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bel'ovv.
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
BEING
AttEANGED FOB
BY
JOHN
G.
KERB, LLD.
"Serum ipsarum
LONDON
BLACKIE &
PREFACE
The system
by Euclid
aim
Euclid's
way
the same
the
name
Constructive
PREFACE
is
results
work can
my
colleagues,
Glen's School.
J.
G. K.
CONTENTS
Chaps.
I.
II.
Pages
Preliminary Notions
Surface
Line
Point
9-16
....
16-26
Right Angles
Arcs and Chords
III. Equality of Angles
IV. Measurement of Angles Circular Measure
Angles
its
own Plane
26-31
31-39
39-43
44-50
---------
VIII. Triangles
IX. Areas
X. Distribution
51-59
59-70
of Rectangular
its
Areas
of Triangles
Sides
....
71-83
84-91
Areas of a Triangle in
92-99
XII. Chords
112-121
of Circles
7
LIST OF APPLIANCES
A straight-edged
flat ruler
clearly
to the
magnitude
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
CHAPTER
Some
of them,
of
wood
Fig. 1
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
10
may have
which you
recall
that
tatingly
named
in each case
is
The
particular forms
to are
them
That
known
it
words a
full
it is practically
impossible to convey in
and complete account of one of the count-
less irregular
PRELIMINARY NOTIONS
SURFACELINE
POINT
11
(ii)
from
neighbour or
square surremaining by
If a beaker of water is thought of, you have
faces.
a mass of liquid occupying a definite space. The upper
surface, which separates the water from the air, is flat
and horizontal, while the side and bottom surfaces of
from the
its
air still
of the
vessel.
containing
The surface of a
common
cylinder
may
be said to
two flat
The area
consist of
curved surface.
or curved.
Examples
Consider
now
a white surface,
that of a sheet of
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
12
The
sur-
The edges
of the cubes
lines
may
or pencil.
on
The
flat surfaces,
on the wing.
Lines
may
irregularly.
point.
separated
by
PRELIMINARY NOTIONS
SURFACELINE
POINT
lines
13
on paper
you are furnished with a straight-edge. You may assume for the present that it is what it pretends to be,
but a method of testing your instrument will appear
presently.
Test a
it is
surfaces
Each
is
of the six
applied to the
You
5. Test the surfaces and edges of a prism or a pyramid.
get the same result as in 5.
G. Consider the intersection of
(a) a plane with the surface of
a sphere (/>) a plane with the curved surface of a conical solid ;
solid (d) the
(c) a plane with the curved surface of a cylindrical
surface of a sphere with that of a cylinder ; (e) the surface of a
sphere with that of a cone.
;
Now
is
repeated.
(b)
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
14
as desired.
be the same
in all cases.
-o
e(a)
(b)
Fig. 2
Repeat the two parts of the test with the circular edge of
your protractor. You will find that while only one line is got in
Hence the edge is not
each case, the two lines are different.
You can now confidently use your straight-edge
straight.
8.
You
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
1.
2.
3.
8.
9.
The
The edge
PRELIMINARY NOTIONS
SURFACE
LINEPOINT
15
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
surfaces.
6.
straight-edge about whose accuracy you have some doubt
gives complete contact when applied to a surface. Is the surface
If on moving the edge into any position on
necessarily a plane?
still have complete contact, is the surface necesand the straight-edge necessarily true?
separate
trials.
7.
full to call
up
in the
mind
fig. 1
sufficiently
you are
describing.
EXEECISES
[Straight-edge and Pencil]
1. Mark two points on the paper
join them by a straight line
take two other points, one on each side of the line, and join every
:
pair of points.
2.
lines
two at a time ;
3.
of
(a) three lines in the same plane?
(b) four lines in the same plane?
(c) five lines
in the
same plane ?
point,
4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
no three points
lie
three points
three points
in one line,
line.
lie in
lie
possible
when-
in one line;
one line
in one
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
16
5. From a point o draw the lines OL, OM, ON; from another
point P draw two lines cutting OL, OM in A, A' and B, B' respectively ; on o N take two points c and c'; join c A and o' A', and let
Fig. 3
them meet in Q join c B and c' B', and let them meet
do you note regarding the points r, Q, and E.1
:
as in
in E.
What
fig. 3.
CHAPTER
II
rotation to the
observations
when
line.
and
it
let
us commence
new
IIII,
one
in
moving
to its
it
vertically
(B129)
RIGHT ANGLES
ANGLES
has elapsed the hand
is
17
direction.
This
line,
we say
that the
moving hand
is
Fig. 4
It has
as positive
clock.
In short,
positive rotation
is
In
fig.
counter-clockwise,
clockwise.
negative
A,
B,
o c, meeting
in o.
o B, and afterwards
If a line
OP hinged
at
certain angle from the position O A (fig. 5), then the same
amount of negative rotation will bring it back to coin-
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
18
a
(+a
more than half a revolu-
0).
An
anglo
may
consist of
Fig.
tion,
thousand revolutions.
The Eight Angle, The revolution
is
divided in the
A'
B'
first
line
oB
OA through one
(fig. 6).
the line o A.
The
line
it
is
in
ANGLES
with A
RIGHT ANGLES
19
The
0.
set-square is
angles.
itself.
The method
as follows:
is
Placo the
into
shown
in
the
fig.
should
be
ft
ft)
coincident,
The
is
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
20
Fig.
to
When
is
sum
of
said to be the
sum
of
The
ANGLES
RIGHT ANGLES
21
with PC
Now
From
B,
PB
careful drawings
results
lowing
join P
may
c,
made
xY
xY
c',
in B,
B';
in c,
c';
and so
on.
&c.
in this
manner the
fol-
be obtained:
'C
Any number
(ii)
P c, P
e.g.
PB, PB';
c',
(iii)
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
22
In
fig.
we have P A
x Y.
perpendicular to
So p A B
is
a right-
angled triangle.
Suppose
As
angle
PAB
and as angle p A
angle,
it
is
a right angle,
also a right
B' is
now
lie
(fig.
10).
The angles
(v)
at the base of
an
equal.
An isosceles
NOTE.
in
fig.
9 PB
B',
Pc
c',
triangle has
two
and so
In the demonstra-
tion of Result iv
PAB
PBA
and
is the
longer the foot of
the farther from the perpendicular,
(vii) Any point equidistant from other two points is
on the right bisector of the line joining these two points.
(vi)
which
is
ANGLES
a
These
circle.
each side of
The
AB
With
RIGHT ANGLES
centre B
23
circles intersect at
A B.
bisects
at right angles.
bisects
angle
the
vertical
angle.
NOTE.
In
is isosceles,
fig.
9 triangle p B B'
is the right
and PA
bisector of base B
B'.
It
has been
and so the
the angle B p
line
P A bisects
B'.
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETUY
24
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
1.
2.
An
3.
4.
for
line rotating in
positive
lines.
Angles are
rotation.
and
is
used
It can be used to
test itself.
5.
The
tested
6.
a point to a straight
7.
Any number
line.
drawn
line.
8. Two equal obliques drawn from the same point have their
end-points equidistant from the foot of the perpendicular.
9. If two unequal obliques be drawn from the same point to a
The
12.
an
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
tions'?
If the
of the line
RIGHT ANGLES
ANGLES
7.
"
p',
25
are in
How do
the triangle
12. If
AB
is
is
two
isosceles 1
circles, centres
A and
B, intersect in
c and D,
show that
EXEKCISES
Test your set-squares after the manner described in the text.
