectedcommunitiesforthebaseline,andtodeveloptrenddatato
assesswhetherpotentialpotentialimpactswillcontinueoralterthosetrendsinasignificantway.
Socialimpactscannotusuallybeassessedsolelythroughsecondarydataoninfrastructureandsocial
services.Theresultsfromdetailedfamilylevelsurveys,focusgroupdiscussionsandkeyinformant
interviews,participantobservation,stakeholderconsultations,secondarydata,andotherdirectdata
collectionmethodsshouldbeanalyzedcarefully(Joyce,2001).
Asdataarecollected,trendsbasedongender,agegroups,economicstatus,proximitytotheprojects
shouldbeanalyzed.Thisanalysiscanbeaccomplishedusingstatisticalmodelsor,aswhathasbeen
foundmorerecentlytobeeffective,theuseofGeographicalInformationSystems(GIS).Accordingto
Joyceetal.(2001),theproblemwithusingastrictlyqualitativeapproachhasissues:
Thereisagreaterdifficultyofpredictingsocialbehaviorandresponseascomparedtoimpacts
onthebiophysicalorbiologicalelements,suchaswateroranimals.
Thefactthatsocialimpactsareasmuchtodowiththeperceptionspeopleorgroupshaveabout
anactivityastheyaretodowiththeactualfactsandsubstantiverealityofasituation,and
Thefabricofsocialinteractionsandsocialwellbeing(todaybeingrecognizedandlabeledas
socialcapital,whichareintheendwheremanysocialimpactstakeplace,canonlybe
measuredorevaluatedthroughqualitativeandparticipatoryprocesses.
Asthecausationgetsmoredistant,itislessclearhowdirectlyresponsibleagivenprojector
activityisforthatimpactandrequiredenvironmentalmeasures,andlessclearhoweffective
environmentalmeasurestakenbyoneplayerwouldbe.
Again,accordingtoJoyce,themeasureofsignificanceisthemostdifficult/criticalpartofsocioeconomic
impactassessment.Potentialimpactsishouldbedescribedintermsofthelevelofintensityofan
impact,thedirectionality(positiveornegative),theduration,anditsgeographicextension.Significance
isnecessarilydefinedusingprofessionaljudgment.Towardsthisend,categoriesofimpactscanbe
definedandadeterminationcanbemadeastowhatconstitutesashort,mediumandlongtermimpact,
136
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
andthereasonsforthedesignation.Thisiswhereparticipationbythelocalpopulationbecomes
importantindeterminingwhatissignificanttothemparticularlyforsocioeconomicculturalimpacts.
SectionB.2oftheseguidelinesprovideguidanceonpublicparticipationandAppendixGincludes
exampleguidelinesfromtheDominicanRepubliconsocialimpactassessmentandtheimportantroleof
publicparticipationandconsultationinthatprocess.
Basedonthesignificanceoftheimpact(s)conclusionscanbedrawnandmitigationmeasurescanbe
designed.
Othersocioeconomicimpactswhichshouldbeassessedinclude:
LandUseAtourismsiteifnotrestoredproperlycanchangethelanduseofanareaforever.To
understandthepotentialimpactsofdevelopmentoftourismprojectsonlanduse,itis
importanttobeabletovisualizeandcalculatepotentialchangeswhichmayoccur.Thiscanbe
donebydevelopingmapswhichshowpreconstruction,operationalandpostclosurelanduse.
Inmanycountries,geographicinformationsystems(GIS)areusedextensivelyforthispurpose.
GIScaptures,stores,analyzes,manages,andpresentsdatathatislinkedtolocation.GIS
applicationsaretoolsthatallowuserstocreateinteractivequeries(usercreatedsearches),
analyzespatialinformation,editdata,maps,andpresenttheresultsofalltheseoperations.A
GISincludesmappingsoftwareanditsapplicationwithremotesensing,landsurveying,aerial
photography,mathematics,photogrammetry,geography,andothertools.
PopulationandHousingThekeytounderstandingthepotentialimpacttothelocalpopulation
andhousingishavingagoodunderstandingtheworkforcerequiredfortheoperation.Simple
calculationscanthenbemadetodeterminechangesindemographicsoverthelifeofthe
project.
InfrastructureCapacitySimplecalculationscomparingdemandsonroads,hospitals,
wastewatertreatment,watersupplyandwastemanagementagainstcapacity.However,these
calculationsshouldtakeintoaccountdirectdemandsfromtheprojectforeveryphaseofthe
projectincludingconstruction,operationandclosure,demandsfrompotentialpotentialinduced
growthasanindirectimpactoftheproposedprojectanddemandsintothefutureinthe
absenceoftheproject,
EmploymentAgainhavingagoodunderstandingoftheworkforcerequiredforeachphase
(construction,operationandclosure)ofatourismprojectisrequiredtodeterminewhat
additionallabormayberequiredforschools,hospitals,supportindustries,etc.
TransportationTransportationstudiesarerequiredtodeterminepotentialimpactsontraffic
androadsduetocommutingandthehaulingofconstructionmaterialstotheprojectsite,
deliveryoffuelandremovalofwastesifbyrail,waterorroad,andincreasesintrafficassociated
withtheworkforceservicingtheprojectandprovidingsupporttothatworkforce.
PublicHealthThepotentialfortourismprojecttoimpactcommunitiesiswelldocumentedin
theliterature.Tourismspreaddiseasestolocalsandvisaorversa.Understandingthegeneral
healthofcommunityisimportant.Inaddition,theadditionoftouristmaystresslocalhealth
servicesinanarea.
PublicSafetyAdditionaltraffic,constructionactivities,andotheractivitiessuchasboatingcan
impactpublicsafety.Inemergencysituationssuchasearthquakes,tsunamis,oravolcanic
eruption,thepresenceoftouristmayimpacttheabilityofacommunitytoreact.
EducationIncreaseinworkerpopulationandtheirfamilymaycauseovercrowdingofschools
andimpacteducation.
137
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
10 CULTURAL,ARCHEOLOGICAL,CEREMONIALANDHISTORICRESOURCES
Impactsareusuallydefinedasdirectorindirectalterationstocharacteristicsofaculturalarcheological,
ceremonialorhistoricsiteortraditionaluseofaresource.Effectsareadversewhentheintegrityis
affectedorthequalitydiminished.Impactassessmentbeginswithoverlayingallprojectactivitiesonthe
mapofculturalarcheological,ceremonialorhistoricsitesdevelopedfortheEnvironmentalSetting,to
identifyallsitesthatmaybedirectlyimpacted.Inaddition,noise,vibrationandvisibility(ofandfrom
thesites)impactsneedtobeestimated,usingtheresultsofthenoise,vibrationandvisibility
assessmentsdiscussedabove.Impactstohistoricalandarcheologicalsitesandculturalresourcesare
evaluatedwithrespecttotheirmagnitudeandsignificance.Forculturalresources,itisimportantto
considerpotentialimpactsthatmayaffectthetransmissionandretentionoflocalvalues.These
potentialimpactstothetransmissionandretentionoflocalvaluesmaybecausedbyimpactstoplants,
animals,fish,geologyandwaterresourcesthatmaybeusedforculturalpurposesbycertainpopulations
fortraditionalpurposes,aswellasvisualimpacts.
11 VULNERABLEPOPULATIONS
VulnerablepopulationsconcernsareintroducedinChapterEsection4.5asthepotentialof
disproportionatehighandadverseeffectsoncertainpopulations,typicallyindigenous,minorityand/or
lowincomepopulations.Economiceffectsandculturalimpactsareanalyzedaspartofthe
socioeconomicassessmentandwouldincludetopicssuchasemployment,revenue,economic
development,etc.EnvironmentalimpactsareaddressedintheenvironmentalsectionsoftheEIA.
Specialattentionneedstobegiventoimpactsthatcouldmostaffectvulnerablepopulationsandshould
beacknowledged.Generally,adverseimpactsaremoreintensetothevulnerablepopulations,andthe
economiceffectsareusuallygreater.
Therearetwotypesofsourcesofimpactsofconcernrelatedtovulnerablepopulations.Thefirsttypeof
impactderivesfromthedifferencesinlifestylethatmighttypicallybefoundamongindigenouspeoples
andminoritygroups.Forexample,thesegroupsmightrelymoreheavilyontheaffectedenvironment
forsustenanceorhavegreateraccesstotheenvironmentwhichmayincreasetheirexposuretoharmful
substanceswherethoseareidentifiedintheenvironmentalimpactassessment.Anothercontextin
whichtheanalysismaybeappropriateistoaddressminorityandlowincomepopulationswhoselife
stylesorlowincomestatusmaymakethemmorevulnerabletoadverseimpacts.Iftheystartwithpoor
healthorpooraccesstomedicalcare,theimpactsofadverseenvironmentalimpactsmayfallmore
heavilyonthem.Oftenthesepopulationsliveinlocationsinwhichmanypollutingsourcesmaybeco
located.Theymaylackthelanguageorpoliticalaccesstorepresenttheirinterestsbeforethe
government.Thesepopulationsaregenerallylessresilientthanthelargerpopulationsinthe
surroundingenvironmentbecauseoftheireconomiccircumstancesintheirabilitytomitigateadverse
impactsusingtheirownresources.
12 HEALTHANDSAFETYIMPACTASSESSMENTTOOLS
12.1 HealthImpactAssessmentTools
Manystudieshavebeendonethatlinkdiseasetothespreadofdiseasesfromtouristsandworkersto
localcommunities.TableF7presentsapartiallistofsuchdiseasesthatarecommonlyspread.The
potentialforthespreadofdiseasecanimpactthebasichealthandvitalityofacommunity.Toolswhich
canbeusedtoassessthispotentialimpactincludesurveyswhichaccessthepotentialhealthofa
138
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
communityanditsabilitytocopewithanoutbreakdototheinteractionofthelocalpopulationwith
tourists.Suchanassessmentmaytakeintoaccountproposedmeasurestoreducerisks,butifthatis
donethenthemeasuresusedtominimizeoreliminateriskshouldbeincludedinthemitigation
measuressectionintermsthatreflectcommitmentoftheprojectoperatortocarrythemout
effectively.Inaddition,asmentionedearlier,dietarychangesmayoccurtothelocalcommunitydueto
theinfluenceoftouristsandoutsideworkers.Thispotentialalsoshouldbeevaluated.
TableF7:Easeofspreadofarangeofdiseaseswhichcanbetransmittedfromtravelerstohostsand
theirlevelofimpactonthehostindividual
EASEOFSPREAD
DISEASES
IMPACTONHOSTINDIVIDUAL*
High
MinortoSerious
SexuallyTransmittedInfections(STIs)
GastrointestinalInfections
UpperRespiratoryInfections
OtherViralInfections
WormInfections(roundworms,tapeworms)
Cholera
Malaria
DengueFever
YellowFever
Filariasis
Leishmaniasis
Onchocerciasis
OropoucheFever
Serious
AIDS
OtherViralInfections
Low
Medium
Myiasis
MediumtoSerious
WormInfections(flukes)
*Key:Minor:acuteillnesswithusuallynocomplications,noorlittletemporaryincapacitation,completerecovery
Medium:acuteorchronicillnessaffectinganindividualsabilitytopursuetheusualactivities,complete
recovery,nopermanentincapacitation
Serious:acuteorchronicillnesswithhighpossibilityofseriousorfatalcomplications,permanent
incapacitationordisfiguration
Source:Bauer,1999
Medium
MinortoSerious
MediumtoSerious
12.2 PublicSafetyImpactAssessmentTools
Manyofthemodelsoutlinedabovecanbeusedtoaccessthepotentialimpactstopublicsafety.
Hydrologicmodelscanaccessthepotentialforflooding.Geologicmodelscandeterminetheriskof
landslideduetoconstructionactivitiesandtransportationmodelscanbeuseddeterminehazardfrom
increasetrafficduetoresortdevelopment.Becauseemergencysituationsduetoearthquakes,
tsunamis,volcaniceruptionsandotherscanoccuratanytime,anassessmentshouldbemadeto
determinethecommunitiesandresortsabilitytocopewithadisaster.
Becauseworkersafetyduringconstructionandoperationofaresortisalsoaconcern,safetyevaluations
shouldbecompletedonaregularbasistoensurethattheoperationisincompliancewithnational
regulations.Theseassessmentsshouldincludenotlimitedtofactorsleadingto:
Exposuretodust,noise,andchemicals
Handlingofchemicals
Accidentswhileworkingwithheavyorotherequipment
139
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
13 CUMULATIVEIMPACTSASSESSMENTMETHODS
Predictivetoolsandmethodsusedforcumulativeimpactassessmentaresimilartothoseusedtopredict
impactsgenerally,buttheinputparametersaredifferentinthattheyincludeallpast,presentand
predictedfutureactionsaffectingtheresource.Theanalysisisfocusedandappliedwhereitismost
usefulthroughaprocessofidentifyingwhichresourcesmaybesignificantlyaffectedandapplyingmore
detailedassessmentstothoseresourcesforwhichcumulativeimpactassessmentismostimportant.
Threegeneralsteps,arerecommendedtoensuretheproperassessmentofcumulativeimpacts.
Step1.Determinationoftheextentof
cumulativeimpacts
a. Identifypotentiallysignificant
cumulativeimpactsassociatedwith
theproposedactivity;
b. Establishthegeographicscopeof
theassessment;
c. Identifyotheractivitiesaffectingthe
environmentalresourcesofthe
area;and
d. Definethegoalsoftheassessment.
Step3.Assessmentofcumulativeimpacts
a. Anidentificationoftheimportant
causeandimpactrelationships
betweenproposedactivityandthe
environmentalresources;
b. Adeterminationofthemagnitude
andsignificanceofcumulative
impacts;and
c. Themodification,oraddition,of
alternativestoavoid,minimizeor
mitigatesignificantcumulative
impacts.
Step2.Descriptionoftheaffected
environment
a. Characterizetheidentified
environmentalresourcesintermsof
theirresponsetochangeand
capacitytowithstandstress;
b. Characterizethestressesaffecting
theseenvironmentalresourcesand
theirrelationtoregulatory
thresholds;and
c. Defineabaselineconditionthat
providesameasuringpointforthe
impactstotheenvironmental
resources.
Inreviewingcumulativeimpactsanalysis,theUnitedStatesEPAreviewersfocusonthespecific
resourcesandecologicalcomponentsthatcanbeaffectedbytheincrementaleffectsoftheproposed
projectandotheractionsinthesamegeographicarea(USEPA,1999).Ingeneral,reviewersfocuson
fourmainaspects.Theseinclude:
1. ResourceandEcosystemComponents
2. GeographicBoundariesandTimePeriod
3. Past,Present,AndReasonablyForeseeableActions
4. UsingThresholdstoAssessResourceDegradation
Thefollowingpresentsabriefdescriptionofthese.
140
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
13.1 ResourceandEcosystemComponents
AnEIAanalysisshouldidentifytheresourcesandecosystemcomponentscumulativelyimpactedbythe
proposedactionandotheractions.Ingeneral,thereviewerdetermineswhichresourcesare
cumulativelyaffectedbyconsidering:
1. Whethertheresourceisespeciallyvulnerabletoincrementaleffects;
2. Whethertheproposedactionisoneofseveralsimilaractionsinthesamegeographicarea;
3. Whetherotheractivitiesintheareahavesimilareffectsontheresource;
4. Whethertheseeffectshavebeenhistoricallysignificantforthisresource;and
5. Whetherotheranalysesintheareahaveidentifiedacumulativeeffectsconcern.
Theanalysisshouldbeexpandedforonlythoseresourcesthataresignificantlyaffected.Insimilar
fashion,ecosystemcomponentsshouldbeconsideredwhentheyaresignificantlyaffectedby
cumulativeimpacts.Themeasureofcumulativeeffectsisanychangetothefunctionofthese
ecosystemcomponents.Therefore,EIAdocumentsshouldconsideronlyalimitednumberofresources
thatmaybepotentiallyaffectedbycumulativeimpacts.
Toensuretheinclusionoftheresourcesthatmaybemostsusceptible,cumulativeimpactscanbe
anticipatedbyconsideringwherecumulativeeffectsarelikelytooccurandwhatactionswouldmost
likelyproducecumulativeeffects.
TheEIAdocumentshouldidentifywhichresourcesorecosystemcomponentsofconcernmightbe
affectedbytheproposedactionoritsalternativeswithintheprojectarea.Oncetheseresourceshave
beenidentified,considerationshouldbegiventotheecologicalrequirementsneededtosustainthe
resources.ItisimportantthattheEIAdocumentconsiderthesebroaderecologicalrequirementswhen
assessinghowtheprojectandotheractionsmaycumulativelyaffecttheresourcesofconcern.Often
theseecologicalrequirementsmayextendbeyondtheboundariesoftheprojectarea,butreasonable
limitsshouldbemadetothescopeoftheanalysis.
13.2 GeographicBoundariesandTimePeriod
Withtheresourcesidentified,theEIAshouldneedtoidentifytheappropriategeographicandtemporal
scopeofanalysisforthoseresources.Withoutspatialboundaries(geographic),acumulativeeffects
assessmentwouldbeglobal,andwhilethismaybeappropriateforsomeissuessuchasglobalclimate
change,itisnotappropriateformostotherissues.TheEIAshouldbrieflydescribehowthoseresources
mightbecumulativelyaffectedandexplainthegeographicscopeofanalysis.
Todeterminespatialboundaries,considerationshouldbegiventothedistancetheeffectcantravelin
thecontextofresourceeffectsfromotheractivitiesthatmightaffectawidearea.Specifically,theEIA
should:
Describehowitdeterminedthearea(s)thatwillbeaffectedbytheproposedaction(impact
zone).
Listthecumulativeeffectsresourceswithinthatareathatcouldbeaffectedbytheproposed
action.
Determinethegeographicareaoutsideoftheimpactzonethatisoccupiedbythoseresources.
Considerthemanagementplansandjurisdictionsofotheragenciesforthecumulatively
affectedresource.
141
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
TheEIAshould:
Discussthelocationofotherprojectsandmajordevelopmentalactivitieswithinthearea.
Includeaschematicdiagramofthesedevelopmentsand/orlisttheminatable.
Brieflydescribehowtheproposedprojectinteracts,affects,orisaffectedby,theseother
resourcedevelopments.
Thelengthofdiscussionshouldreflectthesignificanceoftheinteraction.Includedetailsoftheeffects
oftheseinteractionsintheImpactssection.
13.3 DescribingtheConditionoftheEnvironment
TheEIAanalysisshouldestablishthemagnitudeandsignificanceofcumulativeimpactsbycomparing
theenvironmentinitsnaturallyoccurringstatewiththeexpectedimpactsoftheproposedactionwhen
combinedwiththeimpactsofotheractions.Useofa"benchmark"or"baseline"forpurposesof
comparingconditionsisanessentialpartofanyenvironmentalanalysis.Ifitisnotpossibletoestablish
the"naturallyoccurring"condition,adescriptionofamodifiedbutecologicallysustainablecondition
canbeusedintheanalysis.Inthiscontext,ecologicallysustainablemeansthesystemsupports
biologicalprocesses,maintainsitslevelofbiologicalproductivity,functionswithminimalexternal
management,andrepairsitselfwhenstressed.
WhileadescriptionofpastenvironmentalconditionsisusuallyincludedinEIAdocuments,itisseldom
usedtofullyassesshowthesystemhaschangedfrompreviousconditions.Thecomparisonofthe
environmentalconditionandexpectedenvironmentalimpactscanbeincorporatedintotheImpacts
sectionofEIAdocuments.EIAreviewersshoulddeterminewhethertheEIAanalysisaccuratelydepicts
theconditionoftheenvironmentusedtoassesscumulativeimpacts.Inaddition,reviewersshould
determinewhetherEIAdocumentsincorporatethecumulativeeffectsofallrelevantpastactivitiesinto
theImpactssection.Fortheevaluationoftheenvironmentalconsequencestobeuseful,itisimportant
thattheanalysisalsoincorporatethedegreethattheexistingecosystemmaychangeovertimeunder
eachalternative.
Differentmethodsofdepictingtheenvironmentalconditionareacceptable.Theconditionofthe
environmentshould,however,addressoneormoreofthefollowing:
1. How the affected environment functions naturally and whether it has been significantly
degraded;
2. The specific characteristics of the affected environment and the extent of change, if any, that
hasoccurredinthatenvironment;and
3. A description of the natural condition of the environment or, if that is not available, some
modified,butecologicallysustainable,conditiontoserveasabenchmark.
Twopracticalmethodsfordepictingtheenvironmentalconditionincludeuseofthenoaction
alternativeandanenvironmentalreferencepoint.Historically,thenoactionalternative(asreflecting
existingconditions)hasusuallybeenusedasabenchmarkforcomparingtheproposedactionand
alternativestoexistingconditions.Thenoactionalternativecanbeaneffectivebenchmarkifit
incorporatesthecumulativeeffectsofpastactivitiesandaccuratelydepictstheconditionofthe
environment.
142
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
Anotherapproachfordescribingtheenvironmentalconditionistouseanenvironmentalreference
pointthatwouldbeincorporatedintotheImpactssectionofthedocument.Thenaturalconditionof
theecosystem,orsomemodifiedbutsustainableecosystemcondition,canbedescribedasthe
environmentalreferencepoint.Inanalyzingenvironmentalimpacts,thisenvironmentalreferencepoint
wouldnotnecessarilybeanalternative.Instead,itwouldserveasabenchmarkinassessingthe
environmentalimpactsassociatedwitheachofthealternatives.Specifically,theanalysiswould
evaluatethedegreeofdegradationfromtheenvironmentalreferencepoint(i.e.,naturalecosystem
condition)thathasresultedfrompastactions.Thentherelativedifferenceamongalternativeswould
bedeterminedfornotonlychangescomparedtotheexistingconditionbutalsochangescriticalto
maintainingorrestoringthedesired,sustainablecondition.
Determiningwhatenvironmentalconditiontouseintheassessmentmaynotbeimmediatelyclear.
Choosinganddescribingaconditionshouldbebasedonthespecificcharacteristicsofthearea.In
addition,thechoiceofconditioncanbeconstrainedbylimitedresourcesandinformation.Forthese
reasons,theenvironmentalconditiondescribedbytheenvironmentalreferencepointornoaction
alternativeshouldbeconstructedonacasebycasebasissothatitrepresentsanecosystemableto
sustainitselfinthelargercontextofactivitiesintheregion.Inthisrespect,thereisnopredetermined
pointintimethatautomaticallyshouldrepresenttheenvironmentalcondition.Inaddition,itmaynot
bepracticaltouseapristineconditioninmanysituations.
Dependingonwhethertheinformationisreasonablyobtainable,theenvironmentalconditionchosen
maybeapristineenvironment,orattheveryleast,aminimallyfunctioningecosystemthatwillnot
furtherdegrade.Theuseoftheenvironmentalconditiontocomparealternativesisnotanacademic
exercise,butonethatcanmosteffectivelymodifyalternativesandhelpdecisionmaking.Examplesof
conditionsmightincludebeforeproject,before"substantial"development,orareferenceecosystem
thatiscomparabletotheprojectarea.Selectingthebestenvironmentalconditionforcomparative
purposescanbebasedonthefollowing:
1. Considerwhattheenvironmentwouldlooklikeorhowitwouldbehavewithoutserioushuman
alteration;
2. Factorinthedynamicnatureoftheenvironment;
3. Define the distinct characteristics and attributes of the environment that best represent that
particular type of environment (focus on characteristics and attributes that have to do with
function);and
4. Useavailableorreasonablyobtainableinformation.
13.4 UsingThresholdstoAssessResourceDegradation
Qualitativeandquantitativethresholdscanbeusedtoindicatewhetheraresource(s)ofconcernhas
beendegradedandwhetherthecombinationoftheaction'simpactswithotherimpactsmayresultina
seriousdeteriorationofenvironmentalfunctions.InthecontextofEPAreviews,thresholdscanbeused
todetermineifthecumulativeimpactsofanactioncouldbesignificantandiftheresourcecouldbe
degradedtounacceptablelevels.EIAreviewersshoulddeterminewhethertheanalysisincludedspecific
thresholdsrequiredunderlaworbyagencyregulationsorotherwiseusedbytheagency.Intheabsence
ofspecificthresholds,theanalysisshouldincludeadescriptionofwhetherornottheresourceis
significantlyaffectedandhowthatdeterminationwasmade.
Sincecumulativeimpactsoftenoccuratthelandscapeorregionallevel,thresholdsshouldbedeveloped
atsimilarscaleswheneverpossible.Indicatorsatalandscapelevelcanbeusedtodevelopthresholdsas
143
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
wellasassesstheconditionoftheenvironment.Usingthefollowinglandscapeindicators,thresholds
canbecraftedbydeterminingthelevels,percentages,oramountofeachthatindicateasignificant
impactforaparticulararea.Examplesofthresholdsinclude:
Thetotalchangeinlandcoverisasimpleindicatorofbioticintegrity;thresholdsforareaswithhigh
alterationswouldgenerallybelowerthanareasthatarenotasdegraded;ifopenspaceorpristineareas
areamanagementgoalthenthethresholdwouldbeasmallpercentagechangeinlandcover.
Patchsizedistributionanddistancesbetweenpatchesareimportantindicatorsofspecieschangeand
levelofdisturbance.Thresholdswouldbesettodeterminethecharacteristicsofanareaneededto
supportagivenplantoranimalspecies.
Estimatesoffragmentationandconnectivitycanrevealthemagnitudeofdisturbance,abilityofspecies
tosurviveinanarea,andecologicalintegrity.Thresholdswouldindicateadecreaseincoverpattern,
lossofconnectivity,oramountoffragmentationthatwouldsignificantlydegradeanarea.
Determiningathresholdbeyondwhichcumulativeeffectssignificantlydegradearesource,ecosystem,
orhumancommunityissometimesverydifficultbecauseofalackofdata.Withoutadefinitive
threshold,theEIApractitionershouldcomparethecumulativeeffectsofmultipleactionswith
appropriatenational,regional,state,orcommunitygoalstodeterminewhetherthetotaleffectis
significant.Thesedesiredconditionscanbestbedefinedbythecooperativeeffortsofagencyofficials,
projectproponents,environmentalanalysts,nongovernmentalorganizations,andthepublicthrough
theEIAprocess.Theintegrityofhistoricaldistrictsisanexampleofathresholdthatisgoalrelated.
Thesedistricts,especiallyresidentialandcommercialhistoricdistrictsinurbanareas,areparticularly
vulnerabletoclearanceprogramscarriedoutbylocalgovernments,usuallywithuseoffederalfunds.
Thoughindividualstructuresofparticulararchitecturaldistinctionareoftenpresent,suchdistrictsare
importantbecausetheyareacollectionofstructuresthatrelatetooneanothervisuallyandspatially;
theprimaryimportanceofeachbuildingisthecontributionthatitmakestoagreaterwhole.Oftenin
conjunctionwithcodeenforcementprogramstoremoveblightinginfluencesand/orhazardstopublic
safety,localgovernmentscondemnanddemolishproperties.Viewedinisolationasanindividualaction,
suchdemolitionofanindividualstructuredoesnotsignificantlydiminishthehistoricandarchitectural
characterofthedistrictandindeedmaybebeneficialtotheoverallstabilityofthedistrict.Butthe
cumulativeeffectofawholeseriesofsuchdemolitionscansignificantlyerodethedistrict.Continued
lossofhistoricstructures,oftenwithresultantvacantlotsandincompatiblenewconstruction,canreach
apointwherethevisualintegrityofthedistrictislost.Oncethisthresholdispassed,subsequent
demolitionsbecomeincreasinglydifficulttoresistandultimatelythequalitiesofthehistoricdistrictare
lost.
144
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
TableF8:Primaryandspecialmethodsforanalyzingcumulativeimpacts
PRIMARYMETHODS DESCRIPTION
STRENGTHS
1 Questionnaires,
interviews,andpanels
2 Checklists
3 Matrices
4 NetworksandSystem
Diagrams
5 Modeling
6 TrendsAnalysis
Questionnaires,interviewsandpanelsareuseful
forgatheringthewiderangeofinformationon
multipleactionsandresourcesneededtoaddress
cumulativeeffects.Brainstormingsessions,
interviewswithknowledgeableindividuals,and
groupconsensusbuildingactivitiescanhelp
identifytheimportantcumulativeeffectsissuesin
theregion.
Checklistshelpidentifypotentialcumulative
effectsbyprovidingalistofcommonorlikely
effectsandjuxtaposingmultipleactionsand
resources;potentiallydangerousfortheanalyst
thatusesthemasashortcuttothoroughscoping
andconceptualizationofcumulativeeffects
problems.
Matricesusethefamiliartabularformatto
organizeandquantifytheinteractionsbetween
humanactivitiesandresourcesofconcern.Once
evenrelativelycomplexnumericaldataare
obtained,matricesarewellsuitedtocombining
thevaluesinindividualcellsofthematrix(through
matrixalgebra)toevaluatethecumulativeeffects
ofmultipleactionsonindividualresources,
ecosystems,andhumancommunities.
Networksandsystemdiagramsareanexcellent
methodfordelineatingthecauseandeffect
relationshipsresultingincumulativeeffects;they
allowtheusertoanalyzethemultiple,subsidiary
effectsofvariousactionsandtraceindirecteffects
toresourcesthataccumulatefromdirecteffects
onotherresources.
Modelingisapowerfultechniqueforquantifying,
thecauseandeffectrelationshipsleadingto
cumulativeeffects,cantaketheformof
mathematicalequationsdescribingcumulativen
processessuchassoilerosion,ormayconstitute
anexpertsystemthatcomputestheeffectof
variousprojectscenariosbasedonaprogramof
logicaldecisions.
Trendsanalysisassessesthestatusofaresource,
ecosystem,andhumancommunityovertimeand
usuallyresultsinagraphicalprojectionofpastor
futureconditions.Changesintheoccurrenceor
intensityofstressorsoverthesametimeperiod
canalsobedetermined.Trendscanhelpthe
analystidentifycumulativeeffectsproblems,
establishappropriateenvironmentalbaselines,or
projectfuturecumulativeeffects.
