Matter

Form 1

Chemistry

Materials can be solid, liquid or gaseous, depending upon the arrangement and freedom of movement of
these particles.
5.1. THE CONCEPT OF MATTER
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Therefore, anything around us provided it has mass
and can occupy the space, is termed as matter. There are many kinds of matter. Can you mention some?
The word matter is used to cover all the substances and materials from which the earth and universe is
composed of. These include all materials around us such as water, soil, plants, animals, air, clothes, etc.
Any particular kind of matter is called a substance. Substances include elements and compounds. An
element is a substance which is the limit of chemical analysis. When two or more elements are combined
chemically, a compound is formed. Matter is made up of atoms, ions or molecules. You will learn more
about this later.
5.2. STATES OF MATTER
Any chemical substance we study exists in any of the three forms (or physical states). The three different
states of matter are solid, liquid and gaseous states. So, each of the many millions of substances around us
can be classified as a solid, a liquid or gas. Look around you and name substances that are solids, liquids
and gases. The state in which any matter exists depends on temperature and sometimes pressure
conditions. One substance may exist as a solid in one condition and as a liquid or gas under a different
condition. Water is an example of such substances. This change is called a change in the state of matter.
The three physical states of matter differ in the way they respond to temperature and pressure. All three
states can increase in volume (expansion) when the temperature is increased. They decrease in volume
(contraction) when the temperature is decreased. Gases are easily compressed. Liquids are only slightly
compressible. Solids are incompressible. They are not affected by change in pressure.
Experiment 5.1. Investigation of the compressibility of solids, liquids and gases
Procedure
1. Take three new syringes and fill them with sand, water and air respectively (figure 5.1).
2. Try to push in the end of each syringe.

3. Observe what happens.

MCHORO
Figure 5.1. Compressibility of solids, liquids and gases
Observation
Which of the substances under investigation can compress into a smaller volume?
Findings
You should have found that a solid (sand) and a liquid (water) cannot be compressed but a gas (air) is
easily compressed.
The three states of matter differ in their physical properties. These differences in properties are
summarized in table 5.1.
Table 5.1. Differences in properties of the three states of matter

Property

Shape

Physical state
Solid

Liquid

Gas

has a definite

no definite shape, takes

no definite shape, occupy

shape

shape of the container

whole container

has a fixed volume

variable (depending on
temperature and pressure)

has a fixed
volume
Volume

Fluidity

does not flow

generally flows easily

flows easily

Expansion on
heating

low

medium

high

Compressibility

incompressible

almost incompressible

highly compressible

Motion of
particles

slow

high

very high

Density

high

moderate to high

low

Tangibility

tangible

tangible

intangible

Visibility

visible

visible

invisible

5.2.1 Change in states of matter

We have seen that matter exists in three different states - solids, liquids and gases. We can use the kinetic
theory of matter to explain how a substance changes from one state to another. Basically, changes from
one state to another are caused by alterations in temperature and pressure. Normally molecules, ions or
atoms of a substance move faster when the temperature is increased.
Melting and freezing
Melting is a change from solid to liquid state. When solids are heated, their constituent particles (atoms,
molecules or ions) get energy and vibrate more violently. Vibrations of these particles overcome (exceed)
their binding forces. The particles become mobile. The crystalline structure of solid is destroyed. A liquid
state is reached and the particles are free to move. The temperature at which this happens is calledmelting
point of the solid.

Figure 5.2. Change in state from solid to liquid

The melting point of a solid tells us something about the strength of forces holding its constituent
particles together. Substances with high melting points have strong forces between their particles. Those
with low melting points have weak forces between their particles.
Freezing is a change from liquid to solid state. Freezing is the opposite of melting. The process is reversed
at the same temperature if a liquid is cooled. The temperature at which a substance turns to a solid is
called freezing point. The melting point and freezing point of any given substance are both the same. For
example, the melting and freezing of pure water takes place at 0C. Melting is not affected by any
changes in atmospheric pressure.
Evaporation and boiling
Boiling is a change from liquid to vapour state at a particular temperature. Evaporation is the change
from liquid to vapour state at any given temperature.
If a liquid is exposed to open air, it evaporates. Splashes of water evaporate at room temperature. After
rain, small pools of water dry up. When a liquid changes into a gas at any temperature, the process is
called evaporation. Evaporation takes places from the surface of the liquid. The larger the surface area, the