Use a set-square in drawing a perpendicular to a given straight
1.
2.
line
it.
From each
ABC
and
AB =
6 cm.
Draw CD
perpendicular to AB.
AD, DB.
5. Construct an isosceles
and the angle B c A = 90.
triangle
ABC
Draw from
Measure CD,
where c A
CB
5 cm.
c a perpendicular c D on
A B.
6.
7.
edge,
and
pencil.
Draw an
angles.
Note an important
result.
Draw
a certain straight
11.
Mark two
line.
points
A and B
7'5
cm. apart.
Through A draw
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
26
a series of straight lines. To each of these lines draw a perpendicular from B, and mark each point where there is intersection
at right angles. Show that these points lie on a certain circle.
12. Upon a line AB 5 cm. long draw an isosceles triangle ABO
with sides 7'5 cm. long. Using set-square, draw from A a perpendicular A D to o B, and from B a perpendicular BE to c A. Through
o, the crossing point of these two perpendiculars, draw a line c o
cutting A B in F. Measure A E and B D. Test angle B F c with setsquare.
CHAPTER
III
is
We
be tested by compasses:
it
will
now appear
that com-
Any
is
circle,
called
an
arc of the circle, while the straight line joining any two
points on the circumference is called the chord of the
intervening arc.
A diameter of a circle
any
ence.
A radius
is
any straight
line
centre to
EQUALITY OF ANGLES
27
a point on the circumference. It is evidently the distance or stretch maintained between the pencil and needle
when
points
the circle
is
being described.
circles described
are of the
same
size,
ABP
radius or
OA
radius
it
(fig.
13),
and con-
how we
shall place in
chord equal in length to
sider
stretch
given
straight line x Y.
are opened
The compasses
the stretch
until
equal to
X Y, and
is exactly
B[
the needle-
circle,
in P and P'.
These points are now joined
to A; the lines AP and AP'
circumference
Fig. 13
cut
off.
and
o'
and equal
(fig.
radii
14)
OA
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
28
in
A'
P'.
P')
Fig. 14
exactly equal paths, and the amount of rotation necessary to bring OA into the position OP is exactly
Fig. 15
EQUALITY OF
(v)
at
is
29
that
equal
We
are
now
to
Y
.*.
the radius o A
AP
the circle
(centre
.'.
p.
it
is
place
clear
For
o'),
sum
AOD
is
c,
is
of the arcs
the angle
equal to the
sum of
COD;
is less
Tt
Fig 16
-
may be noted that the method of determining the equality of angles by equality
common use, and all draughtsmen have a " scale of chords".
of chords is in
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
30
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
1.
A circle
is
moves so that
it is
in the plane.
2.
Two
3.
From a
4.
If in each of
two equal
circles
placed, its end -points mark off equal arcs, and the angles subtended at the centres of the circles by these equal arcs are equal.
5. The equality of two angles is tested by describing two equal
is
circles
angle.
QUESTIONS
1.
When
are
Discuss a
test.
centre
by an arc
(a)
12jcm. long?
cm. longl
25 cm. long?
(b) 6
(c)
3.
bicycle wheel makes 8 revolutions per minute. What
fraction of a right angle does a given spoke describe in one-third
of a second?
4.
What
is
Explain
how
centre of a circle
it
is
is
the chord?
EXERCISES
1. Draw the smallest angle you find in your set-squares.
With
the apex of this angle as centre and a radius of 5 cm., describe a
circle.
Step the chord of the intercepted arc round the circum-
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
CIRCULAR MEASURE
31
does the drawing give regarding the relations between arcs, chords,
and
angles'?
4.
From
several points
r, Q, u,
CHAPTER IV
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES CIRCULAR MEASURE
The
From
first
this
we
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
32
Fig. 17
line.
line
(i)
If a line has
initial position
130.
moved
positively, as in
o A to position O
B,
fig.
18
(a),
from
is
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
CIRCULAR MEASURE
33
(ii)
from
initial
from
initial position
scribed
is
(iv) If
from
230.
(180 + 50),
a line has moved negatively, as in
i.e.
initial position
scribed
OA
is
OA
fig.
18
(6),
130.
Circular Measure.
The
was purely
it
the radius; yet the ratio of the arc to the radius ought
to be a constant depending on and measuring the angle.
Then each
of
The angle
xoz
is
is
rotation of the
(B129)
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
34
p, p', p" have thus described arcs AP, A'P', A"?", &c,,
and each of these arcs is the same fraction of the corre-
Fig. 19
xoz
is
of a com-
plete revolution.
This important property can be established experiFurther, as the length of each circumference
mentally.
bears a constant ratio to the length of the corresponding
If a series of
radius, the theorem may be stated thus
concentric circles be described, then the length of an arc
intercepted on any of these circles by two fixed lines
Draw
35
it
meets the
Number
of cm. in
radius
mi
of
cm
Ratio of semi-circum-
in
ference to radius.
semi-circumference.
10
31-4...
314...
12
377...
3'14...
15
47'2...
251...
314...
314...
Thus we have
semi-circumference
.-.-
is
represented
by the symbol
a
3*14 (nearly).
==
TT.
circle,
2-Trr.
circumference of which
it
is
a part.
Tabulate your
For each
a constant ratio
angle,
radius
is
The angle
obtained.
given by this
in circular
measure
is
ratio.
is 1
314
e
the angle
is
314
radians,
radians.
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
36
When
j.
radius
1,
is
We have seen
/.
that ?5^ircumference
radius
314
(nearl }
IT
=,
radians,
=180
But
180 =
radians,
A revolution = ST radians =
.-.
TT
360.
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
1. Equal arcs in a circle are marked off by stepping round
the circumference a pair of compasses with the points at a fixed
distance apart. Each of these arcs is
greater than its own chord.
used.
7.
The
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
CIRCULAR MEASURE
37
QUESTIONS
If the distance
1.
ia
equal
to the radius of a given circle, how many steps will the compasses
take to go round the complete circumference'?
2.
What
is
marked
by each successive
off
step?
On what
grounds do yon state that the ratio of the circumits diameter is constant'?
4. A circular disc 5 cm. in diameter lias a point marked on its
The disc is rolled along a metre-stick. If the marked point
edge.
on the disc is just over the zero of the scale at the start, where
will it be after six whole turns'?
5. What is the length of the path travelled in fifty minutes by
the end-point of the 5-foot minute hand of a large clock]
6. What is the length of the path travelled by a point on the
minute hand (5) two feet from the end-point.
7. Show that 60 is about 5 per cent greater than a radian.
8. Should two protractors of different size give the same or
3.
ference of a circle to
same angle
EXERCISES
1.
Step round
4.
it.
Angle
Angle
5.
Draw two
site angles.
AOP =
AOP +
Angle POA'
...
angle
intersecting lines
POA'
line inclined to
...
...
vertically oppo-
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
38
Form a
6.
fig.
21 (a).
set
down
results thus
Angle B AC
...
CBA =
ACB =
...
Sum
...
of the angles of the triangle
B c to x as in fig. 21 (h)
Now produce
7.
xcA
8.
...
is
Produce BC
sum
of the angles B
to x, CA to Y, and
equal to the
Fig 21 (a)
sum
Angle
Sum
is
XCA =
YAB =
ZBC =
...
...
...
...