WEAKNESSES
Flexible
Candealwith
subjective
information
Cannotquantify
Comparisonof
alternativesis
subjective
Systematic
Concise
Canbeinflexible
Donotaddress
interactionsor
causeeffect
relationships
Comprehensive
presentation
Comparisonof
alternatives
Addressmultiple
projectsprojects
Donotaddress
spaceortime
Canbe
cumbersome
Donotaddress
causeeffect
relationships
Facilitate
conceptualization
Addresscause
effect
relationships
identifyindirect
effects
Cangive
unequivocal
results
Addressescause
effect
relationships
Quantification
Canintegrate
timeandspace
Addresses
accumulation
overtime
Problem
identification
Baseline
determination
Nolikelihoodfor
secondaryeffects
Problemof
comparableunits
Donotaddress
spaceortime
Needalotofdata
Canbeexpensive
Intractablewith
manyinteractions
Needalotofdata
inrelevantsystem
Extrapolationof
systemthresholds
isstilllargely
subjective
145
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
PRIMARYMETHODS DESCRIPTION
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
7 OverlayMapping
Overlaymappingandgeographicinformation
systems(GIS)incorporatelocationinformation
intocumulativeeffectsanalysisandhelpsetthe
boundariesoftheanalysis,analyzelandscape
parameters,andidentifyareaswhereeffectswiII
begreatest.Mapoverlayscanbebasedoneither
oneithertheaccumulationofstressesincertain
areasoronthesuitabilityofeachlandunitfor
development.
Ecosystemanalysisexplicitlyaddressesbiodiversity
andecosystemsustainability.Theecosystem
approachusesnaturalboundaries(suchas
watershedsandecoregions)andappliesnew
ecologicalindicators(suchasindicesofbiotic
integrityandlandscapepattern).Ecosystem
analysisentailsthebroadperspectiveandholistic
thinkingthatarerequiredforsuccessful
cumulativesuccessfulcumulativeeffectsanalysis.
Addressesspatial
patternand
proximityof
effects
Effectivevisual
presentation
Canoptimize
development
options
Usesregional
scaleandfull
rangeof
componentsand
interactions
Addressesspace
andtime
Addresses
ecosystem
sustainability
Economicimpactanalysisisanimportant
componentofanalyzingcumulativeeffects
becausetheeconomicwellbeingofalocal
communitydependsonmanydifferentactions.
Thethreeprimarystepsinconductingan
economicimpactanalysisare(1)establishingthe
regionofinfluence,(2)modelingtheeconomic
effects,and(3)determiningthesignificanceofthe
effects.Economicmodelsplayanimportantrole
intheseimpactassessmentsandrangefrom
simpletosophisticated.
Socialimpactanalysisaddressescumulativeeffects
relatedtothesustainabilityofhuman
communitiesby(1)focusingonkeysocialvariables
suchaspopulationcharacteristics,communityand
institutionalstructures,politicalandsocial
resources,individualandfamilychanges,and
communityresources;and(2)projectingfuture
effectsusingsocialanalysistechniquessuchas
lineartrendprojections,populationmultiplier
methods,scenarios,experttestimony,and
simulationmodeling.
Addresses
economicissues
Modelsprovide
definitive
quantifiedresults
Limitedtoeffects
basedonlocation
Donotexplicitly
addressindirect
effects
Difficultto
address
magnitudeof
effects
Limitedtonatural
systems
Oftenrequires
speciessurrogates
forsystem=
Dataintensive
Landscape
ecosystem
indicatorsstill
under
development
Utilityand
accuracyofresults
dependenton
dataqualityand
model
assumptions
Usuallydonot
address
nonmarketvalues
8 EcosystemAnalysis
9EconomicImpact
Analysis
10SocialImpactAnalysis
Addressessocial
issues
Modelsprovide
definitive,
quantifiedresults
Utilityand
accuracyofresults
dependenton
dataqualityand
model
assumptions
Socialvaluesare
highlyvariable
14 CARRYINGCAPACITY
Carryingcapacitybroadlyreferstolimitsoflevelsofactivityortolerancesbeyondwhicharesource
cannotsustainitsintendeduse.Inthecontextoftourismitisoftenusedtorefertothetypeandlevel
ofvisitorusethatcanbeaccommodatedwhilesustainingthedesiredresourceandsocialconditions
thatcomplementthepurposeofconcession,park,coastalarea,orasensitiveecosystemarea.
Therearenostandard,scientificallyavailablemodelsfordefiningcarryingcapacityandtheprocess
reliesheavilyonprofessionaljudgmentandindividualcircumstances.Theoverallprocessinvolves:
1. Examinationoftheneedsandgoalswithaninterdisciplinaryteam
2. Examinationofthechangesinusepatterns
146
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
3. Assessmentoftheproblemsandthreatsfacingtheresourceandproposednewactivities
4. Identificationofthemostlimitingvariabletodefinelimits
5. Identificationofthegreatestvulnerabilities,bothspeciallyandtemporally.
Atleastinconcept,carryingcapacityisanimportantaspectofdeterminingenvironmentalimpactofa
tourismdevelopment.AccordingtoCole(2005)oftheUnitedStatesNationalParkService,itis
importanttohaveanunderstandingofthetemporalandspatialdistributionofvisitoruseaswellas
havinganunderstandingofdistributionsoptimalnotonlytoenhancevisitorexperience,butalsoto
provideprotectiontotheresourceandtheenvironment.Tomeettheseobjectivesitisimportantto
developmethodologiesnotonlytopredictimpactsbutalsotodefineindicatorsthatarespecific,
measurablephysical,ecologicalandsocialvariablesthatreflecttheoverallconditionofanareaandcan
beusedtoaccesstheimpactsofvisitorstoasite.Theseinturncanbeusedtodeterminethecarrying
capacityofaspecificarea.However,dataareoftenlimitedintermsofuse,lengthsofstayinvarious
areas,crowding,underusedoroverusedfacilities,andotherfactorsrelatedtothehealthandwellbeing
ofanecosystem,habitat,and/orspecies.And,regardlessofhoweffectivelycarryingcapacitymaybe
assessed,thereisgeneralagreementthatitisadynamicprocess,requiringmonitoringofimpactsand
adjustmentofacceptablevisitationanduse.
Literatureoncarryingcapacityisquiteextensive.Butdetermininghowmuchdeclineorchangeis
appropriatetosustainaviabletouristicresourceisachallengeindeterminingcarryingcapacity.Thisis
particularlytruewhereasensitiveecologicalareahasnotbeenformallydesignatedasaparkor
wildernessareaandthereforetherearenogoalsadoptedformaintainingtheecosystem.Onesuch
measurewhichhasbeendevelopedforpublicparksisknownaslimitsofacceptablechange(LAC)
whichisfundamentaltoaddressingcarryingcapacity(USNPS,1997)ThebasiclogicoftheoftheLAC
processaccordingtheUSNationalParkServiceis:
Identificationofgoalsinconflict.Thesegoalsmaybeprotectionoftheenvironmentconflicted
byunrestrictedaccesstoaresourceforrecreationaluse.Twogoalsareoftenevaluatedata
time.
Establishhowgoalscanbecompromised.Determineifoneorbothgoalscanbecompromised
tomeetobjectives.
Determinewhichgoalmayultimatelyconstraintheother.Thegoalofprotectingthe
environmentmayalmostalwaysconstrainunrestrictedaccess.
DevelopLACstandardsthatexpressminimallyacceptableconditionsfortheenvironmentand
forvisitors.
Compromisegoalsuntilstandardsarereached.Allowtheenvironmentalconditionsandvisitor
experiencestodegradeonlytoanacceptablestandard.
Compromiseonlytoapoint.Oncestandardsforenvironmentalconditionsaremetandvisitor
experiencesarereachallownomoredegradation.
Suchanapproachisviableifthereisanongoingprojectorparkwheredatacanbecollectedand
analyzed.However,problemsdooccurwheresensitiveareasareintheprocessofbeingdevelopedin
whichcasethisdynamicapproachhasmorelimitedapplicabilitytopredictionofimpacts.
Inmostinstances,sophisticatedmodelsarenotemployed,butratherprofessionaljudgmentand
assessmentofthelifecyclesandthreatstoparticularspeciesareusedtoidentifythemostsensitive
speciesandactivitiesinbothtimeandspace.Thiscanthenbeusedtodeterminewhatactivities;both
temporallyandspeciallymaybesupported.
147
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
Nevertheless,modelshavebeendevelopedtoevaluatecarryingcapacityofwildernessareasaswell
asothertouristicattractions.AccordingtoCole(2005),thechallengeofsimulationmodelingisto
capturetheessentialbehaviorofthesystembeingmodeled.Inoutdoorrecreation,thismeans
capturingandrepresentingthecharacteristicsofthephysicalenvironment(forexample,asystemof
trails,roads,waterways,and/orfacilities),thebiologicalenvironment(thespeciesmostsensitiveto
noise,activity,etc.matingandbreedingseasoninformation,andmodelingthebehaviorofvisitorsas
theyinteractwiththeenvironmentandwitheachother.AgainaccordingtoCole(2005),modelshave
threecomponents:(1)inputvariablesthatdescribethesystembeingmodeled,(2)softwareand
associatedmodelingapproachesdesignedtoprocesstheseinputvariables,and(3)outputvariablesthat
areusefultoplanners,managers,andscientists.ModelsavailablearepresentedinTableF9.
148
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
TableF9:Carryingcapacitymodels
MODELTYPE
DESCRIPTION
DESIGNFEATURES
Trace,Probabilisticand
Tracesimulationsdirectlysimulatetravel
itinerariescollectedinthefield.Visitorarrival,trip
itineraries,anddurationofstayatdestinationsare
simulateddirectlyfromsurveydataratherthan
usingprobabilitydistributionsorrandom
numbers.Thesesimulationsareusefulfor
examiningexistingpatternofuse.
Probabilisticsimulationmodelsarebased
onarepresentativesampleofvisitortrip
itineraries.Probabilitymodelsarethe
standardmethodformodelingbaseline
conditions.Probabilisticsimulation
assumesthatthedistributionoftrip
itinerariesinthefuturewillremainsimilar
tothedistributiontoday,regardlessof
howthesystemchanges.Decisionmay
bebaseddueattractionssuchasscenic
views,interpretivecenters,picnicareas,
orplayfields,anddetractorssuchas
hazardousareas,extremeweather
events,orotherenvironmentalfactors
thatwouldconstrainmovementorcause
visitorstoavoidanarea.
Thistypeofsituationmightbemodeled
usingasteadystatesimulation.A
simulationiscalledsteadystatebecause
thesimulation,afteraninitialwarmup
period,isdesignedtoreplicatesystem
behavioroverthelongrunatagivenlevel
ofproductionorcapacity.Steadystate
simulationsaremorechallengingto
conductandanalyze.Theyshouldberun
overlongperiodstogetareliableaverage
measureofsystembehaviorthatisnot
biasedbyshorttermeffectsofrandom
variablesandautocorrelation.
Severalofthecasestudiesdescribedin
thenextchapterhaveadaptedthe
simulationsoftware;Extenddevelopedby
ImagineThat,Inc.,torecreational
applications.Specialpurposesimulators,
however,aredevelopedspecificallyto
handlespecializedapplications.Special
purposeSimulatorshavebeendesigned
tobuildsimulationsofrecreation
behavioronlinearnetworks.Special
purposesimulatorswillhavemore
automatedfeaturesspecifictothe
applicationofconcern.Generalpurpose
simulationsoftwarecanalsobemodified
toincludeautomatedfeaturesspecificto
theapplicationofconcern(modeling
outdoorrecreation.)
RuleBasedAgent
simulations
TerminatingandSteady
StateSimulations
Asecondimportantchoiceinsimulationmodeling
approachesiswhethertodesignsimulationstobe
terminatingornonterminating(steadystate).
Terminatingsimulationsmodeleventsthathavea
specifiedlength,whileasteadystatesimulation
modelssituationsinwhichthereisnonatural
eventtospecifythelengthofasimulationrun.A
terminatingsimulationhasaknowninitialstate
(usuallyzero)andaknownendingstate.Forday
useissues,itisclearlyappropriatetouse
terminatingsimulationstodescribewhathappens
overagivenday.
GeneralPurposeSimulation
SoftwareandSpecial
PurposeSimulators:
Commerciallyavailablegeneralpurpose
simulationsoftwarepackagesareusually
developedwithbusiness,industry,and
governmentapplicationsinmind.However,itis
possibletousethisgeneralsoftwaretomodel
outdoorrecreationbehavior.Commercially
availablegeneralpurposesimulationsoftware
packagesareusuallydevelopedwithbusiness,
industry,andgovernmentapplicationsinmind.
However,itispossibletousethisgeneralsoftware
tomodeloutdoorrecreationbehavior.
Source:BasedonCole2005
149
Tourism
F.ASSESSINGIMPACTS
150
Tourism
G.MITIGATIONANDMONITORINGMEASURES
G. MITIGATIONANDMONITORINGMEASURES
1 INTRODUCTION
Mitigationmeasures,sometimesreferredtoasenvironmentalmeasures,areactionsthatcanbetaken
toavoid,minimize,preventand/orcompensateforthepotentialimpactscausedbyTourismprojects.
Theycan,amongotheractions,involveapplyingpollutioncontrolorpreventiontechnologies,the
replacementorrelocationofimpactedresourcesandtherelocationofdisplacedpersons.Toelaborate
onsomeofthebasicconceptsbehindmitigationorenvironmentalmeasures:
Avoidance:Projectproponentsshouldbeencouragedtoavoidadverseimpactsthroughgood
choiceoflocation,siteplanningandengineeringdesignandtofocusmitigationmeasureson
thoseadverseimpactsthatareotherwiseunavoidable.Suchenvironmentalmeasuresshouldbe
clearlyexplainedearlyintheEIAprocess,andshouldincludeoperational,monitoringand
responseplansshouldunexpectedimpactsoccur.
Mitigation:Theconsiderationofmitigationoftheimpactsisnecessaryforallphasesof
construction,operationandclosureinwhichadverseimpactscannotbeavoided.Itisimportant
thattheEIAidentifyanddefineallmitigationmeasuresforaspecificproject.Amitigation
measurecouldbetheselectionofaprojectsiteordesignoptionthatavoidsasensitive
resource,differentpollutioncontrolmeasuresorprocessesorevenresizingorphasingin
constructioninadifferentmannerthatmayreduce,minimizeorpreventimpacts.Totheextent
thatthismaynotbefeasible,mitigationmayalsoincludemeasurestocompensatefordamages,
lossesorreducedvalueofresources.Resultsofmonitoringmaytriggerfurthermitigation
actioniftheseresultsindicatethereareproblemsthatwerenotanticipatedintheEIA.
Compensation:Insomecircumstancescompensationmaybeanacceptablemeansof
addressingnegativeimpacts.Forsocioeconomicculturalimpactssuchmeasuresareusedto
compensateforeconomiclossorforthephysicalrelocationofapopulationwhetherintended
orincidentaltotheconsequencesofaproposedprojectintheformofremunerationforlossof
incomebyfarmersorfishermen,stipendsforphysicalrelocation,landswapsoractualprovision
ofalternativehousing.Forphysicalresourcessuchmitigationmeasuresmightalsoincludeland
swapsoraccesstoalternativewatersupplies.Forbiologicalresourcescompensationisamore
complexundertaking,requiringascientificallybasedlikelihoodofsuccessandequalormore
ecologicalvalueCompensationisusuallyconsideredalastresortbecausetheintrinsicvaluesof
humancommunities,culturesandecosystemfunctionsarenotentirelyfungibleandtherehas
hadlimitedsuccessinreconstructinghabitatandrelocatingfloraandfauna.Progresshasbeen
madeinidentifyingthefactorswhichcanleadtosuccessincompensationschemesbutall
requirecarefulassessmentandongoingmanagement.
Justification:TheEIAshouldidentify,define,quantitativelyassessandprovidetechnicaland
financialbasesforallenvironmentalmeasuresproposed,particularlyifthereisaconcernabout
thesiteorproposedmeasuresarelessthanbestavailablepractices.
PerformanceStandards:InthedevelopmentofanEIAitisimportantthat,whereverpossible,
quantitativeperformancestandardsareestablished.Thesestandardsshouldbeclearly
151
Tourism
presentedintheEIA.Environmentalstandardswithwhichcomplianceistobedemonstrated
shouldbebasedonlocalstandardsandintheabsenceofsuchstandards,shouldbebasedon
internationalnorms.Examplesofperformancestandardsandrequirementsforcountriesand
internationalorganizationsarepresentedinAppendixCtoVolume2oftheseGuidelines.
FinancialAssuranceofabilitytosustainenvironmentalmeasuresandtoimplementcorrective
measuresintheeventofimpactsinexcessofthoseallowedalsomayneedtobedemonstrated
dependingupontherequirementsofthecountryorinstitution.
ContingencyPlans:Theidentificationanddevelopmentofplanstoaddressrisksisanimportant
partoftheEIAprocess.Threetypesofcontingencyplansareidentifiedincludingplansto
respondtomonitoringresultswhichdemonstratethatastandardorquantitativeperformance
limithasbeenexceeded;responsetonaturaldisasterssuchasrisksofflooding,mudslides,
earthquakesandvolcaniceruptions,fires,spills,hurricanes,tsunamisandthelike;andresponse
toothertypesofrisks.
BestPractices/SustainableDevelopmentStandards:Bestpracticeshavebeendevelopedby
variousinternationalanddomesticorganizationstobothavoidandminimizeadverseimpacts.
Intherealmoftourism,theyareoftenaccompaniedbyindustrycertificationprogramsthatcan
attracttouriststoenvironmentallyandsociallyresponsibletouristdevelopments(AppendixC).
Governmentsmayalreadyrequiresomeofthesepracticesbutoftentheyarevoluntary.
Increasinglysocialandeconomicpressureisfavoringsuchestablishments.InthecontextofEIA,
someorallofthesebestpracticesmightbeintegratedinprojectproposalsandalternatives
underconsideration.Theinformationonmitigationmeasuresincludesbutisnotlimitedtobest
practices.
Howeverdefined,oneoftheimportantoutcomesoftheEIAprocessisthecommitmentmadeto
implementmeasurestoavoidorotherwisemitigateadverseimpactsandtoensurethattheyarecarried
outeffectively.Theparticularlanguageusedtodefineandcommittoimplementingenvironmental
measures,toachievingreasonablyanticipatedeffectivenessandwithappropriatetimingiscriticalto
successfuloutcomes,asareaccompanyingrequirementsformonitoring,reportingandrecordkeeping.
Mitigationmeasuresshouldbeauditable,andsomethinggovernmentinspectorscanconfirmisin
compliance.CountriesvaryastowhetheritistheEIAdocumentitselfthatincludesthecommitments
forwhichprojectproponentsareaccountableorwhethertheyareincludedinaccompanying
documentsrelatedtotheEIAprocess,orincorporatedintolegallybindingpermitsorlicenses.
Regardlessofthevehicle,ifthecommitmentsareunclearorthebasisforensuringtheireffectiveness
difficulttoestablish,thebeneficialoutcomesoftheEIAprocessmaynotbesecured.
Monitoring,andassociatedreporting,inthecontextoftheEIAprocess,maybecarriedouttoestablish
anappropriatebaselineforimpactassessmentand/orforprovidingassurancethatthemitigation
measuresareeffectiveinachievingthelevelofperformanceattributedtothemintheEIA.Tosupport
thisrequirementanenvironmentalmonitoringplanshouldbedevelopedbytheprojectproponentand
approvedbythegovernmentagencyandotherorganizationshavingjurisdictionoverproject
performance.WhetherthisispartofthemitigationchapteroftheEIAordevelopedaspartofa
separateenvironmentalmanagementplanwilldependonthespecificcountryrequirements.
Thescopeandextentofmonitoringdependsuponvariousaspectsoftheconstruction,operationand
closureoftheprojectandresultantimpacts.Themonitoringplanshouldclarify,intheformcontingency
152
Tourism
plans,thatresultsofcompliancemonitoringandreportingmaytriggerfurtheractionifresultsindicate
thereareproblemsthatwerenotanticipatedintheEIA.Forexample,monitoringmayshowthatthe
environmentalimpactsaregreaterthantheestimatesintheEIAorthatthemitigationmeasureswere
notaseffectiveasanticipated.MonitoringplansareaddressedindetailinsubsectionG.6,Monitoring
andOversight.
2 GENERALMITIGATIONANDMONITORINGMEASURES
Thissubsectionpresentsseveralmitigationandmonitoringmeasuresthatmaybegenerallyapplicable
fortourismprojects.Itisunlikelythatallofthesemeasurespresentedherewillbeapplicabletoa
specificproposedfacility.Theproposedfacilitytechnology,locationanddesign,inadditionany
regulatoryagencyrequirement,willdeterminetheappropriatemeasuresforaparticularproject.
Mitigationmeasuresincludingpractices,goals,andpoliciesforvariousactivitiesaswellasmonitoring
practicestoensurethatdevelopmentisdoneinanenvironmentallysoundbasisarepresentedinTables
G1throughG4.TablesG1throughG3presentacomprehensivelistofmitigationandmonitoring
measuresforimpactstothephysicalandbiologicalenvironmentcommontotheconstruction(G1),
operation(G2)anddecommissioning(G3)oftourismprojects.TableG4presentsgeneralmitigation
measuresforsocioeconomicimpactsoftourismprojects.
153
Tourism
TableG1:Mitigationandmonitoringmeasuresforphysicalandbiologicalimpactscommontoconstructionofmosttourismprojects
AFFECTED
POTENTIALMITIGATIONMEASURES
ENVIRONMENT
SITEPREPARATIONANDCONSTRUCTIONACTIVITIES
Land
LandslideHazards
clearing,
Identifyandavoidunstableslopesandfactorsthatcan
earthmov
causeslopeinstability(groundwaterconditions,
ing,terrain
precipitation,seismicactivity,slopeangles,andgeologic
shaping
Geology
structure).
(leveling,
Avoidcreatingexcessiveslopesduringexcavationand
drainage,
blastingoperations.
etc.)and
Obtainborrowmaterialonlyfromauthorizedandpermitted
associated
sites.
activities
DisturbancetoShorelineStructure
(e.g.,
Mapimpactareasandadjustaccordingly
borrowpits,
Minimizeremovalofshorelinestabilizingbeach
Oceanography
quarries)
vegetation
Designwithoutknowledgeofshorelineprocessescan
resultinundesirableerosionanddepositionpatterns
POTENTIALMONITORING
ACTIVITY
Performregularsiteinspectionstoensurethatlandslideareasare
beingavoided
Performregularsiteinspections
Monitortestplotswhichprevententrycomparedvegetativecoverto
accessibleareas
154
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Soil
ErosionandSoilCompaction
Minimizetheamountoflandtobedisturbedand
vegetationtoberemoved.
Avoidlocatingfacilitiesonsteepslopes,inalluvialfans
andotherareaspronetoerosion,landslidesorflash
floods.
Minimizedesignchangestoexistingtopography.
Designrunoffcontrolfeaturestominimizesoilerosion.
Usespecialconstructiontechniquesinareasofsteep
slopesanderodiblesoils
Stagesiteclearanceworksoastominimizetheareaof
soilexposedatanytime
Schedulelanddisturbingactivitiestoavoidperiodsof
heavyrainfallandreduceorhaltoperationsduringheavy
rainfallepisodes.
Remove,storeandreusetopsoiltoreclaimdisturbed
areas.
Contourexposedslopes.
Reestablishtheoriginalgradeanddrainagepatterntothe
extentpracticable.
Restoreorapplyprotectivecoveringondisturbedsoilsas
quicklyaspossible.
Mulchorcoverexposedareas.
Promptlyrevegetateexposedareaswithfastgrowing
indigenousgrasses.
Temporarilybermexposedsoilandredirectflows
fromheavyrunoffareasthatthreatentoerodeor
resultinsubstantialturbidsurfacerunofftoadjacent
freshormarinewaters.
POTENTIALMONITORING
Monitorareasofexposedsoilduringperiodsofheavyrainfall
throughoutconstructionphasetoensurethatanyincidentsoferosion
arequicklycontrolled
Monitorsurfacewaterperiodicallyforturbidityandtotalsuspended
solids
155
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIALMONITORING
SoilContaminationfromSpillsandFuelLeaks
Performsiteinspectiontoidentifydrumsthatareleaking,oilsheenon
Prepareacomprehensivelistofallhazardousmaterialsto
puddledwater,andorganicsinwater
beused,stored,transported,ordisposedofduringall
phasesofconstructionactivity.
Designcontainmentforstorage,handlinganddispensing
ofhazardousmaterials,includingfuels,oils,greases,
solventsandresidues.
PrepareaSpillPreventionandResponsePlanforstorage,
useandtransferoffuelandhazardousmaterials.
TrainworkersontheSpillPreventionandResponsePlan
Provideonsiteportablespillmanagement,controland
cleanupequipmentandmaterials.
Containerizeandperiodicallyremovewastesfordisposal
atappropriateoffsitepermitteddisposalfacilities,if
available.
Documentaccidentalreleasesastocause,corrective
actionstaken,andresultingenvironmentalorhealthand
safetyimpacts.
DisposalofClearedDebris
Performroutineinspections
Requirecontractortodesignatedebrismanagement
Monitorairqualityforparticulatematterusinghighvolumesamplers.
areas;separatingnaturalmaterialsfromthoserequiring
licenseddisposal
Banburningofdebrisonsite
Disposeofcleareddebrisatanexisting,approveddisposal
siteoronsiteinaccordancewithregulatoryrequirements.
Whereallowed,loporchipandscattervegetative
materialanduseasmulchtohelpcontrolerosionand
returnnutrientstothesoil.
156
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
WaterQuality
ModificationofDrainagePatterns
IncreasedRunoffandSedimentation
SamemeasuresasSoilErosionplus:
Properlydirect(viachannels,culvertsandswales)andor
impoundrunoff,andinstallenergydissipationdevices
wherewatervelocitiesmaybehighenoughtocause
erosionorscouring.
Separatecleanandsedimentladenrunoffflowssoasto
minimizethevolumeofwaterthatwillbetreated.
Installdrainagestructures,checkdamsandsiltfencesto
preventorreduceoffsiterunoffifhighrainfallperiods
cannotbeavoided.
Cleanandmaintaindrainageditchesandcatchbasins
regularly.
Linedeepchannelsandsteepslopeswithstabilizing
materials.
Providesanitarylatrines.
WaterContaminationfromSpillsandFuelLeaks
SamemeasuresasSoilContaminationfromSpillsandFuel
Leaks
POTENTIALMONITORING
Performaroutinesiteinspectionidentifyingareasoferosionand
sedimentation.
Monitorturbidityandtotalsuspendedsolidsinsurfacewater
SameasSoilContaminationfromSpillsandFuelLeaks
157
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
AirQuality
Dust
Minimizedisturbedareas.
Surfaceaccessroadsandonsiteroadswithaggregate
materials,whereverappropriate.
Usedustabatementtechniquesonunpavedand
unvegetatedsurfacestominimizeairbornedustduring
earthmovingandblastingactivitiesandpriortoclearing,
excavating,backfilling,compactingandgrading.
Useblastblanketstoreduceflyrockanddustemissions.
Keepsoilmoistandbelowthefreeboardwhileloading
intodumptrucks.
Tightengatesealsandondumptrucksandcoverdump
trucksbeforetravelingonpublicroads.
Coverconstructionmaterialsandstockpiledsoilsifthey
areasourceoffugitivedust.
Trainworkerstohandleconstructionmaterialsanddebris
toreducefugitiveemissions.
Postandenforcespeedlimitstoreduceairbornefugitive
dustfromvehiculartraffic.
Reestablishvegetationofdisturbedareasassoonas
possibleafterdisturbancewithtimeframessetintheEIA.
EquipmentEmissions
Considerfuelefficiency,typesoffuels,andemissions
controlsintheselectionofequipment.
Assurepropertuningandcarburetionofengines.
Checkfuelsuppliesforimpuritiesoradulteration.
Other
Placesignsandplacardsaboutwildfireconditions
Penalizedpeoplelivingnearoronprotectiveforburning
slashandgarbage
Prohibituncontrolledburningofanytype.
POTENTIALMONITORING
Monitorairqualityforparticulatesusinghighvolumesamplers
MonitorairqualityforNOx,CO2,andotherparameters
Performroutinesiteinspections
158
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Locatefacilitiesmorethan0.8kmfromsensitivenoise
Noiseand
Vibration
receptors(e.g.,quietrecreation,churches,medicalcare
facilities,schools,childcarefacilities,parks,residences,
wildlifeareas).
Locatefacilitiestotakeadvantageofthenatural
topographyasanoisebuffer.
Acquirelandstoserveasnoisebuffersaroundthe
proposedfacilities.
Usenoiseabsorbingvegetativewallsorphysicalbarriersand
otherformsofnoiseinsulation
Usebarriersandshieldsduringblastingorpiledrivingand
operationofpneumaticequipmentsuchasjackhammers.
Routethemovementofheavyequipmentand
constructionmaterialsasfaraspossibleawayfrom
residencesandothersensitivereceptors.
Identifypiledrivingareas
PrepareaNoiseMonitoringandMitigationPlan.
TrainworkersinNoiseMonitoringandMitigationPlan.
Equipandtrainworkerswithpersonalnoiseprotection
Limitnoisyactivities(e.g.,useofheavyequipmentand
blasting)totheleastnoisesensitivetimesofday
(weekdaysonlybetween8a.m.and7p.m.).
Equipengineswithproperlydesignedandinstalled
mufflers.
Notifynearbyresidentsinadvancewhenblastingorother
noisyactivitiesarerequired.
Wheneverfeasible,scheduledifferentnoisyactivities
(e.g.,blastingandearthmoving)tooccuratthesame
time.
POTENTIALMONITORING
Implementnoisemonitoringtoverifyingconstructionphasenoise
levels
159
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Aesthetics
DisruptionofViewsandLandscapes
Performroutinesiteinspectionsofallsites
Avoidlocatingstructuresonridgelines,summitsorother
locationswheretheywouldbesilhouettedagainstthesky
fromimportantviewinglocations.