faster the liquid evaporates. The warmer the liquid is, the faster it evaporates. Thus, surface area and
temperature affects the rate of evaporation of a liquid.
When a liquid is heated, its molecules get more energy and move faster. They knock into each other
violently and bounce further apart. As the heating goes on, its molecules vibrate even faster. Bubbles of
gas (due to air dissolved in water) appear inside the liquid. The whole process is called boiling. The
temperature at which a liquid boils is called boiling point.

Figure 5.3. Change in state from liquid to gas

The molecules at the surface of the liquid gain enough energy to overcome the forces holding them
together. They break away from the liquid and from a gas (vapour). As more of the liquid molecules
escape to form a gas, a liquid is said to evaporate. This occurs at the boiling point of a liquid.
The temperature at which a liquid boils explains how strong the forces holding its particles (molecules)
together are. Liquids with high boiling points have strong forces of attraction between their molecules
than those liquids with low boiling points.
The boiling point of a liquid can change if the surrounding pressure changes. If the surrounding pressure
falls, the boiling point also falls. The boiling point of water at standard pressure (760 mmHg) is 100C. On
a high mountain, where pressure is low, it is lower than 100C. If the surrounding pressure is increased,

the boiling point rises. The same behaviour is experienced by a gas when the pressure is either increased
or decreased.
Table 5.2. The melting and boiling points of some common chemical substances at standard
temperature and pressure (s.t.p)

Substance

Physical state at room temperature

(20C)

Melting point
(C)

Boiling
point(C)

Oxygen

gas

-219

-183

Nitrogen

gas

-210

-196

Ethanol (alcohol)

liquid

-117

78

Water

liquid

100

Sulphur

solid

115

444

Common salt (sodium

chloride)

solid

801

1465

Copper

solid

1083

2600

Carbon dioxide

gas

sublimation point (C):

-78
From the above explanation, obvious differences between evaporation and boiling can be detected. See
table 5.3.
Table 5.3. Differences between evaporation and boiling
Evaporation

Boiling

1.Occurs at all temperatures

Occurs at one particular temperature (boiling point)

2.Occurs on the surface of the liquid

Occurs both inside and on the surface of the liquid

3.Takes place slowly

Takes place faster

4.Bubbles are not necessarily formed

Bubbles are formed

Therefore, the two terms can be defined as follows:

Evaporation is a change in state of a substance from liquid to gas (vapour) state at any temperature.
Boiling is a change in state of a substance from liquid to gas at a particular temperature and pressure.

Condensation and solidification

The reverse of evaporation is condensation. This is brought about by cooling. When a gas is cooled down,
its particles lose energy. They move more and more slowly. When they knock into each other, they do not
have enough energy to bounce away again. They stay close together and a liquid forms. This process is
called condensation. When the liquid is cooled further, the movement of the particles slows down even
more. Eventually, they stop moving and a solid forms. This is called solidification.
Condensation can be defined as a change in state of a substance from gas (vapour) to liquid.Solidification is
a change from liquid to solid state of a substance. Solidification is the same as freezing.
Sublimation
A few solids do not melt when they are heated. Instead, they change directly from the solid to gaseous
state without passing through the liquid state. This change in state is called sublimation. When a solid
changes directly into gas, it is said to sublime. Iodine, solid carbon dioxide ("dry ice") and ammonium
chloride are examples of solids that sublime. Like melting, sublimation also occurs at one particular
temperature for each pure solid.
5.2.2. Importance of change in state
The following points summarize the importance of change in state:
1. Separation of mixtures
Different mixtures can be separated through such processes as distillation, sublimation, evaporation and
condensation. Let us have a look at an example of distillation. This process involves boiling, evaporation
and condensation. Distillation as a process can be applied in separation of a mixture (solution) of two or
more substances. A mixture of two or more substances with different boiling points e.g. water and
alcohol can be separated by this means. In such a case, a container with the mixed-up liquids is heated.
The liquid with a low boiling point evaporates and condenses first, leaving the one with a high boiling
point in the container. The distillate (liquid with low boiling point) is collected, cooled down and
transferred into another container.
2. Industrial manufacture of products
Industrially, the process of distillation is applied in the production of pure substances such as beer and
other alcoholic drinks such as wine, vodka, konyagi, etc. The manufacturing process involves boiling,
evaporating and condensation.
3. Refining of petroleum (crude oil)
Crude oil contains organic liquid components, each with a different boiling point. In the refinery, the
components with lower boiling points evaporate first and get separated out, leaving those with higher
boiling points behind. In this way, we get various types of oil components (fractions) such as petrol,
diesel, kerosene, lubricating oil, etc.
4. Drying of crops and clothes