Make two unequal circles with centres o and o'. Using protractor, make the angle A OP in one circle equal to the angle
9.
chord A'P'
radius O'A''
Draw
inferences.
radius o
radii,
and chords,
P
ius o
and
OWN PLANE
radius.
39
cm.
75.
decimals.
Angle.
Chord
(a)
radius
is
when Chord
10 cm.
radius
(&)
IH
when
5 cm.
Ratio of
()
to
(&).
15
30"
45"
60"
(6)
CHAPTER V
ROTATION OF A PLANK FIGURE IN
ITS
OWN PLANE
Up
that plane.
By a plane figure
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
40
shape remains unaltered. For practical purposes we associate these figures with such pieces of rigid
material as a plate of metal, a lamina of wood, or a piece
it,
and
its
of stiff cardboard.
ABODE,
&c.,
Fig 22
own
OWN PLANE
41
BC
in
fig.
23,
Fig 23
If
now we mark on
two right
angles.
mov-
Fig 24
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
42
edges, it will be found on measurement with a protractor or compasses that the angle M K M' through which
an edge has been rotated is equal to the angle MLM'
Examine now
same angle.
movement
of a figure
round
a point.
Place the movable plane on the paper and
mark a chosen figure in one position. Shift the movable
plane.
Mark
the
new
Mark
".
of rotation
to another
amounts of
is
meant
rotation,
sum
of the several
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
A
1.
movable plane lamina with holes drilled at various points
enables us to transfer from one position to another a variety of
a given movement
figure.
is zero,
so also
is
own
any line
it
OWN PLANE
43
QUESTIONS
1. Describe a method of marking at various positions on a sheet
of paper a figure of fixed size and shape.
2. If one point (say E) on this figure be fixed, and the figure
rotated in its own plane round E, state some facts about the
movement
of
(a)
(b)
3.
&c.
EXEECISES
Draw a circle of 7 cm. radius. From A and B, the extremities
two radii, draw perpendiculars by means of a set-square.
Measure the angle between these radii and the angle between the
1.
of
perpendiculars.
If o be the centre of the circle,
three cases
draw
(a)
(#)
When A o B
When A o B
is
an acute angle.
greater than one but
is
greater than
is
less
angles.
(c)
When
AoB
two but
less
angles.
Draw A o B an
diculars to o
angle of 50. From a point p draw perpenA and o B, and measure the angle between the per-
pendiculars.
Repeat the exercise with p in various positions,
state carefully the general result.
3. AB is a straight line on a plane.
P is a point not in this
line.
Join PA.
With p as centre, and PA as radius describe
and
an arc P A'.
AB
If A'
B',
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
CHAPTER VI
PARALLEL LINES
From experiments with
moves
in its
own
one
to
if
line in it is
"
".
way
that
consequence of
foregoing theorem, no
other line in the figure will
experience rotation or turn
then,
as
the
M.
to
straight-edge,
line
slide
no rotation in moving
and so with all other lines
is
45
PARALLEL LINES
"
Euclid defines parallel lines to be such as are in the
same plane, and being produced ever so far both ways
do not meet".
into
brought
rotation, then
AB and
A'B' cannot
in the
lines
on the same
ing
cc',
AOC
is
by a
third
A' o' c.
Fig. 20
is
parallel
to OA.
Corollaries:
(1)
If
the
alternate
angles
BOO' and
A'O'O are equal, the lines are parallel. For the angle
7
B o O is equal to the vertically opposite angle A o c (see
Chap. IV, Ex. 5), therefore AOC is equal to A'O'C,
therefore A B is parallel to A' B'
f
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
46
NOTE.- The pupil should draw two lines crossing one another.
should mark each of a pair ofjertically opposite angles, and,
applying the principle of rotation, he should be satisfied as to the
He
equality of the
marked
angles.
(2) If the two interior angles on the same side, A' o' o
and O'OA, are together equal to two right angles, the
For L o' o A
Z.A'O'O
.'.
Z.A'O'O
/.
OA and
.'.
Z.AOC,
by Theorem
(i).
(ii)
If
lines it
and
Let
a straight line
makes the
BA and
crossed at o and o
figure
cab
fitted in the
angle A o
c,
as in the diagram,
and let it slide along c c' until its angular point c which
was at o reaches o'. The edge ca must lie along O'A',
for as this edge has
moved
given parallel to o
A.
of the
to one
another.
Corollaries: (1)
The
alternate angles
are equal.
(2)
The two
interior angles
same
to
LINES
47
Let
ABC
duced to x.
1, 2, 3, and
The
27) be a triangle with the side A c proLet the angles of the figure A B c be marked
let it slide along A x until A coincides with c.
(fig.
line c B' is
by
definition parallel to
A B, therefore the
The three
alternate angles B'CB and CBA are equal.
c
make up
round
3
of
the
angles 1, 2,
triangle arranged
two right
angles.
is
equal to the
sum
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
1.
lines
When
makes no
rotation.
2. When a straight line moves without rotation in a plane from
one position to another the two positions are parallel. Therefore
parallel straight lines may be obtained by sliding one edge of a
set-square along a straight-edge, and marking various positions of
one of the other moving edges.
3. If a straight line crossing two other straight lines makes (a)
the exterior angle equal to the interior and remote angle on the
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
48
same side of the line, or (I) the alternate angles equal, or (c) the
two interior angles on the same side together equal to two right
angles, the straight lines are parallel.
4. If two parallel lines are crossed
(a),
by a third
line,
the relations
(b\ and
5.
equal to the
6.
The
sum
of the
two
and remote
interior
is
angles.
two
right angles.
QUESTIONS
1.
Give a definition of parallel lines derived from a conmovement of a rectilinear figure in its own
sideration of the
plane.
2.
How
secured ?
How
by a
third,
same
(b)
(c)
to
5.
side ; or
two right
angles.
(c)
holds, so
if
one of the
8.
If the lines 1
and 3
in the
diagram
(fig.
between
and 3
with
rests 1
PARALLEL LINES
49
EXERCISES
1. Across two parallel straight lines A B and c D draw a series of
The lines in the series may be
lines parallel to each other.
A B and c D,
A B and c D.
(a) perpendicular to
(6)
oblique to
line in it
(0
Fig. 28
Make a diagram in
Draw OA
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
50
angle
now a
line
can pass,
of the
Describe a positive
the line
P' P.
Make
A' parallel
size,
P'PA',
to the former.
principle.
8. Draw a triangle ABC.
By means of set-square and straightedge draw through A a straight line parallel to B c. Measure the
three angles at A; compare them with the three angles of the
triangle, and hence show that the sum of the three angles of a
triangle is equal to
two right
angles.
PARALLELOGRAMS
CHAPTER
51
VII
_,~"\
Cj
Fig. 29
straight line A B (a) move without rotation into the position C D, and then (6) rotate through an angle of 180
line
back
is zero,
four right angles, eight right angles, &c., the initial and
final positions of the end A are towards the same parts,
two
positions
of
52
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
Definition:
parallelogram
is
a four-sided rectilinear
ABCD.
NOTE. It will be seen that a parallelogram may be drawn so
as to satisfy given conditions, such as that two adjacent sides and
the included angle shall be respectively equal to two given straight
lines
and a given
angle.
Fig. 30
may
be arrived at
own
two right
into
the
position E c, and
brought
angles.
A c into the position D c, and B c E and A c D are straight
lines.
Now let the triangle DEC slide without rotation
to position
(2),
Then B c
is
to c.