Locatelinearfeaturestofollownaturallandcontours
ratherthanstraightlines,particularlyupslopes.
Locatefacilitiestotakeadvantageofbothtopographyand
vegetationasscreeningdevicestorestrictviewsof
projectsfromvisuallysensitiveareas.
Designandlocatestructuresandroadstominimizeand
balancecutsandfills.Minimizegrounddisturbanceand
controlerosionbyavoidingsteepslopesandby
minimizingtheamountofsurfacedisturbanceneededfor
infrastructure(e.g.,roads,electricallines).
Keepequipmentandvehicleswithinthelimitsofthe
initiallydisturbedareas.
Restoredisturbedsurfacesascloselyaspossibletotheir
originalcontourandrevegetatethemimmediatelyafter
orcontemporaneouslywithdisturbanceactivities.
Usedustsuppressiontechniquestominimizeimpactsof
vehiculartrafficandwindonroadsandexposedsoils.
Maintaintherightofwaywithlowgrowingnatural
vegetationthatrequiresminimalmaintenanceandthatis
consistentwithlocalvegetation.
Maintainthesiteduringoperationoftheproject.
Inoperativeequipmentandpoorhousekeeping,in
general,createsapoorimageoftheactivityintheeyesof
thepublic.
Dependingonthesituation,considerminimizingthe
amountofvehiculartrafficandhumanactivity.
Developandimplementadecommissioningprogramthat
includestheremovalofallabovegroundfacilitiesandfull
restorationofthesite.
Returnaccessroadsandtheprojectsitetoasnearnatural
contoursasfeasible.
Revegetatealldisturbedareaswithplantspecies
appropriatetothesite.
POTENTIALMONITORING
160
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
LightPollution
Avoidtotheextentpracticablelocationsvaluedfor
unspoileddarkskies.
Designwithdownlightingdownlightingforsecurityand
constructionactivities
o Minimizelightedsignageandadvertising
Useoutdoorlightingfixturesendorsedbythe
InternationalDarkSkyAssociation(IDA)
www.darksky.org.
Complywithlocallightingpoliciesandordinances
IncorporateIDAlightingordinancesasappropriate.
POTENTIALMONITORING
Monitorlightpollution
161
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
TerrestrialFlora
andassociated
Ecosystems
HabitatDegradationandDestruction
Monitoremergenceofinvasive,exoticspeciesandrespond
Useexistingfacilities(e.g.,accessroads,parkinglots,
appropriately.
gradedareas)andsitenewstructuresonpreviously
Performroutineinspectionsofthesite.
disturbedlandstominimizenewdisturbance.
DeviseLandscapingPlan.Minimizetheamountoflandto
bedisturbedandvegetationtoberemoved.Inventory
existingplantsanddeterminewhicharesalvageablefor
reuse.Documentthemanddetailhowtheyshouldbe
correctlyremove,storedandmaintaineduntiltheycanbe
transplantedback.Protectexistingmaturetreesasmuch
aspossible,markingandprotectingthem.Includein
contractorspecificationspunitivepenaltiesforviolations
oftreeprotectionplan.
Landscapewithnativeplantsthatencouragebirdsand
butterflies.Banuseofimportedorinvasivespecies.
Selectplantingssuitedtotheenvirons,coastalplantings,
alpineplantings,etc.
Locatefacilitiesawayfromimportantecologicalresources
(e.g.,wetlands,uniquehabitats,wildlifecorridors,
sensitivespeciespopulations).
Determinetheneedforand/orfeasibilityofconducting
translocationofthreatenedorendangeredspecies.
Locatefacilitiestominimizehabitatfragmentation.
Avoidcreatingfavorableconditionsfornuisanceor
invasivespecies.
Useofcertifiedweedfreemulchingandprohibituseof
fillmaterialsfromareaswithknowninvasivespecies
problems.
Cleanvehiclesbeforeenteringtheprojectareatomitigate
theintroductionofinvasive,exoticspecies.
Tracktheamountoftimberusedonsite.
ForestResourceDepletions
Performsiteinspectionespeciallytopreventunnecessarydepletionof
Useoflocaltimbershouldbekepttoaminimumand
forests.
sourcesshouldbesoughtthroughthelocalForestry
Department
Steelescaffoldingshouldbeusedinpreferencetotimber
Contractorshouldensurethatsufficientquantitiesof
prefabsteelscaffoldingareavailableforhireduringthe
constructionperiod.
POTENTIALMONITORING
162
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Terrestrial
Fauna
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
Wildfire
Provideforconstructionworkerhousingsothatillegal
campsandcampfiresdonotbecomeestablished
Prohibituncontrolledburningofanytype.
BehavioralDisruptionandLossofDiversity
Locateand/ordesignfacilitiestominimizedisturbanceof
migratoryandconnectivitycorridors,andbreeding,
nestingandcalvingareas,andinterferencewithaccessto
wateringholes.
Establishprotectivebufferstoexcludeunintentional
disturbanceofimportantresources.
Scheduleactivitiestoavoiddisturbanceofwildlifeduring
criticalperiodsoftheday(e.g.,night)oryear(e.g.,
breedingornestingseason).
Implementaprogramtoinstructemployees,contractors,
andsitevisitorstoavoidharassmentanddisturbanceof
wildlife,especiallyduring.
AccidentalPoisoning
Leaks
WetlandDestruction
Locatefacilitiesawayfromimportantecologicalresources
(e.g.,wetlands,uniquehabitats,wildlifecorridors,
sensitivespeciespopulations).
Prohibituseofnearbywetlandsforwashingorwaste
disposal.
DegradationofAquaticEcosystems
Assessneedsforsandandaggregateduringconstruction;
ensuringlicensedborrowfacilitiesareavailable.
Prohibitindiscriminantsandmining,requireproofof
source.Requiredcontractortohaveavailableatthesite
sources/quarriesandcopiesoftherelevantlicensefor
inspection.
Prohibitremovalofsandfromoradjacentprotectedareas
andhabitats.
AccidentalPoisoning
Leaks
POTENTIALMONITORING
Monitorfaunareproductive(e.g.,courtship,nesting)seasons.
Monitorfishpopulationforspeciesdiversity,habitat,andquantities.
163
Tourism
ACTIVITY
Construc
tionand
landscaping
ofonsite
facilities,
structures
and
buildings
AFFECTED
POTENTIALMONITORING
ENVIRONMENT
Threatenedand HabitatDegradationandDestruction
SameasTerrestrialandAquaticSpecies
Endangered
SamemeasuresasTerrestrialandAquaticSpecies
Speciesand
Habitats
Samemeasuresaslandclearing,earthmovingandterrainshapingwiththeadditionofthefollowing:
SeismicEvents
Constructallfacilitiestowithstandaminimummagnitude
Geology
eventbasedontheseismicityofthearea
Developplansevacuation,protectionandsafetyofguest
shouldaneventoccur
ErosionandSoilCompaction
Samemeasureassitepreparation
Landscapingtoavoidwinderosion.
DisposalofConstructionDebris
Performroutinesiteinspection
Banonsitedebrisburning.
DevelopaDebrisManagementPlanwithdesignatedareas
forvarioustypesofdebrisReuseorrecycleconstruction
Soil
wherepracticable.
Disposeofnonrecyclable/reusableconstructiondebrisat
anexisting,approveddisposalsiteoronsiteinaccordance
withregulatoryrequirements.
Segregatehazardouswastesfromthewastestreamand
disposeofinanapprovedhazardouswastedisposalsite,
orinaccordancewithregulations.
WaterNeedsforConstruction
Monitorlevelsinwells
Securenecessarywaterrights.
Monitorflowsinnearbystreams.
Developwaterqualityneedsestimateforconstruction
activitiessuchasdustcontrol,onsitebatchcement
WaterQuantity
operations,sanitation.
Designatesourceofconstructionwater.
Usewaterconservationpractices.
Recyclewatertothedegreepossible.
164
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
WaterQuality
IncreasedRunoffduetoCompactionandChangesin
VegetativeCover
RunoffCarryingSedimentandassociatedcontaminants
Designutilizingperviouspavingandlandscapingtothe
extentpossible.
Usenonstructuralrunoffabatementtechniques(swales,
perviouspavingmaterials,gentleslopes,etc.)
Developconstructionstormwatermanagementplans.
Developanerosioncontrolplantailoredtothesite.All
erosioncontrolsshouldbeinspectedroutinely,especially
duringandimmediatelyfollowingsignificantrainevents,
toensurenoimpactstonearbysurfacewatersand
aquatichabitat.Immediatecorrectiveactionshouldbe
takeniferosionorsedimentationisobserved.
Maintainanaturallyvegetatedbuffer(preferably100feet
orgreater)adjacenttoanyditchesordrainagestoreduce
erosionandprotectwaterquality.
Immediatelyrevegetateanydisturbedareaswithanative
speciesoranannualgrass.
Totheextentfeasible,completeanyworkthatresultsin
exposedearthduringperiodswhensignificantrainfallis
notpredicted.
Conductanyworkthatinvolvesclearinglargetractsof
landinphases,wherepracticable,withrapidrevegetation
uponcompletionofeachphase.
Ifpossible,locateallworkatleast100feetfromany
nearbyintermittentorpermanentstreamstoreduce
sedimentrunoffandsubsequentturbidityinthestream
anddownstream.
UsesiltcurtainsandotherstormwaterBMPS.
POTENTIALMONITORING
Monitorturbidityandtotalsuspendedsolidsinstreams.
165
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
AirQuality
Noiseand
Vibration
SedimentDisturbancesandTurbidityDuringAquaticArea
Constructions(piledriving,revetmentconstructionand
repair,constructionofdocsandmarinas,etc.)
Utilizenumericalmodelstopredictprobabledegreeof
problem
DevelopManagementPlantoreduceproblem
Utilizeengineeringcontrolstoprotectnaturalandcultural
resources(coralreefs,archeologicalartifactsetc.)
UtilizeaquaticconstructionBMPs(PBS&J2008)
Usespillpreventionduringconstructionnearwater(CSWQA
2003)
Pipelines
Avoidplacementofwatermainsinthefloodplainor
riparianzonetohelpprotectwaterquality.
Ifwetlandsortributariesmustbespannedbythe
pipeline,attachthepipelinetoexistingbridgesor
directionallydrillunderthesewaterbodies.
Dust
Coverdeliveryloadsoflooseconstructionmaterial
Utilizewatertrucksfordustcontrol
Usecoveredorencloseddropandmaterialtransferpoints
foronsitestonecrushingandbatchplants,operatedat
slightnegativepressureifpossible
Developanairqualitymonitoringprogramthatincluding
highvolumesamplingforparticulates
Emissions
Mapwindpatternsfordeadzones
Evaluatefuelchoicesforconstructionvehicles
Minimizeidlingofvehicles
Checkadjacentoccupiedoffsitestructuresforfreshair
intakes,planconstructionactivitiestoavoidtheseareas
WellDrilling(ifapplicable)
PileDriving(ifapplicable)
Restrictedhoursofoperationifdrillingisinapopulated
area.
Usenoisebarriersduringdrillingnearsensitivereceptors.
POTENTIALMONITORING
Monitortotalsuspendedsolidsandturbidityinnearbystreams
Monitorparticulates
MonitorairforNOx,CO2,andotherparameters
Implementnoisemonitoringtoverifyingconstructionphasenoise
levels
166
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Aesthetics
TerrestrialFlora
andAssociated
Ecosystems
LandResource
Lowprofilestructuresshouldbechosenwhenever
possibletoreducetheirvisibility.
Minimizetheprofileofallstructureslocatedwithin0.4
kmofscenichighwayssothatviewsfromthehighwayare
preserved.
Minimizethenumberofstructuresandcolocate
structureswherepossibletominimizetheneedfor
additionalpads,fences,accessroads,lightingandother
projectfeatures.
Designfacilities,structures,roadsandotherproject
elementstomatchandrepeattheform,line,colorand
textureoftheexistinglandscape.
Designnaturallookingearthworkbermsandvegetativeor
architecturalscreeningwherescreeningtopographyand
vegetationareabsent.
Paintgroupedstructuresthesamecolortoreducevisual
complexityandcolorcontrast.
Plantvegetativescreenstoblockviewsoffacilitiesand
rightofways.
LossofHabitatsecosystemslossduetoswampdraining,
wetlandinfilling,etc.
Periodicallyevaluateecosystemsinthedirectvicinityofthesite
Prohibitlandexpansionbywetlandinfillingorswamp
draining
POTENTIALMONITORING
167
Tourism
ACTIVITY
Construc
tionand/or
upgradeof
access
roads
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
RunoffCarryingSedimentandassociatedcontaminants
Employdesignsthatdivertrunofffromlandscaping
Monitorwaterforturbidityandtotalsuspendedsolids
Dredging(channelandlagoondeepening)andsubstrate
preparation
Developdredgingandsubstratedisturbanceplansto
avoid/protectsensitiveareas
Developdredgedmaterialmanagementplans
Developlongtermdredgematerialplansthatinclude
AquaticSpecies
maintenancedredgingschedules,locationsfordredge
andAssociated
materialdisposal,samplingplansforsamplingand
Ecosystems
analysisofdredgedsedimentsfromcontaminants(most
marinasanddockshavesedimentscontaminatedwith
heavymetalsfromalgaecides,etc.)availabilityof
maintenancedredgingequipment
WaveandCurrentControlStructures
Modifydesignstolessenimpactsbasedupondationof
determinationofdirectandindirecthabitatimpactsfrom
changesincurrentandsedimentdepositionpatterns
SameasConstructionandlandscapingofonsitefacilities,structuresandbuildingswiththeadditionofthefollowing:
Erosion
Performroutinesiteinspections.
Useexistingroadswhereverpossible.
Monitorsurfacewaterperiodicallyfortotalsuspendedsolids
Designroadstomeettheappropriatestandardsandbe
nolargerthannecessarytoaccommodatetheirintended
functions.
Placeaccessroadstofollownaturaltopography,and
avoidorminimizesidehillcuts.
Designroadstoavoidexcessivegradesonroads,road
Soil
embankments,ditches,anddrainages,especiallyinareas
witherodiblesoils.
Avoidgoingstraightupgradesinexcessof10%.
Useappropriatestructuresatculvertoutletstoprevent
erosion.
Provideregularlyscheduledmaintenancetoclean
drainagestructures,maintainroadsurface,andensure
adequateslopestabilization.
POTENTIALMONITORING
168
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIALMONITORING
ModificationofStreamsandRiversDuetoCrossings
Locateroadstominimizeriverandwetlandcrossings.
Designbridgestominimizeimpactsonriversduring
constructionandtomaintainriverbankintegrity,using
freespanbridgesforwatercrossingswhereverpossible.
Designwetlandcrossingstomaintainflowsandfunctions
WaterQuality
withinthewetland.
Restrictinstreamactivitiestoperiodsoflowwaterlevel,
AquaticSpecies
andduringnoncriticaltimeswithrespecttolifecyclesof
andassociated
floraandfauna.
Ecosystems
Usespecialconstructiontechniquesinareasofstream
crossings.
Forinstreamworks,isolatetheworkareausingbermsor
diversionstoflow.
Revegetatedisturbedriparianzoneswithspecies
appropriatetothenativehabitatsandspecies.
IncreasedAccesstoRemoteAreas
Usecamerasandotherremotesensingdevicestomonitortraffic.
Locateroadstoavoidincreasingaccesstoremoteareas.
Limittheoveralladditionroads.
Whereroadsarenotpublic,uselockedgatesorother
Biological
barrierstorestrictaccesstoauthorizedpersonnel.
Environment
Patrolorsupportlocalpatrolstocontrolillegalhunting
andfishing.
Permanentlycloseandstabilizeunnecessaryroadsto
reduceoverallroaddensityandimpactsfrom
fragmentation.
CONSTRUCTIONCAMPANDONSITEHOUSINGACTIVITIES(constructionofcampsandhousinghasthesameimpactsasidentifiedaboveforotherfacilities)
AnimalsAttractedtoGarbageandFoodWaste
Disposeofgarbageandfoodwasteinanimalproofcontainers
BehavioralDisruption
Monitorterrestrialandaquaticfaunaperiodicallythroughoutthe
Locateand/ordesigncamptominimizedisturbanceof
yeartotrackseasonalandspatialchanges
migratoryandconnectivitycorridors,andbreeding,
Terrestrialand
Camp
nestingandcalvingareas,andinterferencewithaccessto
AquaticFauna
manage
wateringholes.
andassociated
ment
Implementaprogramtoinstructemployees,contractors,
Ecosystems
andsitevisitorstoavoidharassmentanddisturbanceof
wildlife,especiallyduringreproductive(e.g.,courtship,
nesting)seasons.
Controlpetstoavoidharassmentanddisturbanceof
wildlife.
169
Tourism
ACTIVITY
Solidand
human
waste
disposal
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Soil
WaterQuality
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
Terrestrial
Fauna
Water
supply
WaterQuantity
Collection,HuntingandFishing
Limitfuelwoodcollectiontodeadanddownwood.
Prohibithuntingandfishingbyemployeesinconstruction
camps.
Allowonlylegalhuntingandfishingbyemployeesliving
onsiteatfacilities
DegradationofSoilandWaterQuality
Useexisting,authorizedwastewatertreatmentandsolid
wastedisposalfacilitiesifavailable.
Providesufficientandsanitarylatrines,bathroomsand
showersandtreatwastewaterordischargetoasanitary
sewersystem.
Designnoorlowwaterusehumanwastedisposal
systems.
Locatefacilitiestominimizeimpacts.
Linefacilitieswheregroundwatercontaminationisan
issue.
Prepareasolidwastemanagementplanforproper
collection,storage,transportanddisposal.Includemap
withlocationsofcollectionssiteandincludecollection
schedules
Applywaterconservation(e.g.,reduce,reuseandrecycle)
measurestoreducewateruseandwastewater
generation.
Implementasolidwastereduce,reuseandrecycle
program.Reviewcarefullyfeasibilityofrecyclingmarkets
andtransportationcostsparticularlyfromislandsand
remoteareas.
Prohibituseofnearbywaterbodiesorwetlandsfor
washingorwastedisposal.
AttractionofWildlifeandPeststoSolidWasteDisposalSites
Designsitestomeetsanitaryrequirements.
Fencesites.
Applyandcompactdailycover.
WaterNeeds
Securenecessarywaterrights.
Usewaterconservationpractices.
POTENTIALMONITORING
Usecamerasorotherremotesensingdevicestomonitoractivity
Monitorsurfacewaterforturbidityandtotalsuspendedsolids
Monitorgroundwaterlevelsandsurfacewaterflows
170
Tourism
ACTIVITY
Fueland
chemical
storageand
handling
Energy
Production
Transporta
tion
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Soil
WaterQuality
Terrestrial
Fauna
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
AirQuality
WaterQuality
ContaminationfromSpillsandFuelLeaks
LeaksforLandClearingactivities
VehicleandGeneratorEmissions
Considerfuelefficiency,typesoffuels,andemissions
controlsintheselectionofequipment.
LeaksforLandClearingactivities
POTENTIALMONITORING
SameasSoilContaminationfromSpillsandFuelLeaksforLandClearing
activities
MonitorairqualityofNOx,CO2,andotherpollutants
SameasSoilContaminationfromSpillsandFuelLeaksforLandClearing
activities
171
Tourism
TableG2:Mitigationandmonitoringmeasuresforphysicalandbiologicalimpactscommontotheoperationofmosttourismprojects
ACTIVITY
Water
Supply
Infrastruc
ture
Wastewater
Systems
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
WaterQuantity
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
Soil
WaterQuality
TerrestrialFauna
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
WaterNeeds
Accurateestimateofwaterneeds,firmingofwaterrights,expansionofsupply
lines
Implementwaterusereductionstrategieslowflowfixtures,aeratorsand
restrictorsonalltaps,autocutoffswitches,hospitalityindustrystrategiesto
reducelaundering,etc.
Educatestaffandvisitorstothewatersupplyproblemsoftheareaandmeasure
thattheycanvoluntarilyapplytoreducewateruseandwastewaterproduction
Implementgreywaterreusesystemswhereappropriateforlandscapeirrigation
Landscapeareaswithnativevegetationthatrequirelesssupplementalwater.
Planforadequatesuppliessothataquifersdonotgetstressedandsaltwater
intrusionisnotexacerbated
Provideadequatewaterstoragefacilitiestoensureadequatesuppliesforthe
facility(provideforemergencyconditionsaswell)
Installguttersandcollectrainwaterfromroofsandstoreforirrigation.
Accurateestimateofwastewaterprojected,expansionofsewersandwastewater
treatmentplants.
Implementwastewatergenerationreductionstrategieslowflowfixtures,auto
cutoffswitches,hospitalityindustrystrategiestoreducelaundering,etc.
Provideremoteareasanitationandregularlyschedulepumpoutand
maintenance.
Onsitetreatmentsystemsareproblematic
Designsepticsystemstoprotectgroundwaterorsurfacewater.
Operatepackagedplantswithinnormalcomplianceobjectives.
DevelopatrainingmanualandOperationsManualforoperationsstaff.
POTENTIALMONITORING
Monitorsurfacewaterflowandgroundwater
levels.
Performroutinesysteminspections
Monitorwastewaterdischargesforsalinity,
BOD5,COD,coliformsandotherpotential
pollutants
Trainineffectiveoperationsandmaintenanceofthewastewatersystems.
Developasitespecificmonitoringplanforthesystemmonitoring,effluent
dischargemonitoringandaffectedenvironmentmonitoring.
Chooseaqualifiedcontractlaboratoryformonitoringsampleanalysis
Trainwastewaterstaffannuallyinmonitoringofwastewatersystems:record
keeping,tolerancebounds,equipmentmaintenanceschedule,environmental
sampling,etc.
Implementastrictinspectionroutinetoassureoperationsarefunctioning
properly
172
Tourism
ACTIVITY
SolidWaste
Services
EnergyUse
Energy
Production
Fueland/or
Chemical
Storageand
Handling
Hotels,
Resorts,
Marinas,
Seaports
and
Attractions
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Soil
WaterQuality
TerrestrialFauna
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
AirQuality
AirQuality
Soil
WaterQuality
TerrestrialFauna
AquaticSpecies
andassociated
Ecosystems
Noiseand
Vibration
Aggressivelymanagelitterandfoodwastedaily
Developsitespecificwastemanagementplans
Setstricttimeschedulesforwastepickup
Trainemployeestothewastemanagementplan
Educatevisitorsandschoolchildrenonproperwastereduction
Installtimers,photoelectriccells,thermostat,etc.inroomblocksandother
facilities.
Instituteenergysavingsplan
Installtranslucentshadesandfluorescentlighting
Pipeinsulation,tanklaggingandheatrecoverysystemsshouldbeinstalled
whereverpractical
GeneratorEmissions
Considerfuelefficiency,typesoffuels,andemissionscontrolsintheselectionof
equipment.
Designpermanentonsitehandlingfacilitiesforfuels,fertilizers,pesticides,
herbicides,andotherchemicals
Segregatechemicalsinstoragetoavoidincompatibilityissues
Developspecificmaterialsmanagementplansforeachcategoryofchemicals
Developspillplansandtrainstafftoworkwithlocalemergencyresponseofficials
Haveemergencyresponseavailableforspills
Havelatestspillcontainment,oilboom,andotherequipmentsetatconvenient
locationsonsiteincludingatmarinasandportareas
Usepropersanitationfacilitiesatreststops
NoisefromAirConditionersandotherFixedEquipmentAreas
Installvibrationisolationformechanicalequipment
Ensurethatmechanicalequipmentmountinghardwareisperiodicallytightened.
Implementprogramtorecordandrespondtocomplaints.
NoisefromBoats,JetSkis,ATVs,othertransportationequipment
Restricthoursofoperation
Restrictareasofoperations
NoisefromEntertainmentvenues
POTENTIALMONITORING
Installsubmetersandrealtimeenergy
monitoringequipmentinroomblocksand
otherfacilities.
MonitorairqualityofNOx,CO2,andother
pollutants
Performsiteinspectiontoidentifydrumsthat
areleaking,oilsheenonpuddledwater,and
organicsinwater
Monitorsurfaceandgroundwaterfor
pollutantsofconcern
Performroutinesysteminspections
Implementnoisemonitoringtoverifying
operationalphasenoiselevels.
173
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Aesthetics
TerrestrialFauna
Terrestrialand
AquaticFaunaand
associated
Ecosystems
PreserveNaturalandCulturalSoundscape(waterfall,crickets,birds,etcandmusic
selection)
Matchrecreationaluseswithappropriatenaturalenvironments
Limitexternalnoise
Selectbackgroundmusicappropriatetothesetting
Consolidategeneratorsandotherequipmentatremotesites,awayfromnatural
areas
Utilizenaturalandartificialbarriersaroundequipment
Trainemployeesandeducatevisitorsthatsoundisanaturalresource
Maintainthesiteduringoperationoftheproject(inoperativeequipmentand
poorhousekeeping,createsapoorimageoftheprojectintheeyesofthepublic)
Paintgroupedstructuresthesamecolortoreducevisualcomplexityandcolor
contrast.
Maintainvegetativescreens.
Prohibittheuseofcommercialsymbols.
LightPollution
Limitnighttimelightingtoavoidspillontonearbyresidences.
o PrepareaLightingPlanincludingactionstominimizetheneedforand
amountoflightingonstructures.
o TrainemployeestoLightingPlan
o Minimizeilluminationoftheprojectanditsimmediatevicinitybyincluding
useofmotiondetectorsorothercontrolstohavelightsturnedoffunless
neededforsecurityorsafety
o Utilizemeansotherthanlightingtokeepvisitorssafe
o Educatevisitorstothelowlightingphilosophy
Limitfuelwoodcollectiontodeadanddownwood
Prohibithuntingandfishingbyemployees
Allowonlylegalhuntingandfishingbyguests
Bancollectionofcoralreefsouvenirs
POTENTIALMONITORING
Havevisitorsfilloutguestquestionnaires
Monitorlightpollutions
Usecamerasorotherremotesensingdevicesto
monitoractivity.
174
Tourism
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
ACTIVITY
POTENTIALMONITORING
Monitorterrestrialfaunaperiodically
Implementaprogramtoinstructemployees,contractors,andsitevisitorstoavoid
harassmentanddisturbanceofwildlife,especiallyduringreproductive(e.g.,
courtship,nesting)seasons.
Controlpetstoavoidharassmentanddisturbanceofwildlife.
Whereappropriate,designendangeredspeciesprotectionplans,forexample:
Enhanceturtlenestingbyprovidingplantedshadedareasatthetopofthebeach
thatareprotectedfromtramplinganddirectlighting
Implementturtlewatchprogramswithlocalschoolsandpromoteturtlenestingas
anattraction
Provideeducationalandenvironmentalsensitizationmaterialoncoralreefstor
guestsandhotelstaff
Installboatmooringbuoysatsitesforuseofdiveboats,andbanboatanchoring
oncoralsubstrate
AccidentalPoisoning
SamemeasuresasSoilContaminationfromSpillsandFuelLeaks
SamemeasuresasSoilContaminationfromSpills
andFuelLeaks
Usenative,naturalizedorspecializeddroughttolerantplantmaterials
Implementgreywaterreusesystemsforirrigationwhenavailable,economically
Periodicinspectionsofgreywatersystems
Monitorsurfacewaterflowandgroundwater
feasibleandagronomicallyandenvironmentallyacceptable
throughouttheyeartotrackseasonaland
spatialchanges
Monitorlightpollutions
levels
DevelopWaterManagementPlan
Golf
Courses
o
WaterQuantity
Planirrigationpatternsand/orprogramirrigationcontrolsystemstomeet
theneedsoftheplantmaterialsinordertominimizeoverwatering
o Wateratappropriatetimestominimizeevaporationandreducethe
potentialfordisease
Managewateruseeffectivelytopreventunnecessarydepletionoflocalwater
resources
o TrainandrequirestafftoimplementWaterManagementPlan
175
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Preserveanddevelopnativeplantbufferzonesthatarenoentrytogolfers
Educatevisitorstothenaturalareasmanagementstrategy
Leavegrassclippingsandotherorganicmaterialsinplacewheneveragronomically
possible.Ifclippingsareremoved,compostand,ifpossible,recyclethem.
Usenutrientproductsandpracticesthatreducethepotentialforcontamination
WaterQuality
Terrestrialand
AquaticFloraand
Faunaand
associated
Ecosystems
Monitorsurfaceandgroundwaterfor
pollutantsofconcern
Monitorterrestrialflorainterms
diversification,density,andpopulationona
yearlybasis.
ofgroundwaterandsurfacewater.Strategiesinclude:useofslowrelease
fertilizers,selectedorganicproducts,and/orfertilization.
Testandmonitorsoilconditionsregularlyandmodifypracticesaccordingly.
Choosenutrientproductsandtimeapplicationstomeet,notexceed,theneedsof
theturfgrass.
DevelopIntegratedPestManagementPlan
o Employtheprinciplesofintegratedpestmanagement,asystemforpreventing
andcontrollingpests(e.g.,weeds,diseases,insects)inwhichnonchemical
controlmeasuresshouldfocusonpracticessuchastheintroductionofnatural
pestenemies(e.g.,parasitesandpredators),utilizingsyringingtechniques,
improvingairmovement,soilaerationtechniques,andmechanicaltraps.The
selectionofchemicalcontrolstrategiesshouldbeutilized.
o Storeandhandleallpestcontrolandnutrientproductsinamannerthat
minimizesworkerexposureand/orthepotentialforpointornonpointsource
pollution.Employproperchemicalstoragepracticesandusesuitablepersonal
protectiveequipmentandhandlingtechniques.
Allplantprotectingproductsshouldonlybeappliedbyorunderthesupervisionof
atrained,licensedapplicatororasdictatedbylaw.
Maintainexcellenceinthecontinuingeducationofapplicators(includingstate
licensing,professionalassociationtrainingandIPMcertification).Trainingfor
nonEnglishspeakingapplicatorsshouldbeprovidedintheworker'snative
language.