When you suspend your clothing on a cloth line to dry, the moisture in it is lost through evaporation.
Likewise, farmers in the village often spread crops on the ground to dry. They do this in order to reduce
moisture content and hence prevent decaying. The moisture contained in crops leave by evaporation.
Therefore, you can notice how evaporation, as a change in state, is important in everyday lives.
5. Cooling of our bodies in hot weather
During hot weather, our bodies perspire a lot. When water evaporates from the body, it takes up heat.
This brings about the cooling effect, as heat is lost from the body surface. The cooling effect is more
evident when the wind or air is blowing over the body. This is because wind increases the rate of
evaporation. In this way, the body gets cooled down.
6. Ice formation in refrigerators
You all like to drink cold water or beverages especially during hot weather. You can use a refrigerator to
cool down drinking water or beverages directly. Alternatively, you can freeze water into ice and then use
the resulting ice for cooling the beverage. Ice blocks are also saleable. Moreover, one can earn some
money if she freezes water into ice blocks and then sells them to beverage vendors. Perishable products
such as fish, meat, milk, etc are often packed in ice blocks to prevent them from going bad. Ice, as we
studied early, is formed when water freezes (a change in state from liquid to solid).
7. Melting metals to make alloys
In metallurgical industries, need may arise to mix two or more metals (alloys) together. This is only
possible, where two or more metals are first melted at high temperatures into liquids. Then the resulting
liquid metals are mixed in appropriate proportions. This is followed by cooling down the mixture to a
solid alloy. Normally alloys have better qualities than individual metals.
8. Testing the purity of substances
The presence of impurity may lower or raise the boiling point of the substance. A pure substance melts
and boils at definite temperatures (see table 5.4). The values for the melting point and boiling point are
precise and predictable. This means that we can use them to test the purity of a sample. They can also be
used to check the identity of unknown substance.
A typical example
Sea water is impure. It freezes at a temperature well below the freezing point of pure water (0C) and
boils at a temperature above the boiling point of pure water (100C). Other substances behave in a similar
manner. So, boiling as a change in state can be used to test for the purity of a substance.
In addition, the impurity also reduces the exactness of the melting or boiling point. An impure substance
melts or boils over a range of temperature, not at a particular point.
Table 5.4. Melting and boiling points of some pure substances
Substance

Melting point (C)

Boiling point (C)

Water

100

Ethanol

-117

78

Oxygen

-219

-183

Sodium

98

890

Sulphur

119

445

Iron

1540

2900

Diamond

3550

4832

Cobalt

1492

2900

Nitrogen

-210

-196

Propane

-188

- 42

Ethanoic acid

16

118

9. Formation of rain
Perhaps the most important of all, as far as change in state is concerned, is the formation of rain. Rained is
mainly formed through the process of evaporation and condensation. Water vapour, evaporating mostly
from water bodies (oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, ponds, etc), land and plants rises up to the sky. As it rises, it
cools down and condenses into tiny droplets. On further cooling as they rise up, these droplets form
bigger water drops. Owing to gravitational force, these drops fall down as rainfall. Every one of you
knows how important rain is to our life. Therefore, you have noticed how evaporation and condensation,
as changes in state, contribute to rain formation.