53
PARALLELOGRAMS
Since the triangle c F A
new
is
position,
the angle
AB = FC
BC = AF
A B c = the
FCA =
in
angle c F A
BAC
BCA
FAC=
and the whole angle F A B
Summing up
these results
The opposite
(i)
ABc
we have
sides
F.
we have
c'
Fig. 31
two
(ii)
If
a plane figure
fixed line in
it
slide in its
own
every point in
it
given straight
line.
For
let
If
Join P P'.
same point.
separate positions of the
pp' is not parallel to XY, draw PQ parallel to XY so
as to intersect P' A' in Q. Then P Q A' A is a parallelogram,
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
54
From
this
The
(iii)
we
derive
The diagonals
(iv)
other.
Let A B C D
(fig.
of its diagonals.
CB, and the line OA with the line oc. Thus a total
rotation of 180 has brought OA to coincide exactly with
c,
therefore c o A,
is
one straight
line, viz.
Definition:
rectangle
is
the second
o.
a right-angled parallelo-
gram.
If a parallelogram has one right angle, then clearly all
its
angles are right angles. For any two opposite angles
are equal, and any two adjacent angles are together
equal to two right angles.
rectangle is completely
determined when the lengths of two adjacent sides are
known.
(v)
The diagonals
RECTANGLES
55
It has to
be
Fig. 34
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
(vi) If
sides
BC and EF
then slide
ABC
Fig 35
(vii, If two right-angled triangles have their hypotenuses equal, and one side of the one equal to one side of
the other, they are identically equal.
For, if A B c and DBF (fig, 35) have the angles ABC,
RECTANGLES
Definition:
is
square
57
equal.
right angles.
To construct a square on a given
A B.
straight line
From A
(fig.
draw
36)
pendicular to AB and
to AB.
Through B
AD
to
parallels
r
ABCD
G.
is
AD
it
per-
equal
and D draw
AB
.
,,
meeting
& in
From
(viii)
and
make
this
we
on
SUMMARY
1.
parallelogram
is
a quadrilateral with
its
opposite sides
parallel.
A parallelogram
of
which one
is
triangles.
4.
5.
6.
right
angle equal, each to each, the triangles are equal in every respect.
7. If two right-angled triangles have their hypotenuses equal,
and a side of the one equal to a side of the other, the triangles are
equal in every respect.
8. Squares described on equal straight lines are equal.
QUESTIONS
1.
How
figure,
one
lelogram on page
54*2
a paral-
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
58
3.
triangle.
4. Give some facts about the diagonals of a parallelogram,
a square, a rectangle.
5. What is meant by the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle?
Show
that
it is
EXERCISES
1. Using a set-square and straight-edge, draw a parallelogram
whose adjacent sides are 7 cm. and 10 cm. respectively, and the
another.
and A c, and prove that the resulting figure has (a) its opposite
sides equal, (b) its diagonals equal.
3. Draw A c and A B, two straight lines at right angles.
Join
B c, bisect it in M; join A M, and produce it to D so that
D
A M;
M =
join B D, CD.
4.
it
in
Prove that A B c D
is
B D, c D.
a rectangle.
straight lines.
join
= AM;
join
drawl
EXERCISES ON RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES
1.
of a triangle
vertices.
2.
[Circum-centre.j
that the three perpendiculars
Show
vertices
TRIANGLES
4.
Show
59
it is
9.
CHAPTER
is
on a fixed
line
and
is
VIII
TKIANGLES
In the preceding chapters the pupil has become familiar
with the Triangle, has found out for himself a few of its
properties, and in particular certain relations that exist
among its elements; that is, among its three sides and its
three angles.
two right
two
questions
(a) What elements must be specified in order that
shall be able to construct any required triangle?
we
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
60
(6)
What
relations
must be known
to hold
among
the
by the
corre-
rig. 37
ABC
we
by
(fig. 37)
the letter
the
side
>,
sometimes
**
j>
,.
shall
ACB
BC
CA
AB
a
6
C
How many
is
we
are
quite definite?
TRIANGLES
61
fig.
like
side
are specified.
Also,
when two
Fig. 38
more
sufficient to
ABC;
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
62
Are we able
to say that
(other than
the three angles) are sufficient to make the triangle perThe pupil will best arrive at the answer
fectly definite?
cr
Fig. 39
being
(i)
Given two
sides
angle,
(ii)
sides
a,
(i\\)
(iv)
them,
fc,
and
c.
6,
side
when
should
it
be observed that
we
is less
require
TRIANGLES
to
know
side b)
We
also
is
63
acute or obtuse.
CASE
(i):
Let
&,
Fig 40
off parts
respectively.
From
If
it
be
equal to
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
64
EXERCISES
1.
Draw any
such that
triangle
the side
ABC.
Construct a
x Y=the
side
new
triangle
XYZ
A B,
YZ=
BO,
x z=the
Y x z=the
side
A c,
angle BAG,
YZX=
and
BCA.
the angle
PAC=the
QCA=
and
angle
RXZ,
szx.
in every respect.
4. Draw an isosceles triangle of which the equal sides are each
10 cm. in length and the included angle 60. Find the length of
the third side and the value of the base angles.
and B A c'.
it is
Show
that
if
triangle
B A c'.
Given
triangle
8.
~ 8cm '\
cl^g
'
A=60
65
TRIANGLES
CASE
(ii):
sides.
Let
a, 6, c
Fig. 41
However
is
we conclude that
triangle will always result, hence
"
If two triangles have the three sides of the one equal
to the three sides of the other, each to each, the triangles
are equal in
all
respects
".
What
condition
must be
fulfilled
by the lengths
Attempt to construct
case laying
down
the side a
first.
(ii)
a=10
a=10
6=
6=
(iii)
a=
6=10 cm.
(i)
of the given
may be possible.
cm.
cm.
3 cm.
7 cm.
6 cm.
c=3 cm.
c=3 cm.
c=5 cm.
a=4 cm.
6=8
cm.
c=6*93 cm,
(B129)
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
66
Measure the
their
sum
is
180.
3.
Draw an
isosceles triangle,
having given
a==10 cm.
c=
6 cm.
You
Lay down
complete superposition.
Measure
5. Construct a triangle whose sides are 1'6", 3", 3*4".
the greatest angle. Confirm this result by calculation.
6. Upon a given base draw a set of triangles, each of which has
the sum of its two sides equal to a given straight line.
CASE
(iii):
[NOTE.
third
is
If
any two
it.
Fig. 42
Lay down a
line
a,
and
TRIANGLES
from
its
67
A,
A,
making with B C
B and
c.
performed.
every respect
".
EXERCISES
1.
In a triangle A B c
Draw
2.
'
In a right-angled triangle
and
~~
45"^
it is
ABC
c.
Draw the
4 cm. in length.
is
triangle
=
=
B'
0'
and a
a'
=
=
=
=
60
80
10 cm.
15 cm.
Show
angle
A',
5.
find
= the
from your
covering
and
a
//'
all cases.
Draw a
triangle
ABC, given a
= 5 cms.,
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
68
the parallelogram.
CASE
Let
(of
which a >
b)
and A the
determined by two
longer.
"
to
If
two
sides,
is seen that a
triangle is
and the angle opposite the
it
Hence
triangles have two sides of the one equal
sides of the other, each to each, and the angle
two
equal
TRIANGLES
69
If the
belongs to Case
iii.]