DevelopChemicalManagementPlan
o Disposeofchemicalrinsateinamannerthatwillnotincreasethepotentialfor
pointornonpointsourcepollution.Methodsincluderinsaterecyclingor
"sprayingout"dilutedcompoundinpreviouslyuntreatedareas.
o Disposeofchemicalpackagingaccordingtolabeldirections(e.g.,triplerinsing,
recyclingorreturningtomanufacturer).
o Otherwasteproducts,suchasusedmotoroil,electricbatteriesandunused
solvents,shouldberecycledordisposedofaccordingtothelawandavailable
communitydisposaltechniques.
o Seektoreducewastebypurchasingproductsthatminimizeunnecessary
packaging.
TrainandrequirestafftoimplementChemicalManagementPlanandPest
ManagementPlan
POTENTIALMONITORING
176
Tourism
ACTIVITY
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
POTENTIALMONITORING
Habitatforwildlifespeciesthathelpcontrolpests(e.g.,bats,bluebirds,purple
Monitorpopulationanddiversityofvarious
martins,etc.)shouldbeprotected.Additionalhabitatforthesebeneficialspecies
speciesintheareaperiodically.
shouldbecreatedwheneverfeasibleandenvironmentallydesirable.
Performhabitatevaluationsonayearlybasis
Managehabitattomaintainhealthypopulationsofwildlifeandaquaticspecies.
Speciessuchasskunks,nonmigratoryCanadageese,anddeer,whentheybecome
damaging,shouldbemanagedthroughnonharmfulmeanswheneverpossible.
Nonharmfulcontrolmethodscouldincludedogs,noisemakers,repellents,and
trappingandremoval.Managedhuntingmaybeappropriatewherelegalandsafe.
Developwildlifemanagementplan.
TrainandrequirestafftoimplementWildlifeManagementPlan.
Educatevisitorstodiscouragemolestingorfeedingwildlife.
TerrestrialFauna
177
Tourism
TableG3:Mitigationandmonitoringmeasuresforphysicalandbiologicalimpactscommontomostthedecommissioningoftourismprojects
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
SamemeasuresasConstructionofFacilitieswiththeadditionofthefollowing:
Engageinplanningthatinvolvesthecommunityandpossible
commercialusers,toassureoptimalreclamationanduse.
Developandimplementadecommissioningprogramthat
includesremovalorrecon
Minimizemaintenancerequirementsoflandintransition
General
Providefencingandothermeasuresforhealthandsafety
concernstothepublic
Controlscavengingtoensuresafetyandsafeuseofrecovered
materials.Conditioningofallstructuresandreclamationofthe
site.
Removaland
Routethemovementofheavyequipmentandconstruction
transportof
materialsasfaraspossibleawayfromresidencesandother
NoiseandVibration
machineryand
sensitivereceptors.
equipment
PrepareaNoiseMonitoringandMitigationPlan.
SoilContaminationbyStorageandUseofHazardousMaterialsan
SpillsandFuelLeaks
Conductsoilsamplingifdeemednecessary,basedontypesof
materialsstoredorhandled.
Prepareareclamationplantotreatcontaminatedsoilstothe
Soil
extentrequiredforsubsequentproposeduse.
Removalor
WaterQuality
Prepareamanagementplanforreclamationorproperdisposal
decommissioning
AquaticSpeciesand
ofhazardousmaterialssuchasoils,greases,solvents,caustics
ofstructuresand
associated
andacids,andothermaterialsthatmayhavebeenleftbehind.
buildings
Ecosystems
Preparecontingencyplansforhandlinganddisposalof
contaminatedmaterialsifdiscoveredduringdecommissioning.
Removeandproperlydisposeofpotentiallyhazardousmaterials
suchasasbestosandcertainmetalsfromstructurespriorto
demolition
Returnaccessroadsandtheprojectsitetoasnearnatural
Soil
contoursasfeasible.
Restorationof
Aesthetics
Revegetatealldisturbedareaswithplantspeciesappropriateto
terrainand
TerrestrialFloraand
thesite.
vegetation
associated
Utilizeinterimmeasuresforerosioncontrol,dustmitigation,
Ecosystems
weedinfestation,etc.whilelandisintransition
ACTIVITY
POTENTIALMONITORING
Maintainmonitoringprogramthatwasimplementedduring
operations
Maintainmonitoringprogramimplementedduring
operations
178
Tourism
TableG4:Mitigationmeasuresforimpactstothesocialeconomicculturalenvironment
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
SocioEconomic
Conditions
MITIGATIONMEASURES
DESIGNPHASEMITIGATIONMEASURES
PopulationDisplacementandRelocation
Locatefacilitiestoavoiddisplacementandrelocation
Developacompensationplanforlandowners
Developacompensationplanfordisplacedand
relocatedpeople
WorkerRecruitmentandMigration
Forecastemploymentneeds,fluctuationsduetoseasons
andcruiseshipvisitationdays
Estimateavailableemploymentpooloftrainedand
trainablefortheconstructionphaseandhospitality
industry
ChangesinCharacteroftheCommunityandCrimeRates
Locateconstructioncampsawayfromlocal
communities.
Infrastructure
HealthandSafety
Totheextentpracticablelocatetheproposedproject
siterelativetofirehazardseverityzones.
Conductasafetyassessmenttodescribepotentialsafety
issues(e.g.,siteaccess,construction,workpractices,
security,emergencyprocedures,andfirecontroland
management).
Developaworkersafetyprogramtoaddressallofthe
safetyissuesidentifiedintheassessmentandall
applicablesafetystandardssetforthbylocal
governmentsandtherelevantsafetyandhealth
administration.
TransportationInfrastructure
Roads
Estimatetrafficincreasesfromworkers,guestsand
servicevehicles
Consultwithlocalplanningauthoritiesregardingtraffic,
ingeneralandspecificissues(suchasschoolbusroutes).
DevelopaTrafficManagementPlanforsiteaccessroads
andforuseofmainpublicroadstomitigateimpactsof
theprojectontraffic.
Provideforsafeingressandegressto/fromtheproposed
projectsite.
Aviation
Avoidlocatinganyportionofafacilitywithina
designatedairportsafetyzone,airportinfluenceareaor
airportreferralarea.
Estimateprojectedincreaseinairporttraffic.
POSTDESIGNMEASURES
Displacement
Assurethatnewlocationsareculturally
compatible
Assurethatpropertrainingandjob
opportunitiesareavailableorare
created.
Providecounselingtoassistin
adaptationtothenewsurroundings.
WorkerRecruitmentandMigration
DeveloprecruitmentPlan
DevelopTrainingPlanning
DiscourageSquattingandplanfor
workerhousing
Accountforseasonalfluctuationsin
employmentneeds
ChangesinCharacteroftheCommunity
andCrimeRates
Implementaprogramtoinstruct
employees,contractors,andsite
visitorstoavoidharassmentand
disturbanceoflocalresidents.
Ensureadequatesecuritytoprotect
residentsfromconstructioncamp
workers,andtoprotectthe
constructioncampworkersfrom
themselves.
HealthandSafety
Implementsafetyprogram.
Requireperiodicsafetyinspectionsof
allvehicles
Providepreventivehealthforthe
workers
Trainingandintroductionofcareand
rights
TransportationInfrastructure
Roads
Limittraffictoroadsindicated
specificallyfortheproject.
Instructandrequireallpersonneland
contractorstoadheretospeedlimitsto
ensuresafeandefficienttrafficflow.
179
Tourism
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Cultural,
Archeological,
Ceremonialand
Historic
Resources
MITIGATIONMEASURES
DESIGNPHASEMITIGATIONMEASURES
Publichealthinfrastructure
Locatefacilitiessoasnottodirectlyimpactordisturb
activitiesatpublicinfrastructure.
Estimatelocalpublichealthcliniccapacityandabilityto
handleincreaseintourismworkers
FireandPoliceServices
Assessexistingcapacityandprojectincreasedneeds
Assesscrimerateandprojectfuture
CommunicationsInfrastructure
Assesscurrentcapacity,reliability,emergencybackup
Water
Wastewater
SolidWaste
Assesscapacity,reliability,emergencybackup
Inventoryandsecureareas
Avoidanyactivitiesinsensitiveareasthatwoulddegrade
theresources
Ifavoidanceisnotpossible,conductappropriatecultural
resourcerecoveryoperationsoralternatemitigations.
Forecastdailyuseandfluctuations(e.g.,cruiseship
fluctuations)
PrepareaCulturalResourcesManagementPlan,if
culturalresourcesarepresentintheprojectarea.
Postsignsandplacelabelsonsensitiveareas
POSTDESIGNMEASURES
Publichealthinfrastructure
Havehealthcliniconsitewithqualified
personnel
Traincontractorsandstaffto
LandUse
Citizen
Concerns
Construction
Permanentoratleastlongtermcommitmentoflandto
thissolepurpose
Scaledownplans
Phaseconstruction
Inventoryandaddresscitizenconcerns:landuse,visual
impacts,compatibility,security,traffic,andcompetition
withexistingbusinesses,positive/negativeimpactsto
socialandeconomicassets.
implementtheCulturalResources
ManagementPlan
Educateworkersandguestson
identificationofcultural,archeological,
ceremonialandhistoricresources.
Educateworkersandguestsandthe
publicontheconsequencesof
unauthorizedcollectionofartifacts.
Providesguidesandescortsforalltours
toheritagesites.
Periodicallymonitortheconditionof
significantresourcesandreportto
authoritiesonanydegradation,looting
andvandalism.
Usecarryingcapacityandother
managementstrategiestomanage
heritagesitevisitation
Levytaxesandentrancefeesto
supportmanagementofresources
Haveapublicrelationspersonnel
Beawareatalltimesofpublicconcerns
3 SPECIFICMITIGATIONMEASURES
Thefollowingsubsectionsprovideadditionalinformationonsomemitigationmeasures,forwhichthe
informationinTablesG1throughG4maynotbesufficient.Themeasureselaborateduponinclude:
Seismiceventsassociatedwithgeothermaldevelopments
Processandwastewaterdischarges
Noise
180
Tourism
Theelaborationonthesemitigationmeasuresinnowayindicatesthattheyaremoreimportantthan
theothermeasuresinTablesG1throughG4.TheyareelaborateduponhereonlybecausetheEIA
reviewermayneedmoreinformationthanisprovidedintheTablestounderstandtheapplicationofthe
measures.
3.1
SeismicEvents
CentralAmericaandtheDominicanRepublicareinhighlyseismicareas.Hotelsandresortsshouldbe
constructedtowithstandaminimummagnitudeeventbasedontheseismicityofthearea.Inaddition,
plansshouldbedevelopedforevacuation,protection,andsafetyofguestshouldaneventoccur.
3.2
ProcessandWastewaterDischarges
Resortsandhotelsoftenhavetheirownwastewatertreatmentplants.Inaddition,isolatedecotourism
lodgeshaveseptictanksorothertreatmentfacilities.Projectspecificperformancelevelsfor
wastewatereffluentsshouldbesetpriortodesigningwastewatertreatmentsystems.Thestandards
shouldcomplywithnationalstandards,iftheyexist,andtakeintoconsiderationthequalityandvolume
ofthereceivingwaters.Additionalconsiderationsthatshouldbeincludedinthesettingofproject
specificperformancelevelsforwastewatereffluentsinclude:
Processwastewatertreatmentstandardsshouldbeconsistentwithapplicablerequirementsfor
thespecificarea.
Compliancewithnationalorlocalstandardsforsanitarywastewaterdischargesor,intheir
absence,indicativeguidelinevaluesapplicabletosanitarywastewaterdischargesasshownin
AppendixC.
Inthecontextoftheiroverallenvironmentalhealthandsafetymanagementsystem,facilitiesshould:
Understandthequality,quantity,frequencyandsourcesofliquideffluentsinitsinstallations.
Thisincludesknowledgeaboutthelocations,routesandintegrityofinternaldrainagesystems
anddischargepoints.
Assesscomplianceoftheirwastewaterdischargeswiththeapplicable:(i)dischargestandard(if
thewastewaterisdischargedtoasurfacewaterorsewer)and(ii)waterqualitystandardfora
specificreuse(e.g.,ifthewastewaterisreusedforirrigation).
3.2.1 ProtocolConcerningPollutionfromLandBasedSourcesandActivities(LBSProtocol,1999)tothe
ConventionfortheProtectionandDevelopmentoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheWider
CaribbeanRegion(CartagenaConvention,1983)
ReferencesfortheLBSProtocol:
http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagenaconvention/lbsprotocol/lbsprotocolenglish/view
http://www.cep.unep.org/cartagenaconvention/lbsprotocol/lbsprotocolspanish/view
Landandoceanbasedsewagepollutionisregulatedinmanydifferentframeworksrangingfrom
regionallegislation,internationalnonbindingandbindingagreements,actionplansandnational
legislationandregulations(UNEP2006).ThemostimportantregionallegalframeworkistheConvention
fortheProtectionandDevelopmentoftheMarineEnvironmentoftheWiderCaribbeanRegion
(CartagenaConvention).TheConventionenteredintoforcein1986andisalegallybinding,regional
ultilateralenvironmentalagreementfortheprotectionanddevelopmentofthewiderCaribbeanregion.
181
Tourism
TheProtocolConcerningPollutionfromLandBasedSourcesandActivities(LBSProtocol)ofthe
CartagenaConventionsetsforwardgeneralobligationsandalegalframeworkforregionalcooperation,
providesalistofprioritysourcecategories,activitiesandassociatedpollutantsofconcernandpromotes
theestablishmentofpollutionstandardsandschedulesforimplementation.AnnexIIIrelatesdirectlyto
domesticwastewaterandestablishesspecificregionaleffluentlimitations,atimetableforthe
implementationofwastewatertreatment.Inadditiontoeffluentlimits,AnnexIIIincludesobligations
fortheeachContractingPartyto(1)developmentofindustrialpretreatmentprograms,(2)implement
measurestoensurethathouseholdwastewatertreatmentsystemsareconstructedoperatedan
maintainedtoavoidcontaminationofsurfaceandgroundwaters,and(3)ensurethatnewandexisting
domesticwastewatertreatmentsystemsareproperlymanagedbytrainedpersonnel.
ForthepurposeofAnnexIIIintheLBSProtocol,effluentlimitsaredividedintwoclasses,dependingon
thewaterinwhichtheyaredischarged.Class1watersareparticularlysensitivetoimpactsfrom
pollutionwhileClass2watersarelesssensitive(seefulltextonLBSProtocolformoredetails).The
effluentlimitsfordomesticwastewaterintheLBSProtocolareshowninTableG5.
TableG5:LegallybindingeffluentlimitsdefinedintheLBSProtocol
PARAMETER
CLASS1WATERS
CLASS2WATERS
TotalSuspendedSolids*
30mg/l
150mg/l
BiochemicalOxygenDemand(BOD5)
30mg/l
150mg/l
pH
510pHunits
510pHunits
Fats,OilandGrease
15mg/l
50mg/l
FecalColiformBacteria
200mostprobablenumber/100ml
Notapplicable
E.coliBacteria(freshwater)
126organisms/100ml
Notapplicable
EntrerococciBacteria(salinewater)
35organisms/100ml
Notapplicable
Floatables
Notvisible
Notvisible
*Doesnotincludealgaefromtreatmentponds.
FacilitiesandcommunitiesineachcountrymustcomplywiththeprovisionsoftheLBSProtocolona
phasedbasisaftertheProtocolentersintoforceforthatcountry.ThetimelineinTableG6isrelatedto
wastewatertreatmentfacilities.
182
Tourism
TableG6:CompliancetimelineasdefinedintheLBSProtocol
YEARSAFTER
ENTRYINTO
EFFLUENTSOURCESREQUIREDTOCOMPLYWITHSTANDARDS
FORCE
0
Allnewdomesticwastewatersystemspublicandprivate
Existingdomesticwastewatersystemsotherthancommunitywastewater
10
systems
10
Communitieswith10,00050,000inhabitants
Communitieswithmorethan50,000inhabitantsalreadypossessingwastewater
15
collectionsystems
Communitieswithmorethan50,000inhabitantsnotpossessingwastewater
20
collectionsystems
Allcommunitiesexceptthoserelyingexclusivelyonhousehold(e.g.septictanks)
20
systems
Source:http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui_EHSGuidelines2007_
GeneralEHS/$FILE/Final++General+EHS+Guidelines.pdf(English)
3.3
Noise
Noisepreventionandenvironmentalmeasuresshouldbeappliedwherepredictedormeasurednoise
impactsfromaprojectfacilityoroperationsexceedtheapplicablenoiselevelguidelineatthemost
sensitivepointofreception.Thepreferredmethodforcontrollingnoisefromstationarysourcesisto
implementnoisecontrolmeasuresatthesource.Methodsforpreventionandcontrolofsourcesof
noiseemissionsdependonthesourceandproximityofreceptors.Noisereductionoptionsthatshould
beconsideredinclude:
Siting
Sitingpermanentfacilitiesawayfromcommunityareas
Locatingnoisesourcestolesssensitiveareastotakeadvantageofdistanceandshielding
Takingadvantageofthenaturaltopographyasanoisebufferduringfacilitydesign
Design
Selectingequipmentwithlowersoundpowerlevels
Installingvibrationisolationformechanicalequipment
Installingsilencersforfans
Installingsuitablemufflersonengineexhaustsandcompressorcomponents
Installingacousticenclosuresforequipmentcasingradiatingnoise
Improvingtheacousticperformanceofconstructedbuildingsbyapplyingsoundinsulation
Installingacousticbarrierswithoutgapsandwithacontinuousminimumsurfacedensityof10
kg/m2inordertominimizethetransmissionofsoundthroughthepowerhousewalls,
transformerbaysorotherenclosureswithinwhichanoisesourcemaybeoperated
Management
Limitingthehoursofoperationforspecificpiecesofequipmentoroperations,especially
mobilesourcesoperatingthroughcommunityareas
Reducingprojecttrafficroutingthroughcommunityareas
Planningflightroutes,timing,andaltitudeforaircraft(airplaneandhelicopter)flyingover
communityareas
Developingamechanismtorecordandrespondtocomplaints.
183
Tourism
Atthedesignstageofaproject,equipmentmanufacturersshouldprovidedesignorconstruction
specificationsintheformofInsertionLossPerformanceforsilencersandmufflers,andTransmission
LossPerformanceforacousticenclosuresandupgradedbuildingconstruction.Barriersshouldbe
locatedclosetothesourceortothereceptorlocationtobeeffective.
NoiseimpactsshouldnotexceedthelevelspresentedinTableG5,orresultinamaximumincreasein
backgroundlevelsof3Aweighteddecibels(dBA)atthenearestreceptorlocationoffsite.dBreadings
areweightedforvaryingfrequencies.Aweightingismostcommonlyusedandisintendedto
approximatethefrequencyresponseofthehumanhearingsystem.Itweightslowerfrequenciesasless
importantthanmidandhigherfrequencysounds.Highlyintrusivenoises,suchasnoisefromaircraft
flyoversandpassingtrains,shouldnotbeincludedwhenestablishingbackgroundnoiselevels.
TableG7:Noiselevelguidelines
SPECIFIC
ENVIRONMENT
Outdoorlivingarea
Dwelling,indoors
CRITICALHEALTHEFFECT(S)
Seriousannoyance,daytimeandevening
Moderateannoyance,daytimeandevening
Speechintelligibilityandmoderateannoyance,
daytimeandevening
Sleepdisturbance,nighttime
Sleepdisturbance,windowopen(outdoorvalues)
Speechintelligibility,disturbanceofinformation
extraction,messagecommunication
Sleepdisturbance
LAeq1
[dBA]
55
50
35
TIME2
BASE
[hours]
16
16
16
LAmax3
FAST
[dBA]
Insidebedrooms
30
8
45
Outsidebedrooms
45
8
60
Schoolclassroomsand
35
During
preschools,indoors
class
Preschoolbedrooms,
30
Sleeping
45
indoors
time
Schoolplayground,
Annoyance(externalsource)
55
During
outdoors
play
Hospitalwardrooms,
Sleepdisturbance,nighttime
30
8
40
indoors
Sleepdisturbance,daytimeandevenings
30
16
Hospitalstreatment
Interferencewithrestandrecovery
Aslowas
rooms,indoors
possible
Industrial,commercial, Hearingimpairment
70
24
110
shoppingandtraffic
areas,indoorsand
outdoors
Outdoorsinparkland
Disruptionoftranquility
andconservationareas
Notes:
1
Equivalentcontinuoussoundpressurelevel.Usuallyexpressedasthesumofthetotalsoundenergyoversome
timeperiod(T),thusgivingtheaveragesoundenergyoverthatperiod.Suchaveragelevelsareusuallybased
onintegrationofAweightedlevels.
2
Thetimeperiod(T)fortheLAeqcalculation.
3
Maximumnoiselevel.
Existingquietoutdoorareasshouldbepreservedandtheratioofintrudingnoisetonaturalbackgroundsound
shouldbekeptlow.
Source:Berglund,Birgitta,ThomasLindvall,andDietrichHSchwela.1999.GuidelinesforCommunityNoise.World
HealthOrganization,Washington.pg.65http://www.who.int/docstore/peh/noise/guidelines2.html
Noisemonitoringprogramsshouldbedesignedandconductedbytrainedspecialists.Typicalmonitoring
periodsshouldbesufficientforstatisticalanalysisandmaylast48hourswiththeuseofnoisemonitors
184
Tourism
thatshouldbecapableofloggingdatacontinuouslyoverthistimeperiod,orhourly,ormorefrequently,
asappropriate(orelsecoverdifferingtimeperiodswithinseveraldays,includingweekdayandweekend
workdays).Thetypeofacousticindicesrecordeddependsonthetypeofnoisebeingmonitored,as
establishedbyanoiseexpert.Monitorsshouldbelocatedapproximately1.5metersabovetheground
andnocloserthan3meterstothesourcebeingmonitored.Noisemonitoringshouldbecarriedout
usingaType1or2soundlevelmetersmeetingallappropriateIECstandards.Toanyreflectingsurface
(e.g.,wall).Ingeneral,thenoiselevellimitisrepresentedbythebackgroundorambientnoiselevels
thatwouldbepresentintheabsenceofthefacilityornoisesource(s)underinvestigation.
4 PROJECTSPECIFICMITIGATIONMEASURES
Thissubsectionprovidestableswithadditionalmitigationmeasuresforspecificprojecttypes,forwhich
theinformationinTablesG1throughG4andsubsectionG.3maynotbesufficient.Thetypesof
projectsincludedinthesetablesare:
Hotels,ResortsandAttractions(TableG6)
RestaurantsandBars(TableG7)
4.1 GolfCourses(TableG8)
TableG8:Specificmitigationmeasuresforhotels,resorts,restaurantsandattractions
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
NoiseandVibration
Aesthetics
NoisefromAirConditionersandotherFixedEquipmentAreas
Installvibrationisolationformechanicalequipment
Ensurethatmechanicalequipmentmountinghardwareisperiodicallytightened.
Implementprogramtorecordandrespondtocomplaints
NoisefromBoats,JetSkis,ATVs,othertransportationequipment
NoisefromEntertainmentvenues
PreserveNaturalandCulturalSoundscape(waterfall,crickets,birds,etcandmusicselection)
Matchrecreationaluseswithappropriatenaturalenvironments
Limitexternalnoise
Selectbackgroundmusicappropriatetothesetting
Consolidategeneratorsandotherequipmentatremotesites,awayfromnaturalareas
Utilizenaturalandartificialbarriersaroundequipment
Trainemployeesandeducatevisitorsthatsoundisanaturalresource
Maintainthesiteduringoperationoftheproject(inoperativeequipmentandpoorhousekeeping,
createsapoorimageoftheprojectintheeyesofthepublic)
Paintgroupedstructuresthesamecolortoreducevisualcomplexityandcolorcontrast.
Maintainvegetativescreens.
Prohibittheuseofcommercialsymbols
LightPollution
Limitnighttimelightingtoavoidspillontonearbyresidences.
PrepareaLightingPlanincludingactionstominimizetheneedforandamountoflightingon
structures.
TrainemployeestoLightingPlan
Minimizeilluminationoftheprojectanditsimmediatevicinitybyincludinguseofmotiondetectors
orothercontrolstohavelightsturnedoffunlessneededforsecurityorsafety
Utilizemeansotherthanlightingtokeepvisitorssafe
Educatevisitorstothelowlightingphilosophy
185
Tourism
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
TerrestrialFauna
Terrestrialand
AquaticFaunaand
associated
Ecosystems
Limitfuelwoodcollectiontodeadanddownwood
Prohibithuntingandfishingbyemployees
Allowonlylegalhuntingandfishingbyguests
Bancollectionofcoralreefsouvenirs
Implementaprogramtoinstructemployees,contractors,andsitevisitorstoavoidharassment
anddisturbanceofwildlife,especiallyduringreproductive(e.g.,courtship,nesting)seasons.
Controlpetstoavoidharassmentanddisturbanceofwildlife.
Whereappropriate,designendangeredspeciesprotectionplans,forexample:
o Enhanceturtlenestingbyprovidingplantedshadedareasatthetopofthebeachthatare
protectedfromtramplinganddirectlighting
o Implementturtlewatchprogramswithlocalschoolsandpromoteturtlenestingasan
attraction
Provideeducationalandenvironmentalsensitizationmaterialoncoralreefstorguestsandhotel
staff
Installboatmooringbuoysatsitesforuseofdiveboats,andbanboatanchoringoncoral
substrate
AccidentalPoisoning
SamemeasuresasSoilContaminationfromSpillsandFuelLeaks
186
Tourism
TableG9:Specificmitigationmeasuresforrestaurants
AFFECTEDENVIRONMENT
WaterQuantity
Soil
WaterQuality
AirQuality
EnergyConsumption/GreenhouseGasEmissions
Installwaterefficientkitchen,diningroomandrestroom
equipment
Servewateronlytocustomerswhenasked
Usepressureregulatortoreducevolumetodishwater
Recoverwaterfromdishwaterrinsecycleforuseinnew
washcycle
Runonlyfullloadsindishwasher
Maintainequipmentandrepairleaks
Monitorbillsforspikesorleaks.
Trainstaffinwaterconservation
SolidWasteManagement
Discourageuseofdisposableutensils,platesandcups
Usebiodegradableorrecyclabletakeoutcontainers
Compostfoodwastes
Recycleglass,plastics,metal,cardboard,andaluminum
Purchasegoodsinreturnable,reusableorrecyclable
containers
WastewaterManagement
Minimizeuseofgarbagedisposals
Usenontoxiccleaningsuppliesfordishes,linens,tables,
floors,etc.
Properlymaintaingreasetrapsandhoodstopreventoverflows
andemissions
Installhighefficiencyequipment
UseCFLorLEDlights
Usemotiondetectorsforlightsandfansinrestrooms
UseprogrammablethermostatsforHVACcontrolsfor
differentdays/timesweeks
Installcontrollerstoscheduleon/offkitchenequipment
cycles
Keepentrancedoorsclosedorusedoubledoors
Keepcondensercoilscleanofdustandvaporcoilsfreeof
frost
Uselocallygrownfoodfoodstoreducetransportdistances
187
Tourism
TableG10:Specificmitigationmeasuresforgolfcourses
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
ReduceWaterDemand
Usenative,naturalizedorspecializeddroughttolerantplantmaterialswhereverpossible
Forgreens,teesandfairwaysuseplantmaterialsthat:arewelladaptedtolocalenvironmental
conditions;canbeefficientlymanaged;andprovidethedesiredplayingcharacteristic
Implementgreywaterreusesystemsforirrigationwhenavailable,economicallyfeasibleand
agronomicallyandenvironmentallyacceptable
DevelopWaterManagementPlan
Managingwateruseeffectivelytopreventunnecessarydepletionoflocalwaterresources
Planirrigationpatternsand/orprogramirrigationcontrolsystemstomeettheneedsoftheplant
materialsinordertominimizeoverwatering
Whenfeasible,usemodernirrigationtechnologiesthatprovidehighlyefficientwaterusage
Wateratappropriatetimestominimizeevaporationandreducethepotentialfordisease
WaterQuantity
Managewateruseeffectivelytopreventunnecessarydepletionoflocalwaterresources
TrainandrequirestafftoimplementWaterManagementPlan
Inspectirrigationsystemregularlyforleaksandmonitorwaterusage
UseGreyWaterSystems
Usegreywaterirrigationsystemswhenavailable,economicallyfeasibleandagronomicallyand
environmentallyacceptable
(NOTE:Waterreusemaynotbefeasibleonsomesitesthatdrainintohighqualitywetlandsor
sensitivesurfacewaters.Suitablesoils,climaticconditions,groundwaterhydrology,vegetativecover,
adequatestoragefortreatedeffluentandotherfactorswillallinfluencethefeasibilityofwater
reuse.)
Regularlymonitorsystemtoinsurethattherecycledwatermeetsapplicablehealthandenvironmental
standards
ProtectNativeVegetation
Preserveanddevelopnativeplantbufferzonesthatarenoentrytogolfers
Educatevisitorstothenaturalareasmanagementstrategy
ManageNutrient
Leavegrassclippingsandotherorganicmaterialsinplacewheneveragronomicallypossible.Ifclippings
areremoved,compostand,ifpossible,recyclethem.
Usenutrientproductsandpracticesthatreducethepotentialforcontaminationofgroundwaterand
surfacewater.Strategiesinclude:useofslowreleasefertilizers,selectedorganicproducts,and/or
fertilization.
Testandmonitorsoilconditionsregularlyandmodifypracticesaccordingly.Choosenutrientproducts
andtimeapplicationstomeet,notexceed,theneedsoftheturfgrass.
UseIntegratedPestManagementPlan
WaterQuality
Employtheprinciplesofintegratedpestmanagement,asystemforpreventingandcontrollingpests
(e.g.,weeds,diseases,insects)inwhichnonchemicalcontrolmeasuresshouldfocusonpracticessuch
Terrestrialand
as:
AquaticFlora
Introductionofnaturalpestenemies(e.g.,parasitesandpredators
Utilizationofsyringingtechniques
andFaunaand
associated
Improvingairmovement
Ecosystems
Soilaerationtechniques
Mechanicaltraps
Selectandusechemicalpestcontrolassupplementtononchemicalcontrol
Treatproblemsatthepropertimeandundertheproperconditionstomaximizeeffectivenesswith
minimalenvironmentalimpact
Usespottreatments,ratherthanbroadcasttreatments,forearly,effectivecontrolofproblemsbefore
damagethresholdsarereached
Allplantprotectingproductsshouldonlybeappliedbyorunderthesupervisionofatrained,licensed
applicatororasdictatedbylaw.