Fig. 5.4 Rain formation

5.2.3. Kinetic nature of matter
We already know that matter is composed of atoms, ions or molecules. We have not yet considered the
reason why the same substance, say water, can exist in more than one form, for example as solid ice,
liquid water, and gaseous steam. But does matter behave like that?
The kinetic theory of matter has been used to explain the way in which the arrangement of the particles
of a substance can determine the properties of that substance, and particularly the state in which it is
likely to be found under a given set of conditions. The idea is that all matter is made up of tiny moving
particles. The main points of the theory are as follows:
1. All matter is made up of tiny particles (atoms and molecules) that are invisible to the naked eye and to
most microscopes.
2. The particles are moving all the time. The higher the temperature is, the higher the average energy of
the particles.
3. Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles at the same temperature.
4. Each substance has unique particles that are different from the particles of other substances.
5. The particles of matter are held together by strong electrostatic forces.
6. There are empty spaces between the particles of matter that are very large compared to the particles
themselves.
The solid state
In the solid state, the particles are so closely packed (see figure 5.5(a). The particles are held together by
strong forces of attraction that act like a chemical glue. Free movement of particles cannot take place.
They cannot move around freely in this arrangement. Instead, they vibrate about a fixed position. They
are arranged in a fixed pattern which form a cluster of vibrating masses. This makes a solid to have a
fixed shape, which cannot be changed except by applying strong external forces.
The liquid state
The particles of a liquid are also closely packed but the forces of attraction between them are weaker than
of a solid. These forces of attraction tend to bind them together. The particles have more kinetic energy
and they can move around each other. The binding forces are strong when particles come close to one
another. It is thought that the particles of a liquid are fairly randomly arranged but consist of "clusters"
closely packed together. This property makes a liquid to have a definite volume. However, since the
particles are fairly free to move a liquid does not have any characteristic shape (see figure 5.5(b). Thus, a
liquid will always take the shape of its container.
The gaseous state
The gaseous state is one in which the particles are moving independently of each other in all directions
and at great speeds. The particles of a gas are relatively far apart (see figure 5.5(c). They exert no force of

attraction on each other. They have more energy than the particles of solids and liquids. They move
rapidly and randomly, colliding with each other and with the walls of the container. A typical speed for a
molecule of hydrogen in air at ordinary temperature and pressure has been found to be approximately
500 ms-1. It has been estimated that a nitrogen molecule makes 109 collisions each second. Thus, a gas will
rapidly spread out to fill any container in which it is placed. A gas cannot have any shape of its own.

Figure 5.4. Three states of matter

5.3. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
Depending on the nature of change, all changes that matter undergoes can be classified as either physical
or chemical.
Physical change
Substances may undergo changes in their physical properties e.g. changes in colour, shape (or form),
state, density, structure and texture, etc. If you take a stone and break it down into small particles, you
will have only changed its form, but it will remain as a stone. Likewise, melting ice to water or freezing
water to ice does not change it, but it is still water. The same case happens when you dissolve salt in
water to get a solution of salt in water. You can still get back the original salt by evaporation, except that
the crystals of the salt obtained will not look exactly the same as those of the original salt.
These changes of state are examples of physical changes. Physical changes such as melting and boiling do
not result in new substances being formed. For example, ice and water still contain the same particles
whether in solid (ice) liquid (water) or gaseous (vapour) state.

Figure 5.6. Changes in states

Characteristics of a physical change
In the explanation above, we find that in a physical change it is only the physical form, and not the actual
nature, of a substance that changes. The changes are brought about by a mere addition or removal of
heat, as in the case with water or ice. Such a change is called a physical change. It can be distinguished by
the following characteristics:
1. There is no formation of a new substance. Consider an example given above. The ice, liquid water and
steam are the solid, liquid and gaseous forms of the same substance (water).
2. There is no change in weight of the substance undergoing the change. If you start with 50g of ice, you
will still get the same mass of water and steam (vapour) upon melting and boiling respectively.
3. The changes are readily reversible. You can easily change water back to ice and vapour to water by a
mere subtraction of heat (cooling).
4. It is not accompanied by a great heat change. Just a little heat is required to change ice to water, and
water to steam.
Demonstration of physical changes experimentally
Experiment 5.2.