CASE
sides
Let
a, 6
Draw A P, A Q two
A,
With
lines containing
off A c equal to
<
6)
and A the
an angle equal to
b.
c,
B, B'.
Fig. 44
fulfil
Thus
tions.
When two
sides
less are
two
given,
triangles can in general be constructed.
Let us consider the figure a little more closely.
is
are supplementary.
Therefore
if
one
is
is
all
respects,
and the
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
70
triangles in
which B
is
all respects.
Hence
"
equal to
".
EXERCISES
1.
A
b
Draw a
triangle
60.
10 cm.
8'66 cm.
What
=
=
=
whose
a
b
c
is
the value of B?
=
=
=
14 cm.
8-5
9-0
== 8*5
B'
'
14 cm.
cm.
the angle B of the former
triangle.
Show that these two triangles have the angles opposite the two
longer of the given sides supplementary.
AREAS
71
CHAPTER IX
AREAS
When
a closed figure
on a black-board
is
drawn on a
sheet of paper or
size of
is
(i)
(ii)
the square
known
if
we
know
Thus
in
fig.
In
are
fig.
*8 in.
47
cm.
= (2x3)
we have a
and 17
in.
sq.
cm.
respectively.
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
72
Its area
In
fig.
2*3 cm.
we have a
48
and
to divide
Area
of part
A
B
C
D
Total area
up the area
136 X
It will
= (2x2)
= (20 x 4)
= (20 X 3)
= (4x3)
= 5'52 sq.
sq.
sq.
sq.
sq.
be convenient
B, c,
and
=4-0
cm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
cm.
D.
=
=
=
80
60
12
(2'3
sq.
sq.
sq.
mm.
mm.
mm.
=
=
=
2*4) sq.
-<
sq.
cm.
'8 sq.
cm.
*6 sq.
cm.
-12 sq.
cm.
cm.
2-4 cm.
..,.7'. 7"..
FIR. 47
Fig. 48
the
following:
(i)
(ii)
AREAS
73
side
In
fig.
49
it
Fig. 49
will be found by counting the number of square millimetres within the triangle that its area is 750 sq. mm. or
7*5 sq. cm.,
3x5
i.e.
S(
cra
have
if
and
=
p =
then
the
number
ap =
the
number
of
square
perpendicular,
units in the
area.
Thus
triangle
in
fig.
ABc
50
=
=
=
=
viii).
(i)
triangle A B D
i rectangle E B
triangle
DA
\ rectangle E B c F
\
ap
sq.
cm.
AcD
\ rectangle
ADCF
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
74
In
fig.
triangle
50
(ii)
ABC =
=
=
=
triangle ABD
A rectangle E B
Parallelogram.
E
triangle
DA
ACD
| rectangle
ADCF
rectangle E B c F
ap sq. cm.
The area
of a parallelogram
AF
is
equal
B
a cm.
k*
*j
Fig. 50 (ii)
Fig. 50 (i)
pendicular height.
Let A B c D be a parallelogram
draw A E perpendicular
to
(fig. 51).
Join A c and
D c.
Fig. 51
A E be p cm.
Area
of the parallelogram
NOTE.
Draw AE BF
ABcD
=
=
=
=
ACD
ap
area of rectangle of base a
and height p
DO and DC produced.
perpendicular to
AREAS
The shaded
triangle
75
A D E may be imagined
to slide along
Dc
into
Trapezium. The area of a trapezium, which is a foursided figure with two opposite sides parallel, is equal to
that of a rectangle whose base is the mean of the two
parallel sides
is
Let A B c D
(fig.
A B being parallel
Fig. 52
to
= a
trapezium =
D c.
Then
Area
of
if
AB
and c D
area
triangle
of
triangle
6,
and B E or G D
ABC +
= p,
area
=
=
FHCD
triangle
A D E, and
triangle
Bcu
is
as
of
AcD
much
to
great
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
76
(i)
same
area.
Fig. 53
BE
Fig. 04
same
parallels,
i.e.
area.
AREAS
77
may
is
a p.
--"
h~--
-H
"a
-H
Fig. 55
is
ap
of the triangle is \
line.
straight line parallel to that straight
For since the triangles have equal areas and equal
bases they must also have equal perpendiculars, that is,
On
triangle.
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
78
ABO
Let
(fig.
c B produced.
Join A
D.
Draw
c E parallel to A D, cutting
BED.
now we draw through the point E a straight line
EX parallel to CD it is clear that any triangle having
triangle
If
BD
for base
and
its
vertex in
EX
will
be equal to
ABC.
angle.
To
AREAS
This
is
draw DC'
join A c'.
79
Fig. 57
The
.
Ac
c'
the triangle A B
c'
triangle
=
=
Fig. 58
Having obtained a
quadrilateral,
triangle of the
be
satisfied,
triangle
we can apply
will
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
80
(3)
To
polygon
ABCDEF
(fig.
59),
side equal
Fig. 69
Join A E, A D, A C.
Through F draw F F' parallel
*
E'
Join
Then the
=
=
=
Now
A F7
to
A E, meeting D E produced
in
F'
F'E'
AD
CD
E'
E'D'
AC
BC
AE', AD'.
triangle
A B D'
ABCDEF
(v ADF' = ADE')
(v AFE = AF'E)
produce c B to
7
v AcE = AcD)
;
G,
AREAS
meeting
AB
MKL
draw
81
dicular to B G.
The rectangle B K L G
and
it
=
=
=
=
ABD'
the figure A B c
To bisect a triangle
in
one of its sides.
point
(4)
Let
ABC
by a
r>
EF
its sides.
(fig.
and P the
60),
ABC.
SUMMARY
1. The unit of area being the area of a square whose side is the
unit of length, we have the following expressions for the areas of
certain common geometrical figures
area = a2
square of side a
:
area
= ab
height p
trapezium with two parallel sides a and b,
and perpendicular breadth p
triangle of base a and perpendicular
area
= ap
area
\ p (a
area
ap
height p
(B129)
b)
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
82
parallels.
7. It is possible by using the foregoing principles to draw a
triangle or a rectangle on any given base equal in area to any
rectangular figure.
QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by saying that a rectangle is 2' 6" by 1' 4"?
Calculate its area.
2. If the area of a square is 200 square inches, what is the
nearest whole number of inches in the side?
3.
Compare the
if
tively.
(a)
(b)
(c)
square chains
yards
miles
inches
(d)
[100 links
chain
= 22
yards.]
5.
at
tively.
A BCD
it is
AREAS
8.
How
83
joining
them
is
Prove that the straight lines which join the mid-points of the
sides of a triangle arc parallel to the sides in order, and that they
form a triangle whose area is equal to one quarter that of the
9.
original triangle.
10.
The mid-points
drawn parallel respectively to these joining lines, compare the area of the figure thus formed with that of the quadri-
lines are
lateral.
EXERCISES IN DRAWING
1.
2.
2'1" and
Find its area.
4. Draw a triangle with sides 1*5", 2*0", and 2*5" respectively.
Draw the perpendicular on the longest side from the opposite
Calculate and note the area.
vertex, and measure its length.
5. Draw a triangle with sides 2", 2'5", 3" respectively, and without determining the area numerically draw another triangle equal
in area to the first and having one side 3*5" long. Find the perpendicular distance between this side and the opposite vertex.
6. Draw another triangle of the same area and with two of its
sides 3*5" and 4" respectively.