Maintainexcellenceinthecontinuingeducationofapplicators.
DevelopChemicalManagementPlan
Storeandhandleallpestcontrolandnutrientproductsinamannerthatminimizesworkerexposure
and/orthepotentialforpointornonpointsourcepollution
188
Tourism
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
Employproperchemicalstoragepracticesandusesuitablepersonalprotectiveequipmentandhandling
techniques
Informgolfersandguestsaboutgolfcoursechemicalapplications.Commonmethodsinclude
permanentsignsonthefirstandtenthteeboxesand/ornoticespostedingolfshopsandlockerrooms
Disposeofchemicalrinsateinamannerthatwillnotincreasethepotentialforpointornonpointsource
pollution.Methodsincluderinsaterecyclingor"sprayingout"dilutedcompoundinpreviouslyuntreated
areas
Disposeofchemicalpackagingaccordingtolabeldirections(e.g.,triplerinsing,recyclingorreturningto
manufacturer
Otherwasteproducts,suchasusedmotoroil,electricbatteriesandunusedsolvents,shouldberecycled
ordisposedofaccordingtothelawandavailablecommunitydisposaltechniques
Seektoreducewastebypurchasingproductsthatminimizeunnecessarypackaging
TrainandrequirestafftoimplementChemicalManagementPlanandPestManagementPlan
Habitatforwildlifespeciesthathelpcontrolpests(e.g.,bats,bluebirds,purplemartins,etc.)shouldbe
protected.Additionalhabitatforthesebeneficialspeciesshouldbecreatedwheneverfeasibleand
environmentallydesirable.
Managehabitattomaintainhealthypopulationsofwildlifeandaquaticspecies.
Speciessuchasskunks,nonmigratoryCanadageese,anddeer,whentheybecomedamaging,shouldbe
Terrestrial
managedthroughnonharmfulmeanswheneverpossible.Nonharmfulcontrolmethodscouldinclude
Fauna
dogs,noisemakers,repellents,andtrappingandremoval.Managedhuntingmaybeappropriatewhere
legalandsafe.
Developwildlifemanagementplan.
TrainandrequirestafftoimplementWildlifeManagementPlan.
Educatevisitorstodiscouragemolestingorfeedingwildlife.
Source:BeyondPesticides1996
4.2 CruiseShips(TableG11)
TableG11:Specificmitigationmeasuresforcruiseships
AFFECTED
ENVIRONMENT
WastewaterDischarges(blackwater,greywater,swimmingpools,kitchens,laundry,shipmaintenance
anddeckwashing)
EstablishtreatmentcriteriaforMarineSanitationDevices(MSDs)
Establishdischargeprohibitionzonesincoastalareas
Restrictdischargestobeatleast1nauticalmilefromcoast,atspeedsofatleast6knots
WaterQuality
Trainstaffontreatmentanddischargerequirements
Monitordischarges
AquaticFauna
BallastWater
andassociated
EstablishBallastWaterManagement
Ecosystems
Ensurethatballastwatermeetsrequiredstandardsbeforedischarging
SolidWaste
Separaterecyclablesfromwastestreamanddisposeofresponsiblyatportside
Donotdischargeofplasticorrubberwithin3milesofcoast
Donotdischargeanywaste,food,ormaceratedwasteintoanymarinesanctuary
Establishandcomplywithexhaustemissionstandards
EstablishSpeedReductionZones
AirQuality
Usecleanerfuels
Useofelectricalpowerdocksideratherthanshipboarddiesel
Donotburnorincineratewasteincoastalwaters
Source:CaliforniaCruiseShipEnvironmentalTaskForce2003
189
Tourism
TableG12:Marinedevelopmentimpacts,managementandmitigation
ACTIVITY
POTENTIALIMPACTS
Coastaltourismdevelopment
Populationpressures
Increasedpressureonservicessuchas
sewage,transport,electricity
Impactsonsocialvaluesandamenity
Constructionof
Effectsoncatchmentwaterquality
tourismdevelopments
Tourisminfrastructure(islandbased)
Marina/harbor
Local,onaffectedreefarea
development
Waterquality(antifoulants)
Introducedpests
Impactsonsocialvaluesandamenity
Sewagedischarge
Dependsontreatmentlevel
Elevatednutrientsandturbidity
Freshwaterinput
Construction
Vegetationdamage
Lossofwildlifehabitat
Sedimentrunoff
Tourismactivities
Focusformotorisedandnonmotorised
vesselsandmarine
activities
Tourisminfrastructure(marinebased)
Pontoons
Shadingofbenthos
Draggingofmoorings
Focusfortouristactivities
Moorings
Localdamagetobenthos
Reduceimpactsfromanchors
Fishfeeding
Focusoffishaggregations
Boatinduceddamage
Anchoring
Shipgroundings
Litter
Wastedischarge
Vesselstrike/
disturbancetowildlife
MANAGEMENTANDMITIGATION
Regionalplanningtakingintoaccount
cumulativeimpacts
Environmentalimpactassessment;
Bestpracticeconstructiontechniques;
Monitoring(seeTableG1)
Engineeringdesign;
Reactivemonitoring;Waterquality
monitoring
Requirementsfordischargelevels;
Waterqualitymonitoring;Tertiary
treatment;Landirrigation
Bestpractice
constructiontechniques;Waterquality
monitoring
Asdiscussedbelow
Permitrequired;Appropriatedesign;
Careful
selectionoflocation;Transplant
susceptiblebiota
awayfromsite
Encouragedtoreduceanchordamage;
Appropriatedesign;Liabilityandsafety
issues
Activitylimitedbypermit;Bestpractice
forfish
feeding
Localcoraldamage,oilspills
Cumulativeimpacts
Installationofprivateandpublic
moorings;Codesofpracticeinother
areas;Anchoroversand;SpillControl
andPreventionPlaninplace,Spill
controlequipmentnearby;education
program
Damagetoreefstructure
Localbenthosdamaged
Antifoulingpaintonreef
Riskofoilorchemicalspills
Potentialharmtowildlife
Aesthetics
Localnutrientenhancement
Potentialwaterpollution
Educationofprivateandcharterusers;
Anchoroversand;SpillControland
PreventionPlaninplace,Spillcontrol
equipmentnearby
Educationprogram;Penalties
Injury/deathand/ordisruptionto
socialbonds
Educationprogram;Penalties;Storage
tanksin
boats
Educationprogram;Penalties;Speeds
limits,especiallyinshallowseagrass
areas
190
Tourism
ACTIVITY
Waterbasedactivities
Diving
Localdamagetofragilecorals
Snorkeling
Localdamagetofragilecorals
Reefwalking
Coralbreakage
Fishing
Smallrelativetorecreationaland
commercial
WildlifeInteractions
Seabirds
POTENTIALIMPACTS
Closecontactcandamagenestingsites
andbreeding
Turtlewatching
Uncontrolledaccesscanaffect
breedingsuccess
Whalewatching
Potentialforwhalestobedisturbedby
uncontrolledcontacts
Fishfeedingbydivers
Wrongdiet;diseaseand enhanced
capturerisk;fishdependency;human;
danger
MANAGEMENTANDMITIGATION
Educationprogram;Industrycodeof
practice;Divebriefings;Siteselection
forinexperienced
divers
practice;Provisionofrestingbuoysand
flotation;Briefings
practice;Walkingtrailstofocus
damage
Zoningrequirements;Industrycodeof
practice
Legislation;Educationprogram;
Industrycodecodeof
practice;Limitedaccesstobreeding
sites;Briefings
practice;Briefings;Trainedguides;
Limitaccesstokeybreedingsites
Legislation;Educationprogram;
Industrycodeofpractice;Trained
guides;Limitentryfordedicated
operators
Educationprogram;Legislation;
Guidelines;Briefings;Permitconditions
Source:Harriott,VJ.2002.MarinetourismimpactsandtheirmanagementontheGreatBarrierReef.CRCReef
ResearchCentreTechnicalReportNo46.CRCReefResearchCentre,Townsville.
5 MONITORINGANDOVERSIGHT
Monitoringplansfortheaffectedresourcesarenecessarytoassurethatmethodsusedandresults
obtainedcanbeusedto:
Confirmtheimplementationofmitigationmeasuresandotheraspectsofprojectdesignas
proposedintheEIA
ConfirmthatthemitigationmeasuresareperformingtothelevelassumedintheEIA
Confirmthattheprojectismeetingacountrysregulationsandstandards
Establishtheneedforadditionalmitigationmeasureswheretherewasuncertainlyabout
whethersomeadditionalactionsmaybenecessaryassurethatcriteriaestablishedintheEIAare
met.
ThemonitoringplanshouldaddressallphasesoftheTourismproject:siting,construction,operation,
closureandsitereclamation.Monitoringplansshouldincludeaclearstatementofpurpose;the
methods,frequencyandlocationofmonitoring;criteriaforevaluationofresults;andanyrequired
reportingofresults.Methodsusedshouldbecarriedoutbycompetentprofessionalsfollowing
scientificallyacceptedmethods.Themonitoringplanshouldalsoincludecontingencyplansidentifying
actionsthatwillbetakenshouldmonitoringresultsindicatethataperformancelimithasbeen
exceeded.
191
Tourism
Thescopeofmonitoringdependsonthelocation,complexityoftheoperationandtheseverityofthe
potentialimpacts.Monitoringresultscandetermineif:
Environmentalmeasuresareperformingasrequiredandresultsareaspredicted,thustriggering
releaseoffinancialassurancebytheregulatoryauthority.
Environmentalmeasuresneedtobeadjustedtoreachthecriteriagoals.
Enforcementisneeded.
Assuch,themonitoringplanshouldbedesignedtomeetthefollowingobjectives:
TodemonstratecompliancewiththestandardsintheapprovedEIAandothernationalandlocal
environmentallawsandregulations
Toprovideearlydetectionofpotentialproblems
Tosupplyinformationthatcancanassistindirectingcorrectiveactionsshouldtheybecome
necessary,includingaftertheTourismfacilityisclosed
Whereapplicable,themonitoringshouldinclude:
Detailsontypeandlocationofmonitoringdevices.
Samplingparametersandfrequency.
Analyticalmethodsanddetectionlimits.
Qualityassuranceandqualitycontrolprocedures.
Reportingprocedures(towhom,howoften,etc.).
Whowillconductandpayformonitoring.
Procedurestorespondtoadversemonitoringresults.
Oneofthevaluesofamonitoringprogramistheearlydetectionofpotentialproblems.Agoodwayto
mitigateairorwaterqualityimpacts,forexample,istodetecttrendsinsamplesandtakeearly
correctiveactionbeforeviolationsoftheperformancestandardsoccur.Themonitoringplanshouldbe
tiedtotheenvironmentalmeasuresplansothat,ifmonitoringindicatesproblems(e.g.,ifairorwater
qualitystandardsareviolatedorareabouttobeviolated),specificcorrectiveactionprocedureswillbe
implementedbytheowner/operator.Itshouldnotbeleftvague(e.g.,thecompanywillworkwiththe
ministrytoresolvetheproblemistoovague).
Theplanshouldalsoincludethestandardsandcriteriathatshouldbemet.Examplesofmonitoring
programswhichmaybenecessaryinclude:
Airquality
Surfaceandgroundwaterqualityandquantity
Revegetationsuccess
Noiselevels
Visualimpacts
Wildlifemortalityandotherwildlifeimpacts
Financialassurancesmayberequiredtoensureadequatefundswillbeavailabletoimplementthe
monitoringplanandmitigatedetectedproblemsifany,bothduringandafterthegenerationand
transmissionprojects.Someproblemsmaynotbecomeevidentformanyyears(e.g.,groundwater
contamination),soinsomecasesmonitoringmayneedtobeconductedforthedurationoftheproject
andevenafterclosure.Howlongthefundsareheldcanvarybasedonthetypeofoperationandthe
modelingpredictions.
192
Tourism
6 FINANCIALASSURANCE
Financialassuranceisusuallyrequiredofmineoperationsbecauseofthelongtermnatureofpost
closureenvironmentalmeasuresandtheeconomicuncertaintiesthatcanaccompanymininggiventhe
marketsfornonmetalandmetalminerals.Theirapplicationtotourismprojectswilldependuponthe
natureoftheprojectandcountrypractices.Insuchcasesafinancialguaranteemayberequiredasa
componentofongoingmitigationormonitoringmeasuresandpostclosureprocesstocoverthecostsof
closureoroperationofcriticalequipmentformonitoringandtreatmentshouldtheprojectownerbe
unabletodoso.Sincethesecostsaretheresponsibilityoftheprojectowner/operator,thesecostsare
notincludedinthebudgetsofregulatoryagencies,norshouldtheybe.Inaddition,ifmonitoring,
maintenance,and/ortreatmentactivitieswillberequiredafterpowerplantclosureoveralongterm
(decadesoreveninperpetuity),alongtermtrustfundshouldbeestablishedatthestartoftheproject
toensurefundswillbeavailableaslongastheyareneededtoconductthiswork.
6.1 FinancialGuaranteesforMitigationandMonitoringMeasuresandRestoration
Governmentagenciesneedfinancialsuretiesthatarereadilyavailabletoensurethatenvironmental
measuresandsiterestorationoccur,ifneeded.Shouldtheprojectownerdefaultonenvironmental
measuresorrestorationcommitments,fundsmayberequiredimmediatelyforanoutsidecontractorto
operateandmaintainkeyfacilitiessuchaswatertreatmentplants.Restorationandpostclosure
activitiesconductedbyanoutsidecontractorcostmorethanactivitiesconductedbytheownerbecause
thecontractororthegovernmentitselfwouldhavemobilizationandothercoststhatthecompanydid
nothavewhileitwasoperatingthedevelopment.Therefore,thecostestimateuponwhichthesuretyis
basedshouldbecalculatedtoincludethecostsofathirdpartyconductingthework.Itshouldalsobe
accurateanduptodate.Unfortunately,errorsinthesecalculationshaverequiredmillionsofdollarsof
taxpayersubsidytoclosebankruptoperations.
Governmentshaveemployedanumberoffinancialvehiclestomeetsuretyrequirements.These
vehiclesgenerallytaketwoforms:independentlyguaranteedsuretiesandsuretiesguaranteedbypower
generationcompanies.Becausetourismcompaniescananddogobankrupt,NGOsandgovernments
favorsuretiesthatareindependentofthecompanyoperatingtheproject,usuallyintheformofabond,
irrevocableletterofcredit,cashdepositorsomecombinationoftheseinstruments.Whereafinancial
suretyisguaranteedbythetourismprojectoperatorthroughcorporateguarantee,governmentsshould
assesstheadditionalrisksposedbyrelyingontheseinstrumentssincetheywouldbeunavailableshould
thecompanygobankrupt.
Thefinancialsectorhasnotdevelopedspecificrequirementsforsureties,althoughbanksrisksignificant
lossofcapitalifacompanyweretodeclarebankruptcywhilestillholdingoutstandingloans.Finally,
considerableinformationisavailableonthecalculationofthefinancialsuretyforanyproject.Because
ofproblemsencounteredwithfinancialsuretiessomeacademicsandleadingNGOshaveurgedformore
governmentandpublicscrutiny,someoftheirrecommendationsarepresentedinTableG13.
193
Tourism
TableG13:NGOrecommendationsforfinancialguarantees
OPERATIONAL
AND
REGULATORY
MEASURE
DESCRIPTION
Review
Financialsuretiesshouldbereviewedandupgradedonaregularbasisbythe
permittingagency,andtheresultsofthereviewshouldbepubliclydisclosed.
Thepowergenerationindustryandgovernmentsshouldworkmoreclosely
withNGOstoimplementrealisticreviewschedulesandproceduresfor
reviewingfinancialsureties.
Public
Awareness
Thepublicshouldhavetherighttocommentontheadequacyofthe
restorationandclosureplanandthelongtermpostclosureplan,theadequacy
ofthefinancialsurety,andcompletionofrestorationactivitiespriortorelease
ofthefinancialsurety.
Guarantees
Financialsuretyinstrumentsshouldbeindependentlyguaranteed,reliable,and
readilyliquid.Suretiesshouldberegularlyevaluatedbyindependentanalysts
usingacceptedaccountingmethods.Selfbondingorcorporateguarantees
shouldnotbepermitted.
Release
Financialsuretiesshouldnotbereleaseduntilrestorationandclosureare
complete,allimpactshavebeenmitigated,andcleanuphasbeenshowntobe
effectiveforasufficientperiodoftimeafterprojectclosure.
Source:AdoptedfromMirandaetal.2005
7 AUDITABLEANDENFORCEABLECOMMITMENTLANGUAGE
AnacceptableEIAdocumentshouldnotmerelyrepeatthelistofgenericenvironmentalmeasureslisted
intheprecedingsubsections.Theaccompanyingtextdescribesthelevelofdetailnecessaryfora
reviewertoassurethattheproposedenvironmentalmeasuremeetsitsintendedpurpose,thatthe
environmentalmeasurewouldwouldbeadequatetoaddresstheunderlyingenvironmental,economic
orsocialissues.Auditorsandcomplianceandenforcementauthoritiesrequirespecificandlegally
bindinglanguagetoassurethatobligationshavebeenmetortodeterminewhethertheproject
proponentisfulfillingitsresponsibilityandcommitments.
ThewordinganddetailintheEIAdocumentbecomesevenmorecriticalintheabsenceofaconnected
permitorothermeansforgovernmenttoindependentlycraftand/ornegotiatecommitmentlanguage
forproposedenvironmentalmeasures.Therefore,understandingtheextenttowhichacountry
wouldwouldrelyontheEIAdocumentitselftoholdprojectproponentsaccountableforenvironmental
measuresisimportant.Thissectionprovidesexamplesofthekindsofdetailareviewershouldlookfor
indeterminingwhethercommitmentlanguagewouldwouldbesufficienttoensurethatpromised
actionswillbetakenbyaprojectproponentandthattheiradequacycanbedeterminedovertime.
194
Tourism
Theproposedenvironmentalmeasuresshouldbeclearabout:
Who: Thepartyresponsiblefortakingactionshouldbeclearlyassigned.
Istheprojectproponentrelyingonthecommunitytotakecertainactions?
Whatistohappenwhentheprojectproponentisgone,afterclosure?
When: Timingissuesareveryimportant.Withoutatimeframenothingmightmighthappenand
whateverdoeshappenmaynotbeadequate:
Howlongaftertheclosureofaresortwouldtheprojectproponentmonitor
emissionsandeffluents?Xyearsfollowingclosure?Untilemissionsandeffluentsare
proventobenegligible?
Whenwouldrevegetationandregradingtakeplace,ifdeemednecessary?
Whenwouldremedialactionbetakenifmonitoringindicatesthereisaproblem?
Woulditbewithindays?Weeks?Months?Wouldtheplantortransmission
segmentneedtomodifyoperationsorshutdownintheinterim?Whowoulddecide
thisandwhatarethepenaltiesofnoncompliance?
What: Effectivenesswilldependlargelyonwhatisbeingproposed:
Whatperformancestandardswillbeusedtointerpretmonitoringresults?
Whatleveloftreatment/controlwillbepurchasedandinstalled?
Whattechnologywillbeusedandwillitbesufficienttoprevent,treat,orcontrol
thekindofcontaminantsthatwillbefoundintheeffluent?Oremissions?
Whatsizewastewatertreatmentplantordrinkingwatertreatmentplantwillbe
builtandwillitbesufficientfortheexpectedflow?
Arethespeciesbeingusedforrevegetationindigenoustothearea?
How: Whatresourcecommitmentwillbemadetoensurethatmeasureswillbeundertakenat
thelevelsindicated?
Whatfinancialcommitmentsaremade?Whatfinancialinstrumentisbeingusedto
guaranteeadequatefundswillbeavailabletoimplementallcommitments?How
willfinancialguaranteesbeincreasediftheyneedtobeadjustedduringorafter
operations?
Specifythestaffing,managementandoversightcommitments.
Specifyallequipmentcommitments.
Thefollowingsubsectionspresentexamplesoflanguageforfinancialassurance,waterquality
monitoring,restoration,andrevegetationthatcouldbeusedtoensurethatthecommitmentlanguage
intheEIAisreviewable,auditableandenforceable.
7.1 ConstructionPractices
a.
b.
c.
d.
Constructionimpactswillbeconfinedtotheminimumareanecessarytocompletetheproject.
Alterationordisturbanceofthestreambanksandexistingriparianvegetationwillbeminimizedto
thegreatestextentpossible.
Noherbicideapplicationshouldoccuraspartofthisaction.Mechanicalremovalofundesired
vegetationandrootnodesispermitted.
Allexistingvegetationwithin45metersoftheedgeofbankshouldberetainedtothegreatest
extentpossible.
195
Tourism
e.
Temporaryaccessroads.
i. Steepslopes.Donotbuildtemporaryroadsmidslopeoronslopessteeperthan30percent.
ii. Temporarystreamcrossings.
f. Donotallowequipmentintheflowingwaterportionofthestreamchannelwhereequipment
activitycouldreleasesedimentdownstream,exceptatdesignatedstreamcrossings.
g. Minimizethenumberoftemporarystreamcrossings.
h. Designnewtemporarystreamcrossingsasfollows:
i. Surveyandmapanypotentialspawninghabitatwithin90metersdownstreamofaproposed
crossing.
ii. Donotplacestreamcrossingsatknownorsuspectedspawningareasorwithin90meters
upstreamofsuchareasifspawningareasmaybeaffected.
iii. Designthecrossingtoprovideforforeseeablerisks(e.g.,floodingandassociatedbedloadand
debris)topreventthediversionofstreamflowoutofthechannelanddowntheroadifthe
crossingfails.
iv. Vehiclesandmachinerywillcrossriparianbufferareasandstreamsatrightanglestothemain
channelwhereverpossible.
i. Obliteration.Whentheprojectiscompleted,obliteratealltemporaryaccessroads,stabilizethe
soil,andrevegetatethesite.Abandonandrestoretemporaryroadsinwetorfloodedareasbythe
endoftheinwaterworkperiod.
j. Vehicles.Whenheavyequipmentwillbeused,theequipmentselectedwillhavetheleastadverse
effectsontheenvironment(e.g.,minimallysized,lowgroundpressureequipment).
k. Sitepreparation.Conservenativematerialsforsiterehabilitation.
i. Ifpossible,leavenativematerialswheretheyarefound.
ii. Ifmaterialsaremoved,damaged,ordestroyed,replacethemwithafunctionalequivalent
duringsiterehabilitation.
iii. Stockpileanylargewood,nativevegetation,weedfreetopsoil,andnativechannelmaterial
displacedbyconstructionforuseduringsiterehabilitation.
l. Isolationofinwaterworkarea.Ifadultorjuvenilefisharereasonablycertaintobepresent,orif
theworkareaislessthan300ftupstreamofspawninghabitats,completelyisolatetheworkarea
fromtheactiveflowingstreamusinginflatablebags,sandbags,sheetpilings,orsimilarmaterials.
m. Earthwork.Completeearthwork(includingdrilling,excavation,dredging,filling,andcompacting)as
quicklyaspossible.
n. Excavation.Materialremovedduringexcavationwillonlybeplacedinlocationswhereitcannot
entersensitiveaquaticresources.Whenevertopsoilisremoved,itshouldbestoredandreusedon
sitetothegreatestextentpossible.Ifculvertinlet/outletprotectingriprapisused,itwillbeclass
350metricorlarger,andtopsoilwillbeplacedovertherockandplantedwithnativewoody
vegetation.
o. Drillingandsampling.Ifdrilling,boring,orjackingisused,thefollowingconditionsapply.
i. Isolatedrillingactivitiesinwettedstreamchannelsusingasteelpile,sleeve,orother
appropriateisolationmethodtopreventdrillingfluidsfromcontactingwater.
ii. Ifitisnecessarytodrillthroughabridgedeck,usecontainmentmeasurestopreventdrilling
debrisfromenteringthechannel.
iii. Ifdirectionaldrillingisused,thedrill,bore,orjackholewillspanthechannelmigrationzone
andanyassociatedwetland.
iv. Samplinganddirectionaldrillrecovery/recyclingpits,andanyassociatedwasteorspoils,will
becompletelyisolatedfromsurfacewaters,offchannelhabitats,andwetlands.Alldrilling
fluidsandwastewillberecoveredandrecycledordisposedtoprevententryintoflowing
water.
196
Tourism
p.
Sitestabilization.Stabilizealldisturbedareas,includingobliterationoftemporaryroads,following
anybreakinwork,unlessconstructionwillresumewithin4days.
7.2 FlowReleasesandMonitoring
7.2.1 Wastewater
Adetailedmonitoringprogramshallbeimplementedtoensurethatdischargesforwastewater
treatmentfacilitiesdischargesintorivers,streams,groundwater,andoceanbodiesmeetappropriate
standards.
7.2.2 Air
Anairqualitymonitoringprogramshallbeimplementedtoensurethatemissionsfrompowerplants,
vehicles,andotheremittersmeetappropriatestandards.
7.3 EndangeredSpeciesManagement
Toprotectendangeredbirdspeciesfromdisturbance,theprojectshallbeconstructedandmaintained
accordingtothefollowingschedule:
7.3.1 Construction
a. January1throughFebruary28Operationofheavyequipmentispermittedbetweenthehoursof
10:00AMto4:00PM.Lightweightpassengervehiclesmayentertheareaandpersonnelmay
conductactivitiesdeemedtobeoflowdisturbancepotential(e.g.,installwiring,program
computers,andinteriorfinishwork)betweenthehoursof8:00AMand5:00PM.
b. March1throughAugust31Blasting/boringofdamisprohibited.Operationofheavyequipmentis
permittedonlybetweenthehoursof10:00AMto4:00PM.Lightweightpassengervehiclesmay
entertheareaandpersonnelmayconductactivitiesdeemedtobeoflowdisturbancepotential
(e.g.,installwiring,programcomputers,andinteriorfinishwork)betweenthehoursof8:00AM
and5:00PM.
c. Instreamworkshalloccurduringtheautumntoavoidtemporarydisturbancetothepreybase
duringthenestingseason.
7.3.2 Operation
Withtheexceptionofsafetyrelatedemergencies,anymaintenanceorrepairsrequiringtheuseof
blastingorboringequipmentshallbescheduledfromSeptember1toFebruary28toavoidthesensitive
nestingseason.MaintenanceorrepairsthatrequiretheuseofheavyequipmentfromMarch1through
AugusT31shallbelimitedtothehoursof10:00AMto4:00PM.
197
Tourism
198
Tourism
H.ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENTPLAN
H. ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENTPLAN
AnEnvironmentalManagementPlan(EMP)servestocombineelementsofenvironmentalmanagement
thatarebuiltintothedesignofthetourismprojectsorareidentifiedasmonitoringandmeasures.The
EMP,whichinsomeCAFTADRcountriesisreferredtoasanEnvironmentalManagementProgram,
consistsofaseriesofcomponentsorplansrequiredeitherasanenforceablecomponentofthe
EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA),anattachmentorseparatedocument.AspresentedinTableH
1,anEMPincludes:plansforwatermanagement,vegetationremoval,sitepreparation,construction,
plansformonitoringandmitigationmeasures,andothercomponents.
Throughouttheseguidelines,approachesarepresentedtoassistreviewersoftheseplanstoensurethat
theymeetthegoalsoftheoverallEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentprocess.TableH1presentsinputs
andmeasuresthatshouldbeconsideredintheseplans.Thebasicconceptspresentedinthistable
shouldbeconsideredwhendevelopingenvironmentalmanagementcomponentsforvarioustypesof
tourismprojectsadjustedofcoursebycountryspecificrequirements.
AnEMPwouldalsoincludecontingencyplanstoreducetheriskandrespondtothreatsofnatural
disastersandaccidents.Thespillpreventionandcontrolplandescribedinthetextboxissuchaplan.
TableH1:Componentsofanenvironmentalmanagementplan:programandplanelements
PLAN
General
WATERMANAGEMENT
WaterUseand
Recycling
Diversionand
WastewaterStream
Consolidation
Waterquality
Monitoring
INPUT
Describemeasurestobeimplementedtomanagewater.
Identifyandassesshowtodivertnaturalrunoffawayfromsitetopreventpollutionofthis
water.
Describemethodstobeusedtominimizethevolumeoffreshwaterthatisusedfor
operationsandirrigationandtomaximizetherecyclingofwater.
Describewhattoavoidorminimizetheuseoffertilizers,herbicidesandpesticidesthathave
thepotentialtorunoffsiteorpercolatetogroundwater.
Describewaterconservationmethodstobeimplementedduringoperations(i.e.lowflow
toilets,lowvolumeshowerheads,collectionofgreywaterforuseinirrigation).
Describeeducationalstrategiesforstaffandvisitorstoreducewaterconsumption(ie.
Discouragedailylinenandtowelexchanges,invokeconservationpracticesforlaundry
operations).
Definehowbesttoconsolidatetreatmentforallwastewatersources.
Describemethodologiessuchastheuseofditchesordikestodivertallcleanstreamsand
drainagerunoffawayfromareasofpossiblecontaminationlocatingthesestructuresonmaps.
Defineandlocateonmapseffluentdischargepointsandtheirrelationshiptoenvironmentally
sensitiveareas.
Showtypicalditchesandwaterholdingfacilitiesdesignedforextremerunoffevents(100yror
maximumprobablerunoffevents).
Predictrunofffromfuelstorageandimperviousgroundcover.
Presenttimingandconditionsduringwhichsuchrunoffmaybeexpectedtooccur.
Determineotherpotentiallyharmfulcomponentsinrunoff,includingfertilizers,herbicides,
pesticides,detergents,oilsandgreases.
Providethedesignforawatermonitoringprogramindicatingthelocationsonsitemapsof
potentialwaterandseepagesamplingstationsonthefacility.
DevelopaSamplingandAnalysisPlanforwatersampling,handlingandanalysesprotocols
(whereanalysesarecompletedbyoutsidelaboratories,theowner/operatorortheir
consultantsshouldhavecopiesoftheprotocolsused).
Developadatabasethatisupdatedassamplingisundertakenincludinghydroclimatological
dataincludingbutnotlimitedtorainfall,airtemperature,solarradiation,relativehumidity,
199
Tourism
PLAN
Erosionand
SedimentControl
Wastewater
Domestic
Wastewaterand
SewageDisposal
BIOLOGICALRESOURCES
VegetationClearing
Revegetation
INPUT
winddirection,speed,evaporation,waterlevelsinwells,streamflowandwaterquality.
Provideamethodologytocalibratehydrologicalmodelsthatwereusedinplanningthewater
managementsystem.
Determinesiteerosionpotentialandidentifyingwaterbodiesatrisk.
Developarecontouringplandesignedtoreducethesusceptibilityofsoiltoerosion.
Defineaprogramforrevegetationandmaintenanceofbufferzonesadjacenttowaterbodies
forerosioncontrol.
Developaplantodivertsitedrainageawayfromcleared,graded,orexcavatedareas.
Definehowthefacilitywilluseandmaintainsedimentbarriersorsedimenttrapstoprevent
orcontrolsedimentation.
Directingsurfacerunofffromerodibleareastoasettlingpondpriortodischargetothe
environment.
Presentamonitoringandmaintenanceprogramtoensurethaterosionandsedimentcontrol
measuresareeffective.
Developawastewatertreatmentplanbasedon:
Thewatermanagementplan.
Theresultsofpredictionofwastewaterquality.
Relevantregulatoryrequirementsforeffluentquality.
Relevantenvironmentalperformanceindicators,includinganywaterqualityobjectives.
Developaplanforsewageordomesticwastewatertreatmentwiththeobjectiveofthese
facilitiesistopreventthecontaminationofsurfacewaterandgroundwater,includingdrinking
watersupplies,andtomeetallapplicableregulatorystandards.Sludgefromthetreatmentof
sewageanddomesticwastewatershouldbedisposedofinanacceptablemanner.
Developaplantominimizeareastobecleared.
Defineonmapsbufferzonesofnaturalvegetativecovershowingthatatleast100mofnatural
bufferzonesareretainedwhereverpossiblebetweenclearedareasandadjacentbodiesof
water.
Providesimilarplansforsensitivecoastalandaquaticzones.
Presentaplantoshowthatthetimebetweenclearingofanareaandsubsequent
developmentisminimized.
Prohibittheburningofvegetations,slashandothercombustiblesonsite.
Arevegetationplanshouldbedevelopedforthetourismfacilitiesandtransportationcorridors,
takingintoconsiderationthefollowing:
Reestablishingsoilcoveronthesitewithconsiderationbeinggiventothecharacteristicsof
thesoilthatwillbeusedaswellasthesoilrequirementsofthevegetationtobeestablished
onthesite.
Speciesusedinrevegetationandtheresultingplantcommunityshouldbeconsistentwiththe
goalsofsiteclosureandtheintendedpostclosureuseofthesite.Speciesnativetothearea
aroundthesiteshouldbeusedforthispurpose,andinvasivespeciesshouldneverbeused.
Monitoringprogramsshouldbedesignedandimplementedduringplantorcorridorclosureto
ensurethatclosureactivitiesandanyassociatedenvironmentaleffectsareconsistentwith
thosepredictedintheclosureplanandtoensurethattheobjectivesofclosureplanarebeing
met.
200
Tourism
PLAN
Environmentally
SensitiveAreas
GEOLOGYANDSOILS
GeologicMaterials
WASTEMANAGEMENT
SolidWaste
INPUT
Showonplanviewanduseoftypicaldrawingsthatallfacilitiesarelocatedanddesignedto
avoidlandbasedandaquaticenvironmentallysensitiveareas.Thedeterminationof
environmentallysensitiveareasshouldbeundertakeninconsultationwithappropriate
stakeholders,localcommunitiesandgovernmentofficials.
Determinesiteerosionpotentialandidentifyingwaterbodiesatrisk.
Developarecontouringplandesignedtoreducethesusceptibilityofsoiltoerosion.
Defineaprogramforrevegetationandmaintenanceofbufferzonesadjacenttowaterbodies
forerosioncontrol.
Developaplantodivertsitedrainageawayfromcleared,graded,orexcavatedareas.
Definehowthefacilitywilluseandmaintainsedimentbarriersorsedimenttrapstopreventor
controlsedimentation.
Directingsurfacerunofffromerodibleareastoasettlingpondpriortodischargetothe
environment.
Presentamonitoringandmaintenanceprogramtoensurethaterosionandsedimentcontrol
measuresareeffective.
Developasitespecificprogramfortheidentificationanddescriptionofrockandother
geologicalmaterialsthatwillbeorhavebeenmovedorexposedasaresultofconstruction
activityshouldinclude,foreachmaterial:
Spatialdistributionofthematerial,aswellastheestimatedmassofmaterialpresent.
Geologicalcharacterizationofthematerial,includingitsmineralandchemical
composition.
Physicalcharacterizationofthematerial,includinggrainsize,particlesizeandstructural
characteristicsincludingfracturing,faultingandmaterialstrength.
Developaninventoryofearthmaterialsthatwillbeneededforconstructionandoperations.
Identifyreputableandlicensedsourcesofthesematerials.
Requirethecontractortocertifythatthematerialswereobtainedfromlicensedandapproved
quarries.
Requirethathaveavailableforinspectiononsitecopiesofthelicenseandmanifestforhaul
loads.
Constructionsitemanagementplanshouldincludeamaterialsmanagementplanthatincludes
asitemapwhichprovidesforstorageoffinegrainedmaterials(sandandmarl)inbermed
areasawayfromshorelinesanddrainages.
Developaplanforthedisposalofsolidwastegeneratedbytouristoperation.Thiswould
includethelocationanddesignofasolidwastelandfillandtheseparationofpotentially
hazardouswastesfromthedisposedofsolidwaste.
Defineadisposalprogramforonsiteorinalandfilldisposal.Planforwastesfromonsite
kitchenanddiningfacilitiesshouldbedisposedofinamannerthatdoesnotattractwildlife.
Developmeasuresthatshouldbeputinplacetoensurethatallfoodwastesandfood
containersareproperlydisposedof,includingthoseusedawayfromkitchenanddining
facilities.
Definetrainingprogramstoensurethatallemployeesandonsitecontractorsareawareof
theimportanceofproperdisposaloffoodwastesandtheimportanceofnotfeedingwildlife
onsite.
ConstructionManagementplanshouldincludedesignatedwastestorageareas(food,solid,
recyclables,hazardous,etc.),collectionandremovalschedules,identificationofapproved
disposalsitesandasystemforsupervisionandmonitoring.
LikewisethesameshouldberequiredintheTourismOperationsPlan.
201
Tourism
PLAN
SpillPreventionand
Control
AccessRoads
ECONOMICINFRASTRUCTURE
Pipelines
Decommissioning
INPUT
Developaplantodesignandconstructchemicalstorageandcontainmentfacilitiestomeetthe
appropriatestandards,regulationsandguidelinesofpertinentregulatoryagenciesandthe
owner/operatorsenvironmentalpolicy,objectivesandtargets.Asaminimum,chemicalstorage
andcontainmentfacilitiesshould:
Sitespecificchemicalmanagementproceduresshouldbedevelopedandimplementedforthe
safetransportation,storage,handling,useanddisposalofchemicals,fuelsandlubricants.
Bemanagedtominimizethepotentialforspills.
Providecontainmentintheeventofspillageandbemanagedtominimizeopportunitiesfor
spillage.
Complywithinternationalstandards.
Ensurethatincompatiblematerialsarestoredinwaystopreventaccidentalcontactand
chemicalreactionswithothermaterials.
Minimizetheprobabilitythataspillcouldhaveasignificantimpactontheenvironment.
Evaluatedperiodicallytodeterminepossibilitiestoreducethequantitiesofpotentiallyharmful
chemicalsused.
Ensureformaintenanceshopsthatpotentialcontaminants,suchasusedlubricants,batteries
andotherwastes,areproperlymanagedwithappropriatedisposalmechanismsforthese
materials.Storesshouldbemanagedsuchthatpotentiallyhazardousmaterialsarehandledin
accordancewithproceduresdetailedintheenvironmentalmanagementsystemforthe
facilities.
Definemeasuresthatwillbedesignedandimplementedtopreventandcontrolerosionfrom
roadsassociatedwithallfacilities.Thesemeasuresshouldinclude:
Providingbufferzonesofatleast100mbetweenroadsandwaterbodiestotheextent
practicable.
Designingroadgradesandditchestolimitthepotentialforerosion,includingavoidingroad
gradesexceeding12%(5%nearwaterbodies).
Designingandconstructingstreamcrossingsforroadsinamannerthatprotectsfishandfish
habitatpreventingsedimentationofthestreamsandnotobstructingmovementoffish.
Providetheroutesofpipelinesandtransmissionlinesonmaps.Routesshouldbeselectedso
astolimitriskofharmtoaquatic,terrestrialecosystemsandanimalmigrationroutesinthe
eventofafailure.
Showthatpipelineswillbedesignedtoreducetheriskoffailure.
Definemeasurestolimitimpactsintheeventofafailure.
Developaninspectionplanforpipelineswithinspectionstakingplaceonaregularbasisto
ensuretheyareingoodcondition.
Definemonitoringsystemstoalertoperatorsintheeventofapotentialproblem.
Describeadecommissioningprogramforthetourismrelatedfacilitiesshowingthatany
contaminationassociatedwithfacilityoperations,vehicleandequipmentoperationsand
maintenancewillberemediated.
Statehowsignswillbepostedwarningthepublicofpotentialdangersassociatedwiththesite.
Developaplanthatshowshowonsitefacilitiesandequipmentthatarenolongerneededwill
beremovedanddisposedofinasafemanner.
Developaplanfortherehabilitationofroads,runwaysorrailwaysthatwillnotbepreserved
forpostclosureusewithbridges,culvertsandpipesbeingremovedsothatnaturalstream
flowisrestored,andstreambanksarestabilizedwithvegetationorbyusingriprap.In
addition,theplanshouldshowthatsurfaces,shoulders,escarpments,steepslopes,regular
andirregularbenches,etc.,areberehabilitatedtopreventerosionwithsurfacesand
shouldersbeingscarified,gradedintonaturalcontours,andrevegetated.
Defineaprogramthatshowshowinfrastructurewillbedismantledandremoved,exceptin
caseswherethisinfrastructureistobepreservedforpostclosurelanduseorwillbeneeded
forpostclosuremonitoring,inspectionandmaintenance.
202
Tourism
PLAN
EmissionsControl
AIRQUALITYANDCLIMATE
Particulates
NOISEANDVIBRATION
ClimateChange
(Carbonreduction)
General
INPUT
Developsitespecificplanstobeimplementedtominimizereleasesofairborneemissions,
includinggreenhousegases.Plansshoulddescribe:
Potentialsourcesofreleasesofairborneemissions,includinggreenhousegases.
Factorsthatmayinfluencereleasesofairborneemissions,includinggreenhousegases.
Measurestominimizereleasesofairborneemissions,includinggreenhousegases.
Monitoringandreportingprogramsforreleasesofairborneemissions,includinggreenhouse
gases.
Mechanismstoincorporatetheresultsofmonitoringprogramsintofurtherimprovementsto
measurestominimizereleases.
Mechanismstoperiodicallyupdatetheplans.
Developsitespecificplanstobeimplementedtominimizereleasesofairborneparticulate
matter.Theseplansshoulddescribe:
Potentialsourcesofreleasesofairborneparticulatematter,includingspecificactivitiesand
specificcomponentsofoperation.
Factorsthatmayinfluencereleasesofairborneparticulatematter,includingclimateandwind.
Potentialriskstotheenvironmentandhumanhealthfromreleasesofairborneparticulate
matter.
Measurestominimizereleasesofairborneparticulatematterfromthesourcesidentified.
Monitoringprogramsforlocalweather,forconsiderationintheongoingmanagementof
releasesofairborneparticulatematter.
Monitoringandreportingprogramsforreleasesofairborneparticulatematterandfor
environmentalimpactsofreleases.
Mechanismstoincorporatetheresultsofmonitoringprogramsintofurtherimprovementsto
measurestominimizereleases.
Mechanismstoperiodicallyupdatetheplans.
Consistentwithnationalorinternationalstandardforparticulatematter(PM),bywayof
exampleinCanadatheconcentrationofparticulatematterlessthan2.5micronsinsize
(PM2.5)shouldnotexceed15g/m3(24houraveragingtime)outsidetheboundaryofthe
facilities.
Enginesinvehiclesandstationaryequipmentshouldbemaintainedandoperatedinamanner
thatminimizesemissionsofcriteriaaircontaminants,particularly:totalparticulatematter
(TPM);particulatematterlessthanorequalto10microns(PM10);particulatematterlessthan
orequalto2.5microns(PM2.5);sulphuroxides(SOx);nitrogenoxides(NOx);volatileorganic
compounds(VOCs);andcarbonmonoxide(CO).
Developstrategiesforreducingcarbonreleasestotheatmosphereandhowtheywillbe
implemented.Thecarbonreductionplanshouldincludetheuseofheavyequipmentand
vehiclesthatarefuelefficientand/orusealternativefuel.Increasedthermalormechanical
efficiencies,reductionoflossesofmethane,ifnaturalgasisafuel,andproperstoichiometryof
combustiontoreduceformationofN2OarealsomeansofreducingGHGemissions.Sample
methodsforreductioningreenhousegasemissionsareasdescribedundertheEmissionControl
Plan.
Definesitespecificassessmentstobeconductedtoidentifysources,orpotentialsourcesof
noiseandvibrations,andmeasuresshouldbeimplementedtoreducenoiselevelsfromthese
sources.Suchmeasuresshouldincludeconsiderationof:
Eliminationofnoiseandvibrationsources.
Locateandalignactivityareassothatnoisedoesnotprojecttowardknownreceptors.
Thepurchaseofequipmentwithimprovednoisecharacteristics.
Propermaintenanceofequipment.
Enclosureorshieldingofsourcesofnoise.
Suppressionofthenoiseatsource.
Locatingnoisesourcestoallownaturalattenuationtoreducelevelstopotentialrecipients.
Theoperationofnoisesourcesonlyduringhoursagreedtoinconsultationwithlocal
communities.Monitoringshouldbeconductedtoassesstheeffectivenessofthesemeasures
andifnationalorrelatedInternationalstandardsareexceededsothatimprovementsinnoise
reductioncanbemadeimprovementsinnoisereduction.
203
Tourism
PLAN
MONITORING
FacilitiesMonitoring
Temporaryand
LongtermProject
Closure
Longterm
Monitoringand
Maintenance
INPUT
Providesafetyprotocolsthatensuretheiruseduringconstructionblastingoperationssuchas
safetyzonestopreventunauthorizedentry,warningsignalstoalarmnearbyworkersand
residentsofimpendingblastsandallclearsignalstonotewhentheareaissafetoreenter.
Definethesizeofexplosivechargestominimizevibrations.
Ensurethatblastsdonotexceedacceptablenationalorinternationalvibrationcriteriaby
wayofexamplelimitgroundvibrationstobelow12.5mm/s(peakparticlevelocity)andlimit
airvibrationsto133dB.
Allowfornaturalattenuationtoreducenoiseanddustordebrisatthesourceandimpactsto
nearbyresidents.
Providefortheenclosureorshieldsourcesofnoiseincludingplantingvegetativebarriers,
constructionofbermsandwalls.
Ensurethatpilingoperationsdonotimpactnesting,breeding,calvingandothersensitive
aquatichabitats.
ProvidefordesignatedareaswhereTourismoperationsknowntoproducenoiseand
vibrations(motorboats,jetskis,offroadvehicles.)
Institutecarryingcapacitylimitsforthesameactivitiesinsensitiveareas.
Developamonitoringprogramtocheckandreportontheperformance,statusandsafetyof
watermanagementfacilities.
Defineapipelineinspectionprogramtoevaluateflowandhydraulicintegrity.
Describeinspectionmeasuresfordrainageditchesanddikestoevaluatesediment
accumulationandbankerosionanddamage.
Provideconstructioncontrols,includingtheuseofaconstructionmanagementprogram.
Proceduresfordustcontrol.
Qualityassuranceandqualitycontrolmeasuresforallaspectsofoperations,monitoringand
inspections.
Developaplantocollectdatarequiredformodeling.
Describehowtoevaluatetheeffectivenessofmeasuresthathavebeenimplementedto
preventandcontrolpotentialsurfaceseepsandgroundwatercontamination.
Developaplantoidentifypotentialsourcesofwaterpollutantsandmonitoraccordingly.
Developaplantomonitorfreshwatersourcedepletionincoastalareasandpreventsaltwater
intrusion.
Developaprogramthattheanticipatedcostsofsiteclosurearereevaluatedregularly
throughouttheprojectlifecycle.Theowner/operatorshouldensurethatadequatefundsare
availabletocoverallclosurecosts,andtheamountsofanysecuritydepositsshouldbe
adjustedaccordingly.
Describeaprogramforsiteswhereitisdeterminedthatlongtermmonitoring,maintenance
oreffluenttreatmentwillbenecessarypostclosure,mechanismsshouldbeidentifiedand
implementedthatwillensurethatadequateandstablelongtermfundingisavailablefor
theseactivities.Indeterminingfundinglevelsrequired,considerationshouldbegivento
contingencyrequirementsintheeventofchangesineconomicconditions,systemfailures,or
majorrepairworkpostclosure.
Developaplanforthecareandmaintenanceofthesiteintheeventthatoperationsare
suspended.Theplanshouldincludecontinuedmonitoringandassessmentofthe
environmentalperformanceofthesite,aswellasthemaintenanceofallenvironmental
controlsnecessarytoensurecontinuedcompliancewithrelevantregulatoryrequirements.
TheFinalclosureplanshouldaddressthefollowingenvironmentalaspects:surfaceandground
water,revegetation,andfauna.
Atsiteswherelongtermrisksareidentifiedamaintenanceplanshouldbedevelopedand
implemented,asappropriate,toensurepostclosuremonitoringandmaintenanceofthese
facilities.Thisplanshouldincludethefollowingelements:
Identificationofrolesandresponsibilitiesofpersonstobeinvolvedinmonitoringand
maintenance.
Identificationofaspectstobemonitoredandthefrequency.
Identificationofroutinemaintenanceactivitiestobeconductedandthefrequency.
Descriptionofcontingencyplanstoaddressanyproblemsidentifiedduringroutine
maintenanceandmonitoring.
204
Tourism
CONTINGENCYPLANS
Contingencyplansarethoseputinplacetoaddresspredictedrisksshouldothermitigationmeasuresinthe
environmentalmanagementplanfailtobeadequate.Itassumesthatriskidentificationandriskreductionhavebeen
addressedinotherpartsoftheEIA.
Performancerelated Planstodescribethestepsthatwillbetakentorespondtoresultsthatindicate:
ContingencyPlans
EnvironmentalStandardsarenotbeingmet.
Impactsaregreaterthanpredicted.
Themitigationmeasuresand/orrehabilitationarenotperformingaspredicted.
ContingencyPlansshouldincludestepstoensure:
Personsresponsibleandaccountableforresponse,theirroles,contactinformation.
Stepstobetakentominimizeadverseenvironmentalandsocioeconomicculturalharm.
Timelyresponse.
Commitmentofstaffandresourcessuchasequipmentonhandoraccessibleasneededfor
response.
Appropriatenotificationofofficials.
Appropriatenotificationofthepublic.
ContingencyPlans
Forrisksidentifiedwithintheimpactassessment,includingrisksfrom:
forRisksfrom
Hurricanes
NaturalDisasters
Flooding
Mudslides
Seismicactivityearthquakes
Tsunamis
VolcanicActivity
Contingencyplansshouldinclude:
Personsresponsibleandaccountableforresponse,theirroles,contactinformationand
alternates.
Stepstobetakentominimizeadverseenvironmentalandsocioeconomicculturalharm.
Coordinationwithnationalandlocalresponseefforts.
Equipmentonhandandneededforresponse.
Relevanttrainingprograms.
Relevantnotificationrequirementsforgovernmentandthepublic.
OtherRisks
Thesemightincluderisksthatmaynotbeadequatelycoveredintheotherelementsofthe
EnvironmentalManagementPlan,suchas(butnotlimitedto):
Storageandmanagementofhazardousortoxicchemicals
Leachingintogroundwater
Damorimpoundmentbreaches
205
Tourism
H.ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT PLAN
206
Tourism
I.
GLOSSARYANDREFERENCES
I. GLOSSARYANDREFERENCES
1 GLOSSARY
Accommodationcapacity:Themeasureofaccommodationstockatadefineddestination.Maybe
givenbyvariousdifferentmeasures:e.g.numberofestablishments;numberofmainunitswithinan
establishment(e.g.rooms,caravanstances);capacityintermsofresidents(e.g.bedspaces).
Action:Activitytomeetaspecificpurposeandneed,whichmayhaveeffectsontheenvironmentand
maypotentiallybesubjecttogovernmentalcontrolorresponsibility.Forthisdocument,theterm
actionappliestoaspecificproject.
Adaptivemanagement:Asystematicprocessforcontinuallyimprovingmanagementpoliciesand
practicesbylearningfromtheoutcomesofoperationalprogramsandincorporatingnewinformation.
Adventuretourism:Aformoftourisminnaturalareasthatincorporatesanelementofrisk,higher
levelsofphysicalexertion,andtheneedforspecialisedskills.
Aestheticquality:Aperceptionofbeautyofnaturalorculturallandscape.
Affectedenvironment:Theexistingconditionsofthehumanandnaturalenvironmentsintheareasthat
couldpotentiallyhaveimpacts.
Aestheticquality:Aperceptionofbeautyofnaturalorculturallandscape.
Alternatives:InanEIAthistermreferstooptionsfortheproject.
Alternativeenergy:Renewableenergysourcessuchaswind,water,solar,biomassasanalternativeto
nonrenewableresourcessuchasoil,gas,andcoal.
Alternativetourism:Inessence,tourismactivitiesordevelopmentthatareviewedasnontraditional.It
isoftendefinedinoppositiontolargescalemasstourismtorepresentsmallscalesustainabletourism
developments.ATisalsopresentedasan'idealtype',thatis,animprovedmodeloftourism
developmentthatredressestheillsoftraditional,masstourism
Ambient:Theenvironmentsurroundingabodybutundisturbedorunaffectedbyit.Forexample,
ambientairistheairsurroundingthesite.
Aquatic:Growingorlivinginornearthewater.
Aquaculture:Cultivationoffish,mollusksandotheraquaticorganismsinfreshorsaltwaterforhuman
use.
Aquifer:Awaterbearingrockunitthatyieldswaterinausablequalitytoawellorspring.
207
Tourism
I.
Archeologicalsite:Adiscretelocationthatprovidesphysicalevidenceofpasthumanuse.
Assets:Anythingthatabusinessownsthatwillbenefitfutureoperations.Assetscanbetangibleitems
(e.g.,buildings,canoes,equipment)orintangiblethings(e.g.,intellectualpropertyintheformofa
patent).
Beachrenourishment:Atechniqueusedtorestoreanerodingorlostbeach,involvingplacing
appropriatelysourcedsandontheshorelinetowidenthebeach,forthepurposeofprotectingadjoining
naturalandmanmadeassets.
Benchmark:Afixedpointofreference.
Bestmanagementpractices:Asuiteoftechniquesthatguideormaybeappliedtomanagement
actions.
Bioaccumulation:Referstotheaccumulationofsubstances,suchaspesticides,orotherorganic
chemicalsinanorganism.Bioaccumulationoccurswhenanorganismabsorbsatoxicsubstanceatarate
greaterthanthatatwhichthesubstanceislost.
Bioavailability:Bioavailabilityreferstothedifferencebetweentheamountofasubstanceorchemical,
towhichaplantoranimalisexposedandtheactualdoseofthesubstancetheentityreceives.
Biodiversity:Referstothevariationoflifeformswithinagivenecosystem.Biodiversityisoftenusedas
ameasureofthehealthofthebiologicalsystem.
Biofouling:Theundesirablesettlementandgrowthofmicroorganisms,plants,algae,andanimalson
submergedstructures,especiallyships'hulls.Biofoulingalsooccursonthesurfacesoflivingmarine
organisms
Biologicaldiversity(biodiversity):Thevarietyoflifeformsandgenestheycontain,andtheecosystems
theyform.Biodiversityisusuallyconsideredatfourlevels;geneticdiversity,speciesdiversity,
communitydiversity,andecosystemdiversity.
Cadaster:Apublicregistershowingthedetailsofownershipandvalueofland;alsospelled"cadastre"
Cadastralsurvey:Asurveywhichcreates,marks,defines,retracesorreestablishestheboundariesand
subdivisionsofthepubliclandoftheUnitedStates.Itisderivedfromthewordcadastre,meaninga
publicrecord,survey,ormapofthevalue,extent,andownershipoflandasabasisoftaxation
CAFTADRcountries:CostaRica,DominicanRepublic,ElSalvador,Guatemala,HondurasandNicaragua.
Capacitymanagement:Aprocessthatseekstoensurethattheirorganisationsoperateatoptimum
capacitywhilstmaintainingcustomersatisfactionlevels.
Catchment:Theareaoflandthatdrainstoawatercourseorestuary.
Carryingcapacity:Theamountofvisitoractivitythatasiteordestinationcansustain.
208
Tourism
I.
Carryingcapacityanalysis:Originallyatermappliedinecologyreferringtothemaximumnumberof
animalsofagivenspeciesthataparticularhabitatcouldsupport.Inthecontextoftourism,itrefersto
themaximumnumberoftouristsadestinationcansupport.
Climatechange:Changesinclimateattributedtothehumaninducedincreaseinconcentrationof
greenhousegasesintheatmosphere.Climatechangeinvolvesincreasesintemperature,sealevel,and
increasedfrequencyofsevereweathereventssuchasstorms.
CoastalActionPlan:Aplanthatidentifiesstrategicdirectionsandobjectivesforuseanddevelopmentin
aregionorpartofaregiontofacilitaterecreationaluseandtourism,andtoprovideforprotectionand
enhancementofsignificantfeaturescoast,includingthemarineenvironment.
Coastline:Generallywherethelandmeetsthesea.
CodeofEthics/Conduct/Practice:Recommendedpracticesbasedonasystemofselfregulation
intendedtopromoteenvironmentallyand/orsocioculturallysustainablebehaviour.
Collateral:Thesecuritygiventoabanktoensurethataloanisrepaid.Someexamplesofassetsthat
maybeusedascollateralwithlendersarebuildings,vehiclesorboats.Landisoftennotacceptableas
collateralforloansforecotourismorganizationsbecauseitmightbedifficulttoresell.
Community:Communityreferstoaheterogeneousgroupofpeoplewhoshareresidenceinthesame
geographicareaandaccessasetoflocalnaturalresources.Thedegreeofsocialcohesionand
differentiation,strengthofcommonbeliefsandinstitutions,culturaldiversityandotherfactorsvary
widelywithinandamongcommunities(Schmink,1999).*
CommunityStakeholderAnalysisorHumanContextAnalysis:Thisisastudythatidentifieskey
informationaboutcommunitiesnearanecotourismsitepertinenttoecotourismdevelopmentwithin
thecommunityandintheadjacentecotourismsite.Itisessentialforfullimplementationof
anEcotourismManagementPlan.
CompetitiveAdvantage:Thecharacteristicsofanorganizationthatallowittobemoresuccessfulin
sellinganddeliveringanecotourismexperiencethancompetingbusinesses.Examplesincludeexclusive
accesstoprotectedareas,theskillsofkeypersonnelorhavinganamethatismorewidelyrecognizedby
tourists.
CompetitionAnalysis:Ananalysisperformedduringbusinessormarketplanningtodeterminethe
organizations,servicesoractivitiesthatmaycompeteforcustomers.Theanalysisshouldidentifythe
strengthsandweaknessesofpotentialcompetitorsandhelpidentifypositioningstrategiesthatcan
differentiatethebusiness.
Concession:Anagreementbetweenprotectedareamanagersandaprivatesectorbusinessthat
authorizesthebusinesstoofferecotourismservicessuchasaccommodations,restaurantservicesorthe
saleofsouvenirswithinaprotectedareainexchangeforafeeorpercentageofsales.
Concessionaire:Theproviderofaconcessionservice.
209
Tourism
I.
Conservation:Canbebroadlyinterpretedasactiontakentoprotectandpreservethenaturalworld
fromharmfulfeaturesoftourism,includingpollutionandoverexploitationofresources.
ConservationAreaPlanning(CAP):AprocessdevelopedbyTheNatureConservancythatisusedto
identifyprimaryconservationtargetsforaparticularconservationsite,thendeterminethemajor
threats,sourcesofthreatsandstrategiesformitigatingthosethreats.PreviouslyknownasSite
ConservationPlanning(SCP).
Coral:Ageneraltermusedtodescribeagroupofcnidarians;indicatesthepresenceofskeletalmaterial
thatisembeddedinthelivingtissueorenclosestheanimalaltogether.
Coralassemblage:Agroupofcorals.
Coralbleachinghotspot:Aregionofseasurfacetemperature(SST)thatexceedstheclimatological
maximumforaregionby1degCormore.Theseconditionsmaycausesufficientstresstocoralreefsto
resultincoralbleaching.
Coralgrowthline:Aminutegrowthlineontheoutersurfacesofcoralsthathaveacalcifiedouterwall.
Thecarbonateisproducedbyzooxanthellaewhichcreateaseriesofdiurnalgrowthincrements.
Culturalresources:Remainsofhumanactivity,occupationorendeavorasreflectedindistricts,sites,
buildings,objects,artifacts,ruins,worksofart,architectureandnaturalfeaturesimportantinhuman
events.
Cumulativeimpact:Theimpactontheenvironmentthatresultsfromtheincrementalimpactofthe
actionwhenaddedtootherpast,presentandreasonablyforeseeableactions.