7. Draw another equal triangle with one side 3'5" long and the
angle between it and an adjacent side 30.
8. Draw an irregular six-sided rectilinear figure about 16 sq. cm.
in area.
Obtain a triangle of the same area as the figure. If one
side of a rectangle of the same area as the triangle is 3 cm., what
3.
1'8" respectively
is
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
84
CHAPTER X
DISTRIBUTION OF RECTANGULAR AREAS
NOTE.
make
free use of
convenient
lengths of the lines and the values of the areas.
method of doing this is indicated in the text and accompanying
figures.
of
to numbers,
ab
Here a
sum
of
is
ac
+ ad =
a(b
d).
the
,.
+
k
>1
'
lines.
The accompanying drawing (fig. 61) represents geometrically the fact stated in the
c
ac
ad.
d) = ab
equation a (b
+ +
From
d) the
this
'
ab
we have
it
may happen
\f
'
[y
*
Fig. 61
to be divided.
In
other
(a
we
(i)
which
in
also divided
is
+ d).
Now (a + b) (c +
+
85
we
6) (c
d)
= a (c + d) +
= ac + ad +
+ d)
+ bd,
b (c
(i)
be
(i)
divided.
(a
b) (a
i.e.
+ b) = aa + ab + ba +
+ b)* = a2 + 2 a b + 6
(a
bb
(ii).
illustrated in
fig.
63, viz.
two
parts, the
r
ba
a b
-fr=
(utb)
^j-
JlR. 63
by them.
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
86
(a-b)
->j
Fig.
Referring to
and (a
/.
(iv)
to the
(a
fig.
2
6)
2
6)
= a2 = a2 -
sum
t>4
2 6 (a
2 a6
- 6) - 6
+ 6 So we
2
difierence of
of the squares
on these
have
two
lines
lines is equal
diminished by
The equation (a
a similar way.
b) (a
= a2
/>)
--^
(a+b) (a-b)
a b
Fig 65
b2
is
treated in
87
Referring to
to
a (a
6),
+
+
(a
;.
(a
(a
6)
6) (a
= a (a + b) - a b = a 2 - V. That is
6)
b)
62
A
(a)
From
in
fig.
(v) (a
MP =
=
i.e.
Similarly in
66 (a) P B
b) (a
<
= a2 - 62
= A M2 M P 2
(6)
and A p
6,
= a+
Bp
a and A p =
(a-b)
|<
{
Fig 66 (a)
"P!
Fig 66(&)
From
i.e.
a) (b
AP BP
(v) (6
b.
6)
AP PB
66
fig.
figs.
a)
MP
62
AM
2
.
a2
And
thus
a.
66
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
88
and on the
Note.
line
If
a straight line
is
section.
bisected
and divided
in-
ternally,
section.
(vii) If
unequally, the
parts
line,
is
and on the
line
section.
Fig. 67
Again, since (a
and (a
= a2 + 2 a 6 +
= a2 - 2a6 +
6)
6)
is
illustrated in
89
62
(iii),
62
(iv),
67, gives
fig.
lines.
SUMMARY
If a,
c, <fec.
ft,
and
be lengths of
(1)
(ft
(3)
+
ft)
(a+
ft)
(6) (a
(7) (a
+
+
+
&c.)
(c
d)
(4) (a -ft)
(5) (a
(2) (a
lines,
ft)
(a
2
ft)
2
ft)
ft)
(a
2
ft)
-(a
-ft)
ft,
=
=
=
=
ft
are areas
c, <fec.
(ft + c + <fcc.).
ac + ad + be +bd.
a2 + 2 + 2 aft,
a2 + 2 -2 aft,
a2 - 2
2 (a2 + 2),
ft
ft
ft
ft
aft.
QUESTIONS
1.
If
a number, and
is
if
ft
represents a length,
aft represent*?
2. If a and ft are lengths,
what is a 1
a is a number, and if and c are lengths, what is a
a and are lengths, and c is a number, what are
3.
If
4.
If
6.
If a,
ft
ft
ft
c1
ft
(1)
6.
what does
ft,
c are lengths,
(6
c),
(2) (a
what are
a
&)', (3)
~,
(4)
(^)
(5)
a 6 c]
on
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
90
8.
possible
enclosure?
largest
sheepfold.
Show how to divide a straight line into two parts so that the
of the squares on these parts shall be the least possible.
10. If the lengths of two straight lines vary in such a way that
the sum of the squares remains constant, when is the rectangle
9.
sum
maximum
area?
EXERCISES
(Squared paper
Show by
two
a drawing that
if
on the
equation.
Show by a drawing
two
that
if
the rectangle
Give a drawing to
2a6 + 2&c + 2ca.
7. Prove and illustrate
6.
(a
illustrate
d+
(a
= a2 +
c)
b2
c2
= a2 + b 2 + c2 +
d 4+ 2a (b + c
+ 26 (c 4- d +
-4-
+ 2c (d
Give
8.
this
theorem in words.
Give a drawing to
4-
illustrate (a
b) (c
d)
4-
&c
= ac
- ad - be
+ bd.
9.
Give a drawing to
illustrate (a
b) (c
d)
ac
- ad +
be
-M.
10. If
a straight line A B
A P and P B
of lengths
is
a and
b respectively,
91
'(2)
11. If
S>
04')'- (-;-)'
2
AP and PB,
of
at
P,
is
\(a
point of section is (a
b).
Examine the equations
-t-
<>
<!)*
12. If in fig.
MP
J>
C-f')'!(-+*)'
+8 (!=-
Make a
P B.
13.
fig.
'"-
66
full-size
drawing.
AP and
PB,
MP
and
AB.
lies in AB produced, fig. 66 (6), and if M is mid-point of
that the difference of the squares on A p and P B is equal
to twice the rectangle contained by M r and A B.
14. If
A B, show
15. If a straight line be divided into two parts, the sum of the
squares on the whole line and on one part is greater than twice
the rectangle contained by the whole line and that part, by the
square on the other part.
16. If a straight line A B be bisected at M and divided unequally
at p, prove that
A B2 = 4MP 2 +
4.
AP.PB.
92
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
CHAPTER XI
SQUARES ON SIDES OF TRIANGLES AREAS OF A
TRIANGLE IN TERMS OF ITS SIDES
Let A c B be a right-angled triangle, A c B
being the
It is required to find the relation between
right angle.
the squares on A B, B c, and c A.
Let
From
CBDE
(fig.
c and B
DM
AB
AE
Through D draw
Now ACE is a
and the figure ABDM is a parallelogram.
On examination, the two triangles B P c and D L B are
equal in every respect, and thus P B = D L.
Kepresent the three sides AB, BC, c A by c,a,6 respectively, and BP and PA the parts of BA by x and y
parallel to
meeting
in M.
straight line,
a2
2
similarly 6
2
a
62
.-.
And
so
we have
(i)
CBDE = a 2 and
= AB.DL = cx
the
= ex
= cy
= e(x +
y)
2
,
The converse
of
sum
of the
If the square
on one
equal to the
sides.
sum
of the squares on
sides, the angle contained by these two
side of a triangle
is
93
is
equal to the
sides equal to
equal to
a and
b has
and three
c,
pletely (chap.
by theorem
lines
(i) its
hypotenuse
viii).
Many
We
have a2
and 6 2
a
(ii)
The
62
difference
= p 2 + x*
= p2 + y2
2
= xz
?/
(i)
So we have
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
94
=
=
and that x + y =
b2 =
Thus we obtain a2
and therefore a 2 =
Referring to
fig.