Dayvisitors:Visitorswhoarriveandleavethesameday,irrespectiveofwhytheyaretravelling.
Deforestation:Theclearanceofnaturallyoccurringforestsbytheprocessesofloggingand/orburningof
treesinaforestedarea.
Degradation:Anydeclineinthequalityofnaturalorculturalresources,ortheviabilityofecosystems,
thatiscauseddirectlyorindirectlybyhumans.
Destination:Theplacetowhichatravelerisgoing.Inthetravelindustry,anycity,area,orcountry
whichcanbemarketedasasingleentityfortourists.
Directimpact(oreffect):Thisimpactiscausedbyanactionthatoccursatthesametimeandsame
placeastheactivity.
Discharge:Outflowofsurfacewaterinastreamorcanal.Dischargemaycomefromanindustrialfacility
andmaycontainpollutants.
Diversification:Theprocessofdevelopingnewproductsfornewmarkets,inordertoachievebusiness
growth.
Diversity:variety:Multiplicity;range;assortment.
210
Tourism
I.
Domestictourism:Travelwithinthecountryofresidence.
Drainage:Artificialornaturalremovalofsurfacewaterorgroundwaterfromacertainarea.
Drawdown:Thedecreaseintheelevationofthewatersurfaceinawell,orlocalwatertableorthe
pressureheadofanartesianwellduetotheremovalofgroundwaterordecreaseintheaquifers
recharge.
Ebbcurrent(ebb):Themovementofatidalcurrentawayfromshoreordownatidalriverorestuary.
Ebbstrength:Phaseoftheebbtidalcurrentatthetimeofmaximumspeed;also,thespeedatthistime.
Ebbtide:Periodoftidebetweenahighwaterandthesucceedinglowwater;fallingtide.
Ecology:Therelationshipbetweentheenvironmentandlivingorganisms.
Ephemeralstream:Astreamthatflowsonlyindirectresponsetoprecipitation.
Ecoregion:Anareathatisdefinedbyitsecologyandcoversrelativelylargeareasoflandorwater,and
containscharacteristic,geographicallydistinctassemblagesofcommunitiesandspecies.
Ecosystem:Acomplexsystemofacommunityofplants,animalsandthesystemschemicalandphysical
environment.
EosystemBasedManagement(EBM):EBMintegratesknowledgeofecologicalinterrelationshipsto
manageimpactswithinanecosystem.EffectiveimplementationofEBMshould:(1)considerecological
processesthatoperatebothinsideandoutsideecosystemboundaries,(2)recognizetheimportanceof
speciesandhabitatdiversity,and(3)accommodatehumanusesandassociatedbenefitswithinthe
contextofconservationrequirements.
Ecotourism:DefinedbyTheInternationalEcotourismSocietyasresponsibletraveltonaturalareasthat
conservestheenvironmentandsustainsthewellbeingoflocalpeople.
EcotourismAdvisoryCommittee:Agroupofprivateandpublicstakeholderswhohaveaninterest,
economicorotherwise,intheefficientandeffectivefunctioningoftheecotourismprogramatthe
ecotourismsite.TheywillprovideadviceandsupporttotheHeadoftheEcotourismProgram.
EcotourismManagementPlan(EMP):Aspecificplandirectedatguidingthedevelopmentofecotourism
inaspecificsite/protectedarea.ItshouldfollowfromlargerscaleplanssuchasaGeneralManagement
PlanorSiteConservationPlan.
EcotourismSite:Alocation,largeorsmall,whereecotourismactivityoractivitiesoccur.Inthis
document,maybeusedinterchangeablywithprotectedareaorsite.However,siteusuallyrefersto
alocationwheretheactivityisfocusedandissmallinextent.
Effect(orimpact):Amodificationoftheexistingenvironmentcausedbyanactionoftheproject.The
effect,orimpact,maybedirect,indirectorcumulative.
211
Tourism
I.
Effluent:Aliquid,partiallyorcompletelytreatedorinitsnaturalstate,flowingfromawaterorsewage
treatmentplant.
Emission:Matterdischargedintotheatmosphereandusedasameasureofairquality.
Endangeredspecies:Aplantoranimalthatisindangerofextinctionthroughoutallorasignificant
portionofitsrange.
Environment:Thediversecommunityactivitiesandculturesofacountry'sinhabitants,aswellasits
scarceandsensitivenaturalresources.
Environmentalauditing:Inspectionofatourismorganisationtoassesstheenvironmentalimpactofits
activities.
Environmentaleducation:Formalandinformallearningprocessesthataredesignedtoraiseawareness
andteachnewvalues,knowledgeandskills,inordertoencouragemoresustainablebehaviour.
EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA):Adocumentpreparedtoanalyzetheimpactsofaproposed
actionandreleasedtothepublicforreviewandcomment.
Environmentalimpact:Theeffectsthatacommunityhasontheenvironmentasaconsequenceofits
activities.
EnvironmentalJustice:Fairtreatmentandmeaningfulinvolvementofallpeopleregardlessofrace,
color,nationalorigin,orincomewithrespecttotheenforcementofenvironmentallawsandpolicies.
Fairtreatmentmeansthatnogroupshouldbearadisproportionateshareofnegativeenvironmental
consequences.
Environmentalmanagementsystems:Systemsestablishedbytourismorganisationswiththeaimof
mitigatingnegativeenvironmentalimpacts.
Environmentalscanning:Theprocessofcollectinginformationtocarryoutasystematicanalysisofthe
forceseffectingtheorganisationandidentifyingpotentialthreatsandopportunitieswithviewto
generatingfuturestrategies.
Erosion:Wearingawayoflandbywater,wind,iceorothergeologicagents.
Escort:(1)aperson,usuallyemployedorsubcontractedbythetouroperatorwhoaccompaniesatour
fromdeparturetoreturn,actingasatroubleshooter.Thistermisoftenincorrectlyinterchangedwith
courier,conductor,host,manager,director,orleader,sinceeachtermdesignatesdifferentduties
althoughtheydoperformtheescortfunction.
Esturary:Thezonewherearivermeetsthesea,influencedbyriverflowsandtidesandcharacterizedby
agradientfromfreshtosaltwater.
Exoticplants:Plantswhosegeneticstockcomesfrombeyondtheareainwhichtheyarefound.
212
Tourism
I.
Financing:Moneyraisedbyanecotourismbusinesstostartorexpandthebusinessinawayotherthan
throughsales.Financingcanbeobtainedthroughtraditionalmeans,suchasseekinginvestmentsor
bankloans,orbypursuingspecialopportunitiesthatmayexistforecotourism,suchasgrantsfrom
donororganizations.
FishBase:Arepositoryofavailableinformationonthetaxonomy,biology,ecology,occurrenceand
utilizationoffishes.Itholdspublishedinformationonalmostalloftheestimated25,000existingfish
species.Theinformationisarrangedin55subjecttables.ItcanbeaccessedthroughtheInternet
(http://www.fishbase.org)orinstalledonaPCfromaCDROM.AttheheartofFishBaseisthe
authoritativetaxonomicfishclassificationestablishedbyW.N.Eschmeyer(CaliforniaAcademyof
Science).Itensuresthatallinformationisassignedtocurrentscientificnames,evenifapublicationuses
anoutdatedname.
Floodplain:Thepartofastreamorrivervalleyadjacenttothechannelthatisbuiltofsedimentsand
becomesinundatedwhenthestreamorrivertopsitsbanks.
Foreshore:Thecoastalfringe;generallythelandbetweenthecoastalroadandthelowwatermark.
Franchise:therighttomarketaproductorservice,oftenexclusivelyforaspecifiedareabya
manufacturer,developer,ordistributorinreturnforafee.
FrequentIndependentTraveler:FIT:customdesigned,prepaidtourwithmanyindividualized
arrangements.Alsousedasforeignindependenttraveler.
FullSiteDiagnostic:Aphaseoftheplanningprocessduringwhichplannersgathertheinformation
neededtomakegooddecisionsregarding,inthiscase,ecotourismdevelopmentintheprotected
area/ecotourismsite.
Gale:Astormwithwindspeedsbetween34to40knots.
Gamefish:Aspeciesoffishconsideredtopossesssportingqualitiesonfishingtackle.
GapAnalysis:AGeographicInformationSystem(GIS)methodologytoidentifythedistributionof
biodiversityoverlargespatialareas.Itwasdevelopedin1988bytheU.S.GeologicalSurveyinaneffort
toensurethatregionsrichinspeciesdiversityareconservedwiththehopethatthiswilleliminatethe
needtolistspeciesasthreatenedorendangeredinthefuture.Thegapanalysisapproachusesmapsof
vegetationandpredictedanimaldistributionstolocatecentersofspeciesrichnessoutsideareas
currentlymanagedforbiodiversityprotection.Theseareconsideredthe"gaps"ofgapanalysis.Thus
far,itsuseprimarilyhasbeenintheterrestrialsphere.
GeneralManagementPlan(GMP):Aplanningdocumentthatevaluatesalltheinformationavailablefor
agivenprotectedareaorecotourismsiteanddefinesoverallmanagementobjectives,goalsand
strategies.Ifecotourismisidentifiedasastrategyforappropriatemanagement,thenanEcotourism
ManagementPlanisrecommended.
Geographicinformationsystem:Asystemofcomputersoftware,hardware,dataandapplicationsthat
capture,store,editandanalyzeandhasthecapabilitytographicallydisplayawidearrayofgeospatial
information.
213
Tourism
I.
Geomorphology:Scienceoftheevolutionoflandformsandgeologicalformationsandtheprocesses
thatshapethem.
Geologicformation:Adistinctrockunitthatisdistinguishedfromadjacentrockbyacommon
characteristicsuchasitscomposition,origin,orfossilsassociatedwiththeunit.
Grasslandcommunity:Anareawherethevegetationisdominatedbygrassesandothernonwoody
plants.Intemperatelatitudes,grasslandsaredominatedbyperennialspecies,whereasinwarmer
climatesannualspeciesformagreatercomponentofthevegetation.
GreenGlobe/GreenGlobe21:GREENGLOBE21istheworldwidebenchmarkingandcertification
programmewhichfacilitatessustainabletravelandtourismforconsumers,companiesand
communities.ItisbasedonAgenda21andprinciplesforSustainableDevelopmentendorsedby182
governmentsattheUnitedNationsRiodeJaneiroEarthSummitin1992.www.greenglobe21.com.
Greenhousegas:Acomponentoftheatmospherethatcontributestothewarmingoftheplanet.
Greenhousesgasesmayincludewatervapor,carbondioxide,ozone,methane,nitrousoxide,sulfur
hexafluorideandchlorofluorocarbons.
Groundwater:Undergroundwaterthatisgenerallyfoundintheporespaceofrocksorsedimentsand
thatcanbecollectedwithwells,tunnels,ordrainagegalleries,orthatflowsnaturallytotheearth's
surfaceviaseepsorsprings.Thetermisnotappliedtowaterthatispercolatingorheldinthetoplayers
ofthesoil,buttothatwaterinthezoneofsaturationbelowthewatertable.
Grubbing:Removingallplantsincludingtheroots,stemsandtrunksinordertocleartheland.
Habitat:Asetofphysicalconditionsinageographicalareathatsurroundsaspeciesorgroupofspecies
oralargecommunity.Withrespecttowildlifemanagement,majorcomponentsofhabitatarefood,
water,coverandlivingspace.
HabitatAffinityIndex:Aindexthatdefineshabitataffinitybasedontherelativeconcentrationofa
speciesinaparticularhabitat,comparedwiththeavailabilityofthathabitatinagivenstudyarea.
Halophyte:Aplantthatgrowsinsoilsthathaveahighcontentofvarioussalts.
Hazardouswaste:Adiscardedmaterialwhichcontainssubstancesknowntobetoxic,mutagenic,
carcinogenic,orteratogenictohumansorotherlife;ignitable,corrosive,explosive,orhighlyreactive
aloneorwithothermaterials.
Heritage:Thingsofvaluethatareinheritedwhichpeoplewanttokeep.Heritagecanbenatural,
cultural,tangible,intangible,personalorcollective.Naturalheritageisoftenconservedinplacessuchas
reservesandnationalparks.Culturalheritagepracticesareoftenconservedthroughongoingtraditions
andpractices.
HistoricPlace:Site,buildingorgroupofbuildingswithaesthetic,historic,scientificorsocialvaluefor
presentorfuturegenerations.
214
Tourism
I.
Hurricane:Anintensetropicalcycloneinwhichwindstendtospiralinwardtowardacoreoflow
pressure,withmaximumsurfacewindvelocitiesthatequalorexceed33.5m/sec(75mphor65knots)
forseveralminutesorlongeratsomepoint.
Hurricanesurge:Ariseintheseasurfaceonanopencoast,oftenresultingfromahurricane.
Hydrograph:Insurfacewaterhydrologyahydrographisatimerecordoftheamountofdischargeofa
stream,riverorwatershedoutlet.Rainfallistypicallythemaininputtoawatershedandthestream
flowisoftenconsideredtheoutputofthewatershed;ahydrographisarepresentationofhowa
watershedrespondstorainfallovertime.
Hydrology:Thescienceofwater,standingorflowingonorbeneaththesurfaceoftheearth.
Hydrologicalcycle:Themovementofwaterinallofitsphases(gas,liquid,solid)fromtheEarthtothe
atmosphereandbacktotheEarth.
Imperviouscover:Appliedtoabedorstratumorartificialmaterialthroughwhichwaterwillnotmove
underordinaryhydrostaticpressure.Inhydrologyitisappliedtoarockthatdoesnotadmitthe
passage.
Impoundment:Anaturallyformedorartificiallycreatedbasinthatisclosedordammedtoretainwater,
sedimentorwaste.
Indirectimpact(oreffect):Animpactcausedbytheinitialactionlatertimeorfatherremovedin
distance,butstillreasonablyforeseeable.
Infrastructure:Physicalstructureswhichfacilitateuseofthecoast,suchasroads,paths,piers,toilet
blocks.
Impacts:Effects,whichmaybeeitherpositiveornegative,feltasaresultoftourismassociatedactivity.
Touristshaveatleastthreekindsofimpactsonadestination:economic,socioculturaland
environmental.Tourismalsohaseffectsontourists,intermsofpossibleattitudeandbehaviour
changes.
InboundTourOperator:Atourismoperatorwhoorganizestheservicesprovidedtoavisitorwithinthe
countrybeingvisited.
Indigenouspeople:Indigenouspeoplesarethosewhoaredescendantsoftheoriginalinhabitantsofan
areaorregion.
Indigenousspecies:Aspeciesthatoccursataplacewithinitshistoricallyknownnaturalrange,and
formspartofthenaturalbiologicaldiversityofaplace.
IndustryAnalysis:Performedduringtheearlystagesofafeasibilitystudyorbusinessplantodetermine
theconditionsandsalespotentialoftourismintheregion.Theanalysiswilloftenincludeareviewof
macroelements,suchasaregionseconomicorpoliticalsituation,andmicroelements,suchas
programsbeingofferedbylocaltourismorganizations.
215
Tourism
I.
Integratedcoastalzonemanagement:Aframeworkthatattemptstointegrateplanningand
managementinaregion,suchastheStateofVictoria,acrossthelandandseainterfaceandtheprivate
andpubliclandinterface,totreatthecoastalzone(whichincludesthecatchment)asonebiophysical
entity.
Interpretation:Revealingthesignificanceandmeaningsofnaturalandculturalphenomenatovisitors,
usuallywiththeintentofprovidingasatisfyinglearningexperienceandencouragingmoresustainable
behavior.
Intertidalzone:Areabetweenlowandhightidewhichissubjecttodailychangesinphysicaland
biologicalconditionsfromtidemovement(alsoknownaslittoralzone).
Introducedspecies:Atranslocatedoralienspeciesfoundataplaceoutsideitshistoricallyknown
naturalrange,asaresultoftheintentionaloraccidentaldispersalbyhumanactivities.Includes
geneticallymodifiedorganisms.
Invasivespecies:Ananimalpest,weedordiseasethatcanadverselyaffectindigenousspeciesand
ecosystems.
Jetty:Astructureextendingintotheoceantoinfluencethecurrentortideinordertoprotectharbors,
shores,andbanks.
Keystonespecies:Speciesthatplaysacriticalroleinmaintainingthestructureofan
ecologicalcommunityandwhoseimpactonthecommunityisgreaterthanwouldbeexpectedbasedon
itsrelativeabundanceortotalbiomass.
Knot:Theunitofspeedusedinnavigationthatisequalto1nauticalmile(6,076.115ftor1,852m)per
hour.
LandsatProgram:TheLandsatProgram(NASA)providestheworld'sscientistsandapplicationengineers
withacontinuingstreamofremotesensingdataformonitoringandmanagingtheEarth'sresources.
Landsat7hasproducedanuninterruptedmultispectralrecordoftheEarth'slandsurfacesince1972.
AlongwithdataacquisitionandtheUSGSarchivalanddistributionsystems,theprogramincludesthe
dataprocessingtechniquesrequiredtorendertheLandsat7dataintoascientificallyusefulform.
Specialemphasishasbeenplacedonperiodicallyrefreshingtheglobaldataarchive,maintainingan
accurateinstrumentcalibration,providingdataatreasonableprices,andcreatingapublicdomainlevel
oneprocessingsystemthatcreateshighlevelproductsofsuperiorquality.
Liability:Thefinancialobligationsofabusinesswhichmustbepaidoverasetperiodoftime.Examples
includedebt,suchasbankloans,creditfromsuppliersandtaxesowed.
LimitsofAcceptableChange(LAC):Amethodologyformeasuringspecificvisitorimpactsbyestablishing
indicatorsandstandardsapplicabletospecificsituations.Astandardindicatesaspecificlevelbeyond
whichstakeholdershavedeterminedthatanimpactisunacceptableandmanagementactionmustbe
taken.
Longtermimpacts:Effectsthatsubstantiallyremainbeyondshorttermgrounddisturbingactivities.
216
Tourism
I.
Mangrove:Ageneralnameforseveralspeciesofhalophytebelongingtodifferentfamiliesofplants
(includingtrees,shrubs,apalmtreeandagroundfern)occurringinintertidalzonesoftropicaland
subtropicalshelteredcoastlinesandexceedingonehalfmeterinheight.Thetermisappliedtoboththe
individualandtheecosystem,thelatterofwhichistermedmangal.Mangrovesprovideprotected
nurseryareasforjuvenilereeffishes,crustaceans,andmollusks.Theyalsoprovideafeedinggroundfor
amultitudeofmarinespecies.Manyorganismsfindsheltereitherintherootsorbranchesof
mangroves.Mangrovebranchesarenestingareasforseveralspeciesofcoastalbirds.Therootsystems
harbororganismsthattrapandcyclenutrients,organicmaterialsandotherimportantchemicals.
Mangrovesalsocontributetohigherwaterqualitybystabilizingbottomsediments,filteringwaterand
protectingshorelinesfromerosion.Theyprotectreefsfromlandrunoffsedimentation.Conversely,
coralreefsprotectmangrovesandseagrassesfromerosionduringheavystormsandstrongwaveaction.
ThenationswiththelargestmangroveareasincludeIndonesia(with21%ofglobalmangroves),Brazil
(9%),Australia(7%),Mexico(5%),andNigeria(5%).Theglobalareaofmangroves150000square
kilometersisequivalenttotheareaofthestateofIllinois,orhalftheareaofthePhilippines.About
onefifthofallmangrovesarethoughttohavebeenlostsince1980,andalthoughlossratesare
declining,theyarestill3to4timeshigherthanaverageglobalforestlossestimates.
Marinedebris:Debriscomposedprimarilyofplastics,nets,lines,otherfishinggear,glass,rubber,metal,
woodandcloth.Sourcesofdebrisarepeopleonbeaches,stormdrains,fishingboats,wastetreatment
sites,andindustrialfacilities.Thesematerialshavedamagingeffectsoncoralreefs.
MarineTourism:Thoserecreationalactivitiesthatinvolvetravelawayfromonesplaceofresidenceand
whichhaveastheirhostorfocusthemarineenvironment(wherethemarineenvironmentisdefinedas
thosewaterswhicharesalineandtideaffected).
Mitigation:Thereductionorabatementofanimpacttotheenvironmentby(a)avoidingactionsorparts
ofactions,(b)usingconstructionmethodstolimitthedegreeofimpacts,(c)restoringanareatoits
predisturbancecondition,(d)preservingormaintaininganareathroughoutthelifeofaproject,(e)
replacingorprovidingsubstituteresources,(f)gatheringdataonanarcheologicalorpaleontologicalsite
priortodisturbance.
Mud:Afinesedimentoftenassociatedwithriverdischargeandbuildupoforganicmaterialinareas
shelteredfromhighenergywavesandcurrents.
Mudflat:Arelativelylevelareaoffinesiltalongashore(asinashelteredestuary)oraroundanisland,
alternatelycoveredanduncoveredbythetide,orcoveredbyshallowwater.
NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA):TheNationalOceanicandAtmospheric
Administration(NOAA)isafederalagencywithintheUSDepartmentofCommercethatisdedicatedto
predictingandprotectingtheenvironment.NOAA'soverallmissionistounderstandandpredict
changesintheEarth+senvironment,protectlifeandproperty,providedecisionmakerswithreliable
scientificinformation,conserveandmanagetheNation+slivingmarineandcoastalresourcestomeet
ourNation+seconomic,social,andenvironmentalneeds,andfosterglobalenvironmentalstewardship.
Toachieveitsmission,NOAA+sfocusthrough2008willbeonfourmissiongoals:
1. Protect,restore,andmanagetheuseofcoastalandoceanresourcesthroughecosystembased
management
2. Understandclimatevariabilityandchangetoenhancesociety+sabilitytoplanandrespond
3. Servesociety+sneedsforweatherandwaterinformation
217
Tourism
I.
4. SupporttheNation+scommercewithinformationforsafe,efficient,andenvironmentallysound
transportation.
Naturalarea:Areasthatexistinorareformedbynaturewhicharenotartificial,andcanincludecultural
aspects.
Naturalattraction:atouristattractionthathasnotbeenmadeorcreatedbypeople.
Naturaldisaster:adestructiveforce(e.g.earthquake,flood,volcaniceruption).
NatureTourism:Tourismdirectedprimarilyatnaturalfeaturesbutthatdoesnotnecessarilyembrace
theconceptsofecotourism:lowimpact,economicbenefitsforconservationandlocalpeople,and
education.
Negligence:Failingtoexercisewhatislegallyconsideredtobereasonablecare.
NPDES:NationalPollutionDischargeEliminationSystem.AsauthorizedbytheCleanWaterAct,the
NPDESpermitprogramcontrolswaterpollutionbyregulatingthedischargeofpollutantsintowatersof
theUnitedStates.
Oilplume:Underwaterglobulesofoilthatdonotfloattothesurfaceoftheocean.Heavyuseof
chemicaldispersants,whichbreaksupsurfaceoil,issaidtocontributetotheformationoftheseplumes,
whichmayposeathreattothemarineecosystem.
Oilslick:Alayerofoilfloatingonthesurfaceofwater.
Oilspill:Theaccidentalreleaseofoilintotheenvironment.
Onsitemanagement:Managementofvisitorimpactsandbehaviouronsitethroughtheuseofsigns,
formedtracksorboardwalks,barriersandthephysicalpresenceofmanagementstaff.
OutboundTourOperator:Atourismoperatorwhoorganizestoursandtransportationforvisitorswho
aregoingtoanothercountry,andwhousuallypartnerswithaninboundoperatorinthedestination
country.
Owners:Thepeopleororganizationsthatholdalegalinterestinabusiness.Inasoleproprietorship,
theowneristheproprietor.Inacorporationorcooperative,theownersarethosepeoplewhohave
purchasedshares.
pH:Denoteslogarithmicallytheconcentrationofhydrogenionsinsolution.
PM10:Particulatematterwithanaerodynamicdiametersmallerthan10micrometers.Thedesignation
isusefulbecausethesizemayoutstripthebody'sabilitytokeepthemoutofcells.
PreliminarySiteEvaluation(PSE):Aprocessconsistingofafewbasicquestionsbywhichplannerscan
determinewhetheraparticularsiteisappropriateforecotourismdevelopment.
218
Tourism
I.
Promotion:Anactivitythatraisesawarenessormakesanecotourismservicemoreattractiveto
potentialcustomers.Commonpromotionalactivitiesinclude:newspaperadvertising,listingsintravel
directories,anInternetwebsite,andtradeshows.Promotionsalsoincludeofferingdiscountsor
packaginganecotourismserviceasasingleproductwithairfareortransportationexpenses.
ProtectedArea:Alarge,legallyprotectedexpanseofterritory,usuallyadministeredbyagovernment
entitywithspecificconservationobjectives,butwhosedaytodaymanagementmaybedelegatedto
theprivatesectororacoalitionofgovernmentandprivateinterests.
Phytoplankton:Anaquaticmicroorganismthatservesasthebaseoftheaquaticfoodwebprovidingan
essentialecologicalfunctionforallaquaticlife.Whenpresentinhighenoughnumbers,theymay
appearasagreendiscolorationofthewaterduetothepresenceofchlorophyllwithintheircells.
Quality:Thedegreetowhichasetofinherentcharacteristicsofaproductfulfilscustomerrequirements
(ISO,2000a).
Quarry:Anopenorsurfaceworkingusuallyfortheextractionofbuildingmaterialssuchasslateand
limestoneorsandandgravel.
Recharge:Replenishmentofanaquiferbytheadditionofwaterthroughnaturalorartificialmeans.
Regulation:Controlthroughformalizedprocesses.
Renewableenergy:Energysourcesthosearepracticallyinexhaustible.Forexamplesolar,hydroand
windenergy.
Resort:Ahotel,motelorcondominiumcomplexlocatedinanareaassociatedwithrecreationand
leisure,suchasthemountainsortheseashore.Normallyofferfacilitiesforsportsandrecreational
activities.
Responsibilityclause:Thatsectionofabrochurethatspellsouttheconditionsunderwhichatouris
sold.Theclauseshouldnamethepartyresponsibleforthetourfinancially.
Responsibletourism:Typeoftourismwhichispracticedbytouristswhomakeresponsiblechoiceswhen
choosingtheirholidays.Thesechoicesreflectresponsibleattitudestothelimitingoftheextentofthe
sociologicalandenvironmentalimpactstheirholidaymaycause.
Restoration:Afterminingceases,bringingthedisturbedlandbacktoitsoriginaluseorconditionorto
alternativeuses.Restorationactivitiesincluderemovingstructures;gradingandrestabilizingslopes,
roads,andotherdisturbedareas;coveringdisturbedareaswithgrowthmediumorsoil;and
revegetatingdisturbedareas.
Revegetation:Establishmentofaselfsustainingplantcover.
Rill:Averysmallchannelthatchangeslocationwitheachflowevent.
Riparian:Usuallyusedtorefertoplantsofalltypesthatgrowaroundorinbodiesofwater.
219
Tourism
I.
Runon:Ahydrologictermthatrefersbothtotheprocesswherebysurfacerunoffinfiltratestheground
asitflows,andtotheportionofrunoffthatinfiltrates.Runoniscommoninaridandsemiaridareas
withpatchyvegetationcoverandshortbutintensethunderstorms.
Runoff:Theportionoftherainfallthatisnotabsorbedandthatmayfinditswaytobodiesofwateras
surfaceflow.
Saltwaterintrusion:Themovementofsaltfromtheseaintoafreshwateraquiferoftenduetoover
pumpinganaquifer.
Sediment:Insolublematerialsuspendedinwaterthatcontainsmainlyparticlesderivedfromrock,soil
andorganicmaterial.
Sewage:Householdandcommercialwastewatercontaininghumanortradewaste.
Sewerage:Thesystemwhichfacilitatesthecollection,transport,treatmentanddischargeofsewage.
SitePlan:Averydetaileddrawingthatlocatesallsignificantnaturalandculturalfeaturesofasitewhere
intensiveecotourismactivitywilltakeplaceandthendetermineswhereinfrastructurewillbelocated.
Specialinteresttour:atourdesignedtoappealtoclientswithacuriosityorconcernaboutaspecific
subject.Mostspecialinteresttoursprovideanexperttourleaderandusuallyvisitplacesand/orevents
onlyrelevanttothatinterest.
Stakeholders:Socialactorswhohaveadirectorindirectinvolvementinanactivitythataffectsthe
biodiversitysystemsofasite.Thisinvolvementmayarisefromgeographicalproximity,historical
association,economicactivity,institutionalmandate,socialinterest,culturaltraditionsoravarietyof
otherreasons.
StakeholderAnalysis:TheTNCstakeholderanalysisprioritizesstakeholderslinkedtocriticalthreatsand
profilesanumberofkeycharacteristicsabouttheactivitiesinwhichstakeholdersareengaged.
StormWater:Rainwaterthatrunsoffstreetsandgutters,entersdrainsandwaterwaysandiseventually
dischargedtotheseaorotherwaterbody.
SustainableDevelopment:DefinedbytheUnitedNationsBrundtlandReportOurCommonFutureas
Developmentthatmeetstheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuture
generationstomeettheirownneeds.
Sustainabletourism:AccordingtotheWorldTourismOrganization,thisis"envisagedasleadingto
managementofallresourcesinsuchawaythateconomic,socialandaestheticneedscanbefulfilled
withmaintainingculturalintegrity,essentialecologicalprocesses,biologicaldiversity,andlifesupport
systems."
Terrestrialecosystem:Asystemofinterdependentorganismswhichliveonlandandsharethesame
habitat,functioningtogetherwithallofthephysicalfactorsoftheenvironment.
220
Tourism
I.
Threshold:Avaluethatisusedasabenchmarkfordata.Thresholdsmaybesetbylaws,regulationsor
policiesforwaterquality,airquality,noise,etc.
Topsoil:Ageneraltermappliedtothesurfaceportionofthesoil.Itisnotdefinedpreciselytodepthand
productivityexceptinreferencetoaparticularsoiltype.
Totaldissolvedsolids:Ameasurementthatdescribesthequantityofdissolvedmaterialinasample
ofwater.