69
(a),
B c2
x2
y\
+ t/)
+ yf 2
(x
(x
2x
2 y*
2 y (x
y},
a
c
2
2
==
2 c y,
cA
2c
y.
A B2
2 AB A
.
p.
Note on Projections.
line
AB
perpendiculars
Consider
fig.
69
If
A A',
(b)
2
62 = x z
The equation a2
y applies here as in fig.
69 (a). But as B P and P A, the segments of the line, are
= x y.
represented by x and y respectively, the side c
,
So with
2
a
or a2
this in view,
we
write
= a - y = (x - y) 2 + 2xy -2y z
= (x ?/)2 + 2 y (x y) = c2 + 2 y c
6
2
a = c* + b* + 2cy
BC 2 = AB 2 + CA2
.-.
by one
sides
Let a line
point
to A
CM
of A B
(a median) be
(tig. 70).
From
95
of these
it.
drawn from c
to mid-
c draw c P perpendicular
P.
MA
is
MB
is
obtuse.
/.
and
= c M2 + A M2 =
c M2 + M B2 +
a
62
2 A
2 B
M M P,
M P.
(iii)
(iv)
.'.
This gives us
The sum
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
96
Fig. 71
We
.*.
a2
62
have a2
but y
62
.'.
05
and p z
i..
.e..
j9
=
=
y?
C
(c
= az
x2
ct
Let a
2 c
2c
a?
a2
62
2 c
(c
a)
2c
+a +a+
--------4
6) (c
(c
#,
2c
2
2c
f)
+^2 _^2
= x2
=o
2 =
)
6)
(ft
A-
+ c-a)
--
(6
-c+
+ 6 + c = 2s (here s = semiperimeter),
a + 6 + c = 2
/.
a)
- 6)
a - 6 + c = 2
a + 6
c = 2 (s
c).
(.s
o we have
u
2
So
p*
n
i.e.
8
/i
(s
""
P.~ =
2
(s
a) (a
&) (s
c),
a)
But area of
triangle
ABc
97
= ^,
t
= V^(^l~a)
area of triangle
:.
(s
b) (s
c>
SUMMARY
1. The square on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is
equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides.
2. If the square on one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of
the squares on the other two sides, the angle contained by these
two
is
opposite.
4. In any triangle the square on the side opposite an acute
angle is less than the sum of the squares on the other two vsides
by twice the rectangle contained by one of these sides and the
In an obtuse-angled
it.
sides
6.
to twice the
sum
of the squares
of a triangle
is
equal
and
s,
sides a,
EXERCISES
1.
to B
c,
2.
In an
(i)
(ii)
3.
isosceles triangle
A B2 =
2 B c2
the angle B
Ac =
c,
prove that
the angle
A B c = 45.
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
98
4.
sum of
sum
the squares on
5.
Squares
are joined.
(i)
(ii)
AB
of a triangle
of the squares
ABC,
and
AX CQ
Prove
the triangle
ABX
equal in
is
QBC,
Hence show by the method
dicular to c
all
Ax
of rotation that
is
perpen-
Q.
A Z2 + B X 2
8.
of
If
any
= B
C Y2
-f
side b
find
With a
(i)
BN
is
drawn perpendicular
(ii)
= 12"
= 15",
A N (iii) B c.
similar notation,
if
A = 45
the angle
side c
side b
find
With a
BN
A = 30
the angle
side c
(i)
BN
(ii)
=
-
12"
15",
AN
(iii)
similar notation,
if
the angle
A = 60
= 12"
b = 15",
side c
side
find
12.
AC,
11.
X 2 + A Y2
10.
Z2
With a
(i)
BN
AN
(ii)
(iii)
BC.
similar notation,
if
the angle
A = 135
=
=
AN
side c
side b
find
(i)
BN
(ii)
12"
15",
(iii)
c,
c.
to
13.
99
similar notation,
if
the angle
A = 120
- 12"
side c
side h
find
The
[Note.
tion and
(i)
BN
15",
VN
(ii^
(iii)
BC.
worked by
to be
calcula-
from drawings.]
theorems
(4)
and
By
the median
drawn
then p A 2 + P
The sum
c'
P B2 + p
D*.
to the
(i)
(ii)
of the squares
sum of
A' M'
MM' =
MM' =
19. If
M' B'
(A A'
\ (A A'
-f
~ B
B') if
B') if
x y intersects A B
x Y does not intersect A
ABC
B.
line
to
a = 25"
b
c
=
=
52"
63",
find
5,
<7,
,s
b, s
and V$
c,
(s
- a)
(s
b) (s
c).
130, find
(i) s, s
(ii)
[Note.
tions,
(ii)
a, s
b, s
c,
and V*
(s
- a)(s -
b) (s
c).
are to be
worked
(i)
by
calcula-
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
100
CHAPTER
XII
point moves
(ii)
If
a plane
when a
there are
two points
of intersection.
circumference
is
The part
circle
of the
by the
a chord of the
circle.
and
The
line PT,
incident points,
is
said to be a
tangent
co-
to the circle.
CHORDS
101
Let A B (fig. 73) be a given line, and let its right bisector pass
through M.
Consider what would follow if the centre c' of a certain circle
which passed through A and B did not lie on the right bisector.
On
joining C'A
we
c,
be an isosceles triangle.
This obviously
impossible,
What
is
true of c'
is
Fig. 73
is
The centre
(iv)
by
applying (iii).
In
74 (a)
fig.
is
con-
structed.
As
DE
the part of
by the circumference
is
diameter (iii),
c the mid-point of
In
fig.
Fig. 74
the
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
102
The
ference.
is
the centre
(iii).
In fig. 74 (c) the right bisectors of two chords which meet outside
the circle intersect at c the centre.
(v)
A circle
through any
in line.
NOTE.
Here
it is
FB
74
r.75
(vi)
circle are
from
In the circle fig. 76 are two chords A B and A'B'. From c the
centre perpendiculars c M and c M' are drawn to the chords. M and
M' are therefore the mid-points of A B and A'B'. Join c A and c A'.
CHORDS
103
AB =
A'B'.
the chords
if
Again,
AB and
A'B'
AM
AMC
method
of
superposition,
(2)
by
Fig. 76
applying the relation between the
hypotenuse and the sides of a
right-angled triangle (page 92), by referring to Chap. VIII.
77
fig.
we have a
OA, and
chords
may
Consider
be drawn.
AB
through
segments are AP
and P B. From o the centre of the
circle a perpendicular o M is drawn
P.
to
is
A B.
Its
From
(iii)
we
learn that
the mid-point of A B.
Join o A and O P and
Fig. 77
With a
and d are
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
104
Since A
Mo
is
a right-angled triangle,
A M2
.'.
+ p* =
=
Similarly MP +f
A M 2 - M P2 = r2 - d 2 =
- M P) =
(A M + M P) (A M
AP PB =
2
.'.
.*.
.*.
r2
(p. 92.)
d\
a constant.
a constant.
a constant.
Hence we have
"If a chord in a circle passes through a fixed point
in that circle, the rectangle contained by the segments
into which the chord is divided at that point has a fixed
value
As
".
this
magnitude
is,
as
we have
When
the diameter
as in
so
fig.
78,
right bisector,
M and
P coincide, and
Or thus
D P PE = A P 2
.