Totalsuspendedsolids:Awaterqualitymeasurement.Itismeasuredbypouringadeterminedvolume
ofwaterthroughafilterandweighingthefilterbeforeandaftertodeterminetheamountofsolids.
Tour:Anyprearrangedjourneytooneormoredestinations.
Tourism:Theallembracingtermforthemovementofpeopletodestinationsawayfromtheirplaceof
residenceforanyreasonotherthanfollowinganoccupation,remuneratedfromwithinthecountry
visited,foraperiodof24hoursormore.
TourismIndustry:TourismIndustryisanindustrythatwouldceasetoexistorwouldcontinuetoexist
onlyatsignificantlyreducedlevelsofactivityintheabsenceoftourism.
Tourisminfrastructure:Roads,railwaylines,harbours,airportrunways,water,electricity,otherpower
supplies,seweragedisposalsystemsandotherutilitiestoservenotonlythelocalresidentsbutalsothe
touristinflux(suitableaccommodation,restaurantsandpassengertransportterminalsformthe
superstructureoftheregion).
Tourmanual:(1)Asummaryoffactsaboutacompanysrules,regulations,andofficialprocedures;(2)a
compendiumoffactsaboutadestination,includingitsattractions,accommodations,geography,and
specialevents,usedbydestinationmarketingorganizationstoattracttouroperatorsandvisitorsand
theirarea.
Urbangrowthboundary:Amanagementtoolusedtocontainurbanareasandlimittheirexpansion.It
divideslandthatisurbantobeusedforhousing,shops,factoriesfromlandthatisnonurbanandto
beusedforpurposessuchasconservation,agriculture,mineralextraction,airportsandthelike.An
urbangrowthboundaryencouragesurbanconsolidationandprotectsvaluednonurbanareasfrom
urbandevelopment.
ValueChain:Thechainoforganizationsthatconnectecotourismcustomersinthetargetmarket(such
asintheUnitedStates)withtheecotourismexperienceinthedestinationcountry.Forexample,the
chaincouldincludetheU.S.travelagent,U.S.outboundtouroperator,theinboundtouroperatorand
localecolodgeserviceprovider,whicheachprovidevalueandchargeafeetothecustomer.
VisitorSite:Arelativelysmalllocationwhereintensiveuseandmanagementoccurswithinalarger
ecotourism/conservationcontext.
Wake:Wavesgeneratedinthewaterbyamovingvessel.
Wall:Thereefslope,whichmaysuddenlydropoffintodeeperwater,forminganearlyverticalwall.
221
Tourism
I.
Washzone:Thedepthzoneinwhichsedimentsaredisturbedbywaveactionneartheshoreline.
Watershed:Thelandandwaterwithintheconfinesofadrainagedivide.
Wetlands:Vegetationthatisadaptedforlifeinsaturatedsoilconditions.Examplesofwetlandsare
marshes,swamps,lakeshores,bogs,wetmeadows,estuariesandriparianareas.
WorldHeritageArea:Landofculturaland/ornaturalsignificanceinscribedontheWorldHeritageList.
Worldheritagesite:asitedesignatedbyUNESCOasbeingofspecialhistorical,culturalornatural
importance.
YieldManagement:"Arevenuemaximizationtechniquewhichaimstoincreasenetyieldthroughthe
predictedallocationofavailablecapacitytopredeterminedmarketsegmentsatoptimalprice"
(Donaghyetal.,1997a).
Zoning:Zoningisamechanismforassigningoverallmanagementobjectivesandprioritiestodifferent
geographicareas(zones)withinaprotectedareaorotherecotourismsite.Byassigningobjectivesand
prioritiestothesezones,plannersarealsodefiningwhatuseswillorwillnotbeallowed.These
parametersareusuallybaseduponthecharacteristicsofthenaturalandculturalresourcebase,
protectedareaobjectives,andotherfactors.
222
Tourism
I.
2 REFERENCES
2.1 CitedReferences
Astorga,Allan(2006),Guaambientalcentroamericanaparaelsectordedesarrollodeinfraestructura
urbana,UICN/ORMA,SanJos,CostaRica.
Bauer,Irmgard,1999,TheImpactofTourisminDevelopingCountriesontheHealthoftheLocalHost
Communities:Theneedformoreresearch,TheJournalOfTourismStudiesVol.10,No.1,MAY99.
http://www.jcu.edu.au/business/public/groups/everyone/documents/journal_article/jcudev_01269
7.pdf
Barfield,B.J.Warner,R.C.,andHaan,C.T.,1981,AppliedHydrologyandSedimentologyforDisturbed
Areas,OklahomaTechnicalPress,Stillwater,Oklahoma.
Berglund,Birgitta,ThomasLindvall,andDietrichHSchwela.1999.GuidelinesforCommunityNoise.
WorldHealthOrganization,Washington.pg.65
http://www.who.int/docstore/peh/noise/guidelines2.html
BeyondPesticides,1996,EnvironmentalPrinciplesforGolfCoursesintheUnitedStates,March1996,
http://www.beyondpesticides.org/golf/principles/index.htm
CalifornianCruiseShipEnvironmentalTaskForce,2003,ReporttotheLegislatureRegulationofLarge
PassengerVesselsinCalifornia,
http://montereybay.noaa.gov/resourcepro/resmanissues/pdf/CA_cruise%20_ship_rept.pdf
CaliforniaStormWaterQualityAssociation(CSWQA),2003,MaterialOverWater,CaliforniaStormwater
BMPHandbook,NS14.http://www.ci.concord.ca.us/pdf/living/recycle/brochures/materialover
water.pdf
Clark,C.O.,1945,StorageandtheUnitHydrograph,ASCETrans.110,14191446.
Cole,DavidN(Compiler),2005,Computersimulationmodelingofrecreationuse:currentstatus,case
studies,andfuturedirections.Gen.Tech.Rep.RMRSGTR143.FortCollins,CO:U.S.Departmentof
Agriculture,ForestService,RockyMountainResearchStation.75p.
Cox,Christopher,2003,TheUseofComputerGraphicsandVirtualRealityforVisualImpact
Assessments,PhDThesis,UniversityofNottingham,351pp.
http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/38/1/Whole_Thesis.pdf
DataKustik,undated,ComputerAidedNoiseAbatement(CadnaA)model.
http://www.datakustik.com/en/products/cadnaa
FederalEmergencyManagementAgency,(FEMA),undated,HazusMH
http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/hazus/hz_overview.shtm#1
FederalEmergencyManagementAgency(FEMA),undated,StormSurge
http://www.r3coastal.com/home/stormsurgestudy/numericalmodelsetup
223
Tourism
I.
FEMATOUR,2009,FeasibilityandMarketStudyforaEuropeanEcoLabelforTouristAccomodations,
CREMProjectNo.:00.402www.pneumaproject.net/cm/retreiveATT?idAtt=3391.
HannaT.M.,AzragE.A.,AtkinsonL.C.,1994,Useofananalyticalsolutionforpreliminaryestimatesof
groundwaterinflowtoapit,MiningEngineering46(2),149152.
Hanson,C.,Finisdore,J.,Ranganathan,J.andIceland,C.,2008.TheCorporateEcosystemServices
Review:GuidelinesforIdentifyingBusinessRisksandOpportunitiesArisingfromEcosystemChange
(WorldResourcesInstitute,MeridianInstitute,WorldBusinessCouncilforSustainable
Development).
HealthyReefsforHealthyPeople,2010,ReportCardfortheMesoamericanReefAnEvaluationof
EcosystemHealth,http://www.healthyreefs.org/
Hopkins,R,2002,ANaturalWayofBuilding,TransitionCulture,http://greenbuilding.co.tv.
InternationalAssociationforImpactAssessment(IAIA),1999,PrinicpleofEnvironmentalImpact
AssessmentBestPractices,http://www.iaia.org/publicdocuments/special
ublications/Principles%20of%20IA_web.pdf
InternationalAssociationforPublicParticipation(IAP2),2006,PublicParticipationToolbox,
http://iap2.affiniscape.com/associations/4748/files/06Dec_Toolbox.pdf
InternationalNetworkforEnvironmentalComplianceandEnforcement(INECE),1995,TechnicalSupport
Document,InternationalTrainingWorkshop,PrincipalsofEnvironmentalEnforcement.
IUCN,2009,TourismGuidelineArchitecturalGraphicStandards,byCharlesGeorgeRamseyandJohn
Ray,Jr.Hoke,ISBN9780471348160.
IUCN,2009,GuideforTourismanEnvironmentalandSocialManagementInstrumentProject:
EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentinCentralAmerica:AToolforSustainableDevelopment.
IUCN,2009,RedList,http://www.iucnredlist.org.
IUCN,2003,TourismGuidelineInternationalHotelsEnvironmentalInitiative,WaterEfficiency
Benchmarks.
Jacob,C.E.andS.W.Lohman,1952,Nonsteadyflowtoawellofconstantdrawdowninanextensive
aquifer,Trans.Am.Geophys.Union,vol.33,pp.559569.
Joyce,S.A.,andMacFarlane,M.,2001,Socialimpactassessmentintheminingindustry:Current
situationandfuturedirections.Mining,MineralsandSustainableDevelopment,46.International
InstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment
Kozak,M.,2002,Destinationbenchmarking,AnnalsofTourismResearch29:497519.
224
Tourism
I.
Leon,YolandaM.2004.CommunityimpactsofcoastaltourismintheDominicanRepublic.ETD
CollectionforUniversityofRhodeIsland.PaperAAI3147809.
http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/dissertations/AAI3147809
Linsley,R.K.,Kohler,M.A.,Paulhus,J.L.H.,1975,HydrologyforEngineers,SecondEdition.
MillenniumEcosystemAssessment(MA)2005,MillenniumEcosystemandHumanWellBeingSynthesis,
IslandPress,Washington,D.C.
MillenniumEcosystemAssessment(MA),2006,MillenniumEcosystemAssessmentSynthesisReports.
2006.http://maweb.org/en/Synthesis.aspx.
Miranda,Marta,DavidChambers,andCatherineCoumans,2005,FrameworkforResponsibleMining:A
GuidetoEvolvingStandards,CenterforScienceinPublicParticipationandWorldWildlifeFund,
Washington,pg.xix.
http://www.frameworkforresponsiblemining.org/pubs/Framework_20051018.pdfEnglish
http://www.frameworkforresponsiblemining.org/pubs/Framework_ES_20060601.pdfSpanish
Moyini,2006,UgandaEcotourismAssessment,MinistryofTourism,TradeandIndustry/UnitedNations
ConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)ExportDevelopmentProgrammeImplementedby
UEPB.
NationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(CouncilonEnvironmentalQuality,1997,
http://ceq.eh.doe.gov/nepa/ccenepa/ccenepa.htm.
NetoFrederico,2002,SustainableTourism,EnvironmentalProtectionandNaturalResource
Management:ParadiseonEarth?,UnitedNations,February2002
NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA),undated,NationalWeatherServiceGlossary,
http://www.weather.gov/glossary/
PBS&J,2008,BestManagementPractices(BMPs)forConstruction,DredgeandFillandOtherActivities
AdjacenttoCoralReefs,Preparedby:PBS&JforTheSoutheastFloridaCoralReefInitiativeMaritime
IndustryandCoastalConstructionImpactsFocusTeam,February2008.
http://www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/programs/coral/reports/MICCI/MICCI_6_BMP_Manual.pdf
SoilConservationService(SCS),1985,NaturalEngineeringHandbook,Section4,Hydrology,U.S.
DepartmentofAgriculture,SoilConservationService,Washington,D.C.,March,1985,
http://www.nohrsc.noaa.gov/technology/gis/uhg_manual.html
SoilConservationServices(SCS),1972,NationalEngineeringHandbook,Section4,U.S.Departmentof
Agriculture,Washington,D.C.
Snyder,F.F.,1938,syntheticUnitGraphs,trans.Amer.Geophys.Union,19,447454.
Thomas,GarethWyn,1996,EnvironmentalAssessmentofVisualandCumulativeImpactsarisingfrom
WindfarmDevelopments:AWelshPlanningPolicyPerspective,UniversityofWales,Aberystwyth,
March1996.
225
Tourism
I.
Turner,D.B.(1994).WorkbookofAtmosphericDispersionEstimates:AnIntroductiontoDispersion
Modeling(2ndEditioned.).CRCPress.ISBN156670023X.
UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgamme(UNEP),tobepublished,EcosystemsandHumanWellbeing:A
ManualforAssessmentPractitioners.
UNEP,1995,EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentTrainingResourceManual,availableat:
http://www.environment.gov.au/portfolio/epg/eianet/manual.html.
UnitedStatesArmyCorpsofEngineers(USACE),2009,CoastalEngineeringManual(CEM)(EM11102
1100)http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/cem
UnitedStatesArmyCorpsofEngineers(USACE),2007,ShorelineAssessmentBeachNourishment,
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/Media/7/4/7/HowBeachNourishmentWorks.pd
UnitedStatesDepartmentofInteriorNationalParksService(USDOI,NPS),1997,TheVisitor
ExperienceandResourceProtection(VERP)FrameworkAHandbookforPlannersandManagers.
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(USEPA),2009,GreenBuildingBasicInformation.
RetrievedDecember10,2009,fromhttp://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/about.htm
USEPA,2003,EPAandHardrockMining:ASourceBookforIndustryintheNorthwestandAlaska
USEPA,2002,CommunityCultureandtheEnvironment:AGuidetoUnderstandingaSenseofPlace,
(EPA842B01003),OfficeofWater,Washington,DC.
http://www.epa.gov/care/library/community_culture.pdf
USEPA,1999,PublicationsonMiningWasteManagementinIndianCountry.
USEPA,NoDate,PublicParticipationToolkit,http://www.epa.gov/international/toolkit/
UnitedStatesFederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA),2006,TrafficNoiseModel(TNM)
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/noise/tnm/index.htm
UnitedStatesFishandWildlifeService,undated,HabitatEvaluationProcedureHandbook,
http://www.fws.gov/policy/ESMindex.html
UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),2001,EnvironmentalImpactsofTourism
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/ecotour/envi/index.html
UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization(UNESCO),undated,WorldHeritage
Convention,http://whc.unesco.org/en/list.
USDA,1997,RevisedUniversalSoilLossEquation(RUSLE),
http://www.ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=5971
226
Tourism
I.
Wamsley,T.V.,Cialone,M.A.,Smith,J.M.,Ebersole,B.A.,2009,Influenceoflandscaperestorationand
degradationonstormsurgeandwavesinsouthernLouisiana.JournalofNaturalHazards,51(1),
207224.
Wamsley,T.V.,Cialone,M.A.,Smith,J.M.,Atkinson,J.H.,andRosati,J.D.,2010,Thepotentialof
wetlandsinreducingstormsurge,OceanEngineering37(1),5968.
vanZyl,D.J.A.,I.P.G.Hutchinson,andJ.E.Kiel,(editors),1988,IntroductiontoEvaluationDesignand
OperationofPreciousMetalHeapLeachingProjects,SocietyforMining,Metallurgy,and
Exploration,Inc.,Littleton,CO.
WaterPollutionControlFederationwithAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineer,1969,Designand
ConstructionofSanitaryandStormSewers.
WorldHealthOrganizaition,Guidelinesforrecreationaluseareanexampleofhealthbasedguideline
valuesforreceivingwatersbasedonintendeduse,
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/guidelines/en/index.html.
WorldBankGroup,2007.Environmental,Health,andSafety(EHS)Guidelines:GeneralEHSGuidelines,
pg.30.
Drumm,A.andMoore,A,2005,EcotourismDevelopmentAManualforConserationPlannersand
Managers,Volumes1and2,USAID,Alexc.WalkerFoundaitonandtheNatureconservancy
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/ecotour/tglossary.html
Orams,Mark,1999,MarineTourism,London:Routledge
VictorianCoastalCouncil,2008,VictoriaCoastalStrategy2008,
http://www.vcc.vic.gov.au/2008vcs/glossary.htm
NOAA.CoralReefInformationSystem,http://coris.noaa.gov/
2.2 AdditionalReferences
2.2.1 EnvironmentalJustice/SocioEconomics
BrandilynGordon,FaustoSarmiento,RicardoRussoandJeffreyJones,undated,SustainabilityEducation
inPractice:AppropriationofRuralitybytheGlobalizedMigrantsofCostaRica.
Canada,2010TourisminCentralAmerica,SocialconflictinanewsettinginCommunicationsinitiative
oneconomichange,humanmobility,tourism,andterritorialgovernanceinCentralAmerica,co
implementedbyFundacinPRISMAandAlbaSud(May2009April2011).
Ferguson,2010,TourismasDevelopmentStrategyinCentralAmerica:ExploringtheImpactson
WomensLives.UniversityofSheffield
GLOBALCODEOFETHICSFORTOURISMadoptedbyresolutionA/RES/406(XIII)atthethirteenthWTO
GeneralAssembly(Santiago,Chile,27September1October1999)
227
Tourism
I.
LetsonandMilon,2002,FloridaCoastalEnvironmentalResourcesAGuidetoEconomicValuationAnd
ImpactAnalysis.NOAAandFloridaSeaGrantCollegeProgram,ISBN0916287521
Meletis,ZoeAandCampbell,LisaM,2009,BenevolentandBenign?UsingEnvironmentalJusticeto
InvestigateWasterelatedImpactsofEcotourisminDestinationCommunities.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.14678330.2009.00696.x/full.
WorldTravelandTourismCouncil(WTTC),2002,TheCaribbeanTheImpactofTravelandTourismon
JobsandtheEconomy.
2.2.2 CruiseFacilities
CESD,2006,CruiseTourisminBelize:PerceptionsofEconomic,SocialandEnvironmentalImpact,
CenterOnEcotourismandSustainableDevelopment
2.2.3 CoastalDevelopment
CELB,undated,ApracticalGuidetoGoodPractice,ManagingEnvironmentalImpactsintheMarine
RecreationSector"
http://www.conservation.org/Documents/CI_ecotourism_managing_environmental_impacts_marine_r
ecreation.pdf
Harriott,VJ.2002.MarinetourismimpactsandtheirmanagementontheGreatBarrierReef,CRCReef
ResearchCentreTechnicalReportNo46.CRCReefResearch.
IslandResourceFoundation,1996,TourismandCoastalResourcesDegradationintheWiderCaribbean,
UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme,CaribbeanEnvironmentProgramme,Regional
CoordinatingUnit,Kingston,JamaicabyIslandResourcesFoundation,St.Thomas,VirginIslands
December1996.
2.2.4 Ecolodge
Blangy,S.andWood,M.(1992).DevelopingandImplementingEcotourismGuidelinesforwildlandsand
NeighbouringCommunities.NorthBennington:TheEcotourismSociety.
CELB,"APracticalGuidetoGoodPractice,ManagingEnvironmentalandSocialIssuesinthe
accommodationsSector"
http://www.conservation.org/Documents/CI_ecotourism_practical_guide_good_practice.pdf
CELB,"TourismandMountains:APracticalGuidetoManagingEnvironmentalandSocialImpactsof
MountainTours"
http://www.conservation.org/Documents/CI_ecotourism_practical_guide_to_managing_the_enviro
nmental_and_social_impacts_of_mountain_tours.pdf
EnvironmentallySustainableTourismProject,1997,EcolodgeDevelopmentinEgypt,Volume9Cairo,
Egypt.
ErnstandYoung,2004,SustainableTourismDevelopmentPlanDevelopmentStandardsandDesign
Guidelines.
228
Tourism
I.
Hawkins,D.,Wood,M.andBittman,S.(editors),(1995)TheEcolodgeSourceBookforPlannersand
Developers,NorthBennington,TheEcotourismSociety.
IFC,2004,ECOLODGES:ExploringOpportunitiesforSustainableBusiness,WorldBank.
Mehta,H.,2005,Planning,DesignandConstructionGuidelinesforDesertEcolodges,KingdomofSaudi
Arabia,August2005.
Mehta,H,Baez,AandOLoughlinP,2002,InternationalEcolodgeGuidelines.
WashingtonDC:TheInternationalEcotourismSociety.
Mehta,H.,2000,BestPracticesinEcolodgePlanning,DesignandGuidelines.
EcolodgeForumRedSeaSustainableTourismInitiative.Cairo.
OfficeofNationalTourism,1997,BestPracticeEcotourism:AGuidetoEnergyandWasteMinimisation.
Canberra,Australia.
Salama,A.,1998,Ecolodges:MeetingtheDemandforSustainableTourismDevelopmentinEgypt.
WorkingPaperSeries.Vol.108,IASTE:UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,California.
SouthAustralianTourismCommission,1994,Ecotourism:ASouthAustralianDesignGuidefor
SustainableDevelopment.Adelaide,Australia.
TourismDevelopmentAuthority,1998,BestPracticesforTourismCenterDevelopmentAlongtheRed
SeaCoast.Cairo,Egypt:PolicyManagementGroup.
TourismQueensland,1999,Volume1and2:GrowYourEcotourismBusiness.Brisbane,Queensland.
UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheInterior,1993,GuidingPrinciplesofSustainableDesign.Denver,CO:
NationalParkService.
WorldTourismOrganizationWTO,1997,YearbookofTourismstatistics.Madrid,Spain.
2.2.5 Noise
AUEPA,2003,EPAGuidelines,Developmentproposalassessmentforvenueswheremusicmaybe
played,SouthAfricanEnvironmentalProtectionAuthority,www.epa.sa.gov.au
CanberraEnvironmentalProtection,2009,LiveMusicandEntertainmentNoise,Departmentofthe
Environment,ClimateChange,EnergyandWater.www.envrionment.act.gov.au.
LambethEnvironmentalHealth,2008,GuidanceontheControlofNoiseatOutdoorEvents,Lambeth
EnvironmetnalHealth,NoiseandPollutionControl,London.
2.2.6 SolidWaste
BallandTaleb,2010,BenchmarkingWasteDisosalintheEgyptianHotelIndustry,Tourismand
HospitalitResearch,(2011)11.118,http://thr.sagepub.com.
229
Tourism
I.
Pottetal.RecyclingfortheHospitalityIndustryAGuideforInstitutingRecyclingProgramsinHoteland
MotelProperties,ClemsonUniversity,Extension.
Polanskyetal.,2008,AQuantitativeAssessmentoftheEnvironmentalResourceImpactsofthe
HospitalitySector(LodgingFacilities)inUSEPARegion2,2008EPANNEMSFellowshipPaper
ThomasJ.Downingetal.,1999,ActivityReportNo.68No.68SolidWasteAuditofHotelsinDominica,
St.Lucia,andtheDominicanRepublic(PuntaCanaRegion),fortheCaribbeanAlliancefor
SustainableTourismandtheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopment,BureauforLatinAmerica
andtheCaribbeanundertheHemisphericFreeTradeExpansionInitiativeandtheCaribbeanRegion
Program.EHPActivityNo.521CC.
WWFUKandIBLF,2005,Whyenvironmentalbenchmarkingwillhelpyourhotel.Aguideproducedby
theInternationalBusinessLeadersForumstravelandtourismprogramandWWFUK(World
WildlifeFederationUKandtheInternationalBusinessLeadersForum).
2.2.7 Wastewater
UnitedStatesNationalParksService(USDOINPS),2010,PerformanceEvaluationofBackcountrySolar
Toilets,RockyMountainNationalPark
http://www.americanalpineclub.org/uploads/mce_uploads/Files/PDF/Solar_Toilet_Report.pdf.
2.2.8 CaseStudies
RainforestAlliance,undated,GuidetoBestPracticesforSustainableTourisminTropicalForests
LodgingBusinesses,http://www.rainforestalliance.org.
DEAT,2002,Screening,InformationSeries5,DepartmentofEnvironmentalAffairsandTourism(DEAT),
Pretoria,
http://www.environment.gov.za/Services/documents/publications/eia_info_series_impact_significa
nce_24062003.html
InterAmericaDevelopmentBank,2002,EnvironmentalManagementInsertioninTourismSector
PoliciesintheCaribbean,TheSustainableEconomicDevelopmentUnit(SEDU),Universityofthe
WestIndies.
2.2.9 NationalParks
Anderson,LimeandWang,1998,MaintainingtheQualityofParkResourcesandVisitorExperiencesA
HandbookforManagers,UniversityofMinnesota
EcotourismDevelopmentVolume1:AManualforConservationPlannersandManagers,2002and
VolumeII:TheBusinessofEcotourismManagementandDevelopment,2004,TheNature
Conservancy,Arlington,Virginia,USA.,I.S.B.N.:1886765162
EnvironmentalScreeningForum(ESF),2004,http://pepc.nps.gov
230
Tourism
I.
McCool,StephenF,Clark,RogerN.andStankey,George,H.,2007.Anassessmentofframeworksuseful
forpubliclandrecreationplanning,Gen.TechRep.PNWGTR705.Portland,OR:U.S.Departmentof
Agriculture,ForestService,PacificNorthwestResearchStation.125p.
Lime,Anderson,andThompson,2004,IdentifyingandMonitoringIndicatorsofVisitorExperienceand
ResourceQuality:AHandbookforRecreationResourceManagers,
UniversityofMinnesota.
UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheInteriorNationalParksServiceWhitePapers
CulturalResourcesIntensityThresholdDefinitions
TransportationRelatedImpactTopicsandExamplesofIntensityDefinitions
StandardMitigationMeasuresforCulturalResources
Table1:UserCapacityIndicatorsandStandards
MASTER__Potential_Visitor_Use_Related_Measures
Whittaker,D.,B.Shelby,R.Manning,D.Cole,andG.Haas.2010.CapacityReconsidered:Finding
ConsensusandClarifyingDierences.NationalAssociationofRecreationResourcePlanners,
Marienville,
Pennsylvania.(www.narrp.org)
2.2.10 General
BallandTaleb,2011,BenchmarkingWasteDisposalintheEgyptianHotelIndustry.
DirectorateofEvaluationandEnvironmentalControl(DECA)DepartmentofNaturalResourcesand
Environment(SERNA),undated,GoodPracticeGuideEnvironmentalSubforTouristHotelIn
Honduras
Environmental,Health,andSafety(EHS)Guidelines,GeneralEHSGuidelines:EnvironmentalAir
EmissionsandAmbientAirQuality,TheWorldBank,April2007
http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/sustainability.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/gui_EHSGuidelines2007_GeneralEH
S_11/$FILE/11+Air+Emissions+and+Ambient+Air+Quality.pdf
Environmental,Health,andSafety(EHS)Guidelines,GeneralEHSGuidelines:WasteManagement,The
WorldBank,April2007
S_16/$FILE/16+Waste+Management.pdf
Environmental,Health,andSafety(EHS)Guidelines,GeneralEHSGuidelines:EnvironmentalNoise
Management,TheWorldBank,April2007
S_17/$FILE/17+Noise.pdf
FERC,2008,PreparingEnvironmentalDocuments,GuidelinesforApplicants,ContractorsandStaff,
September2008http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/geninfo/guidelines/eaguide.pdf
IFC,GuidanceNote1,SocialandEnvironmentalAssessmentandManagementSystems,July31,2007,
231
Tourism
I.
PackwoodLakeHydroelectricProject,FERCProjectNo.2244,USDAForestServiceGiffordPinchot
NationalForest,ExistingInformationAnalysisforPackwoodLakeRecreationResourcesPreparedby:
DianeBedell,RecreationPlannerDecember13,2004
RamsarConventiononWetlands,
http://www.ramsar.org/cda/ramsar/display/main/main.jsp?zn=ramsar&cp=1_4000_0
UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),2001,EnvironmentalImpactsofTourism,
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/ecotour/envi/index.html
UnitedStatesDepartmentofCommerceNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)and
NationalMarineFisheriesService,1994GuidelinesandPrinciplesforSocialImpactAssessment,The
InterorganizationalCommitteeonGuidelinesandPrinciplesforSocialImpactAssessment,May
1994.
WorldBank,1999,TheWorldBankOperationsManualP4.01,AnnexBContentofanEnvironmental
AssessmentReportforaCategoryAProject,January,1999,
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/EXTPOLICIES/EXTOPMANUAL/0,,contentM
DK:20065951~menuPK:64701637~pagePK:64709096~piPK:64709108~theSitePK:502184,00.html
WorldBank,2007.TheWorldBankGroupEnvironmental,Health,andSafetyGuidelines,April2007.
232
Tourism
J.EXAMPLETERMSOFREFERENCE(TOR)
J. EXAMPLETERMSOFREFERENCE(TOR)
TermsofReference(TORs)areusedbycountriestodescribebothgeneralandspecificexpectationsfor
thepreparationofanenvironmentalimpactassessment,inthisinstancetailoredtoproposedprojects
fortourism.Volume1Part2containsexampleTORscrossreferencedtoVolumes1and2oftheEIA
TechnicalReviewGuidelineforTourismProjects.Itisprintedseparatelytofacilitateusebycountries
astheypreparetheirownEIAprogramrequirementsfortourismrelatedprojects.
ThreeexampleTORsareprovidedinVolume1Part2:
J1HotelandResortTourismProjects
J2ConcessionsTourismProjects
J3MarineandCoastalTourismProjects
Asappropriate,theymaybeusedincombinationdependinguponthescopeandconfigurationofa
proposedtourismproject.
IneachoftheexampleTORsthereisanoverviewsectionthatdescribesgeneralexpectationsforthe
preparationofanenvironmentalimpactassessment.Thisisfollowedbysectionsaddressingeach
elementoftheEIAanalysisanddocumentationincludingdetailsonwhatshouldbeincludedinthe
descriptionoftheproposedprojectandalternatives;environmentalsetting;assessmentofimpacts;
mitigationandmonitoringmeasures;anenvironmentalmanagementplan;asignedcommitment
statement;andkeysupportingmaterials.
233
Tourism
J.EXAMPLETERMSOFREFERENCE(TOR)
234

Tourismvol1 PDF

Cargado por

Información del documento

Descripción original:

Título original

Derechos de autor

Formatos disponibles

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Tourismvol1 PDF

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

EIATechnicalReviewGuidelines:

Impactstoculturalandhistoricsitesareoften there are no clear property titles. There are cases in

También podría gustarte