(r
is
is its
+ d) (r
d)
= DP.PE.
From
AB.
centre
o draw
OM
perpendicular
to
chord
CHORDS
105
We
have
M P2 + p 2 = d2
AM 2 + p 2 = r 2
.'.
.'.
= d 2 - r2 =
(MP + AM)(MP - AM) =
pB =
/. A P
M P2 -
A M2
g.
a constant.
a constant.
a constant.
79
Hence we have
"
The
a chord in a given
point
is
of fixed value
".
chords which
Accordingly
is
the diameter
all
D E, and
so
DP.PE = AP.PB.
Note that
DP.PE = (o P + D o) (o P - o E) = (d + r) (d - r)
= d2 r2 (the constant to which AP.PB
equal).
is
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
106
Tangent to a
circle.
P,
when
Since for
all
the
we have
tude,
DP.PE = AP.PB =
.-.
OTP
is
a right angle
(p. 92).
Hence
NOTE.
(ii)
(iii)
The perpendicular
it
to a given
follows that
to a tangent
We
T, A,
and
B.
CHORDS
in line.
107
It
may
easily be
shown that
if
A P'
Fig. 81
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
1.
The
centre.
2.
line.
4.
When
is
without the
circle,
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
108
externally divided
is
is
is
6.
When
QUESTIONS
How would you prove that a straight line cannot cut a circle
more than two points'!
2. How would you prove that a straight line drawn across a
closed curve must cut it in an even number of points'?
"
3. How would you apply the obvious theorem,
the two sides
1.
in
",
to prove
What
What
is
meant by distance
of chord
from centre 3
is
in a given circle?
7. How would you use the relation between the sides and the
hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle to prove that of two unequal
chords in a circle the longer is nearer the centre ?
8. If p and p' are the respective distances of two chords from
1
What
is
meant by
this?
CHORDS
How
12.
109
is
at right angles to a
radius 1
13. How could you find the centre of a given circle by means of
Give a full proof.
a straight-edge, a set-square, and a pencil
1
Two
14.
How would
all
cir-
EXERCISES
1.
Draw
points
A and B
is less
ment and
4.
calculation.
From
draw a perpen-
Bisect each independently of the others. Join the mid-points of each pair of
chords. Derive a theorem.
6. Draw several parallel chords in a circle.
Draw the right
bisector of one of the chords.
As this right bisector passes
through the centre, and is perpendicular to each of the other
is
Draw a
the centre.
circle of 5
Draw
cm. radius.
chords through
r.
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
110
is
divided at
P.
chord.
What theorem
10. Practise
result.
15. Take o the centre of two concentric circles.
Join P, a point
on the outer circle, to o, cutting inner circle at T. Through
T draw a straight line at right angles to p o, cutting outer circle
in P' and p", Join r'o and p"o, cutting inner circle in T' and T"
CHORDS
Join PT'
respectively.
tangents to the circle.
16. Practise
and PT".
111
Prove that
PT and PT"
;
are
Mark a
PA and
18.
say 50.
angle of
point in
perpendiculars on OA and OB. Measure these perpenProve that they are equal. Describe a set of circles
which will touch both o A and o B.
19. Draw o A and o B, as in 18, and describe a circle of radius 1"
oc draw
diculars.
which
will touch
both
lines.
through
P.
21.
so
In a given straight line find a point such that the straight line
it to a given circle shall be of a given length.
[Note
that if the straight line and circle are given in position, the length
of the line to which the tangent is to be equal may be as large as
you please, but cannot be less than a certain length.]
23. Through a given point draw a straight line which shall cut
22.
drawn from
Describe a
circle
which
shall
have
its
centre in a given
and touch
26. Describe the circles which pass through a given point and
touch two given straight lines.
27. Describe a circle touching a given straight line in a given
point, and cutting off from a second line a chord of given length,
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
112
chord becomes
less
and
line of centres.]
30. Draw a figure,
less,
but
is
common
tangent
is
B.
[Here
at right angles
CHAPTER
XIII
segment of a circle
divides
two
into
equal
its
is
endb/
circle
exactly
or
portions,
while
chord
not
a
every
diameter
divides
semicircles,
unequal segments
and the circumference into two unequal arcs.
Thus
the
in
chord
fig.
AB
82
di-
Fig. 82
113
B,
Q' B,
same segment of a
on the same arc of a
circle,
or standing
We
in
if
an
is
and
is
Fig. ss
of these angles.
Take now
as in
fig.
84 three segments of a
circle
value.
o,
circle,
(Bi29)
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
114
AT
Fig. 84
The point o
will lie
is
the same in
the angle A p o
and the angle o p B
APB
angles A o
is
is
is
all cases,
For
D and DOB,
Now
115
sum
the
on the
APB
DPB
angles
AOB
DOB
(as
is
the algebraic
sum
of the
marked
is
the algebraic
sum
of the angles
and A OD.]
Hence
in all cases
Incidentally
we
"
Thus
".
AOB
84 the angle
(as
fig.
to
twice
the
marked)
equal
angle APB.
Referring again to the same figure, it is clear that in
in all the cases of
is
DOB
Therefore in
(1) the angle
(3a) and
APB
is
APB
is
angle.
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
116
"The angle
in a semicircle
in a
Now
let
two chords
of a circle
AB and CD
intersect
BD
==
is
D.
It
on an arc which
is
two chords
principle
angle between them is equal to the angle at the circumference standing on an arc equal to the sum of the two
arcs subtended
If a circle
117
Let
circle
ABCD
(fig.
whose centre
A and c
of the quadrilateral.
sum
sum of
CDA
Therefore the
of the angles
to half the
the angles
Thus
(v) "The sum of two opposite angles of a quadrilateral
inscribed in a circle is equal to two right angles ".
Now
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
118
That
(vi)
is
is
is
angle ".
If
let
we have
EC a
tangent to the
this
lid
Thus
"
(vii)
If a straight line
touch a
circle
and a chord be
As an
From
c draw
CE
so that
ACE
shall
be equal to the
given angle.
Let the right bisector of A c meet at c a perpendicular
through c to CE. A circle described with o as centre
and oc as radius will pass through A and c and will
touch the line
CE
at
c.
The
CONSTRUCTIVE GEOMETRY
120
dition.
if
Thus,
it
is
base
is
SUMMARY
(i)
(ii)
The angles
The angle
in the
same segment
is
EXERCISES
1.
Two
circles intersect in
PYQ
is
x and
circles in p
Y,
and
and a
Q.
line
PXQ
is
drawn
constant.
Show
121
If
PXQ
4.
standing on an arc equal to (a) half the circumference, (b) onethird the circumference, (c) a quadrant, (d) one-fifth, (e) l-?ith the
circumference.
5.
triangle moves in its plane so that two of its sides always
pass through two iixed points. Find the locus of the vertex (the
intersection of these two sides).
The radius
of
one
circle is
a diameter of another.
Prove
of contact
any quadrilateral be bisected interprove that the four bisectors form on production a cyclic
nally,
quadrilateral.
9. Two equal circles cut in x and Y, and a straight line P x Q is
drawn through x and terminated by the circumferences; show
that PY and QY are equal.
the tangent at B
10. A B and c D are parallel chords of a circle
meets c D produced in T. Prove that the triangles A B D and B D T
;
are equiangular.
11. If
two equal
circles cut in
x and
Y,
and
if
a circle with
as
XY
centre and
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