1. Add some common salt (sodium chloride) to distilled water in a beaker. Stir the mixture until the salt
disappears and forms a solution with water. Transfer the water into a porcelain dish. Heat the content
until all the water has evaporated off. The salt reappears in its original white solid form.
2. Grind some roll sulphur in a mortar to powder. Put the resultant powder in a test-tube and heat
gently, shaking all the time. The sulphur melts to an amber-coloured liquid. On cooling, this liquid
returns to its original condition as a yellow solid.
3. Put a block of ice in a beaker. Heat gently until the whole block melts to form water. Pour the water
formed in a cup and place it in a deep freezer overnight. The water will freeze back to ice.
You will have seen that all the above changes involve only changes in physical forms of the substances.
The chemical nature of substances remained unchanged. Therefore, we can define a physical change as a
change that does not involve formation of a new substance but involves a change in state or physical
form of the substance and that such a form can be reversed.
Chemical change
Some changes that materials undergo are permanent. Such changes usually involve changes in chemical
properties of a substance. For example, when you burn a piece of wood in fire, you get ash. The
properties of wood and ash are very different. There is no way you can change ash back to wood. It is
practically impossible. A permanent change in chemical properties of a substance is called a chemical
change. In a chemical change, a substance losses all its physical and chemical properties.
Characteristics of a chemical change
1. A chemical change results in the formation of a new substance. The new substance has different
chemical and physical properties as compared to the original substance.
2. It is generally not reversible. For example, you cannot turn the ash back to wood.
3. There is a change in weight or mass of the substance undergoing the change. When you burn wood
weighing 5 kg, you cannot expect to get the same weight of ash.
4. The change is accompanied by a considerable heat change. For wood to burn to ash a lot of heat must
be supplied.
We can therefore define a chemical change as the one in which a new substance is formed and that such a
form cannot be reversed.
Demonstration of chemical changes experimentally
Experiment 5.3.
1. Strongly heat some roll sulphur on a deflagrating spoon until it melts and begins to burn with a blue
flame. If you continue heating, it gradually decreases in amount and finally the spoon will be left empty.
The disappearance of sulphur is due to the formation of a new gaseous substance that is invisible. The
presence and existence of a gas in air can be defected by its irritating smell. The gas can also be detected
by burning the sulphur in a gas jar to which some blue litmus solution has been added. The gas formed,
sulphur dioxide, will turn the blue litmus paper into a red one.

2. With the aid of tongs, subject a piece of magnesium ribbon to a Bunsen burner flame. The ribbon
burns to produce a new substance, white ash of magnesium oxide.
3. Wrap a wet cotton wool around an iron nail. Keep it in a test tube for 3 days. By the 3 rd day, some
brown marks of rust will appear on the surface of the nail. Rust is hydrated iron (III) oxide. This is quite a
new substance compared to iron nails.
Table 5.5. Differences between physical and chemical changes
Physical change

Chemical change

1. Produces no new kind of matter

Always produces a new kind of matter

2. There is no change is mass or weight of the

substance

2. There is a substantial change in the weight

of the substance

3. The change can be reversed

3. The change cannot be reversed

4. Little heat is absorbed or evolved

4. Heat changes may be large

5. The change involves only a change in physical

properties of a substance

5. Both physical and chemical properties are

changed.

5.4. ELEMENTS AND SYMBOLS

5.4.1. Elements
Our world and universe are made up of millions of different substances. We have already seen how these
substances can be classified into solids, liquids and gases. However, on close examination, we find that
these substances are made up of a number of small elements.
An element can be defined as a substance that cannot, by any known chemical process, be split into two
or more simpler substances. This means that elements cannot, by any chemical process, be made to yield
substances simpler than themselves. An element is a substance because it has the same composition
throughout.
In 1803, a scientist called John Dalton suggested that each element was made up of its own kind of
particles. He called these particles the atoms. Therefore, an element is a substance that is made up of
only one kind of atoms.
There are over 105 different elements known. Of these, 90 have been obtained from the Earth's crust and
the atmosphere, and 15 have been artificially made by scientists. From this small band of elements, all
other substances on earth are made. Table 5.6 shows the approximate percentage composition by mass of
the elements in the earth's crust, the oceans, and the atmosphere. Can you notice the abundance of
oxygen? Analysis of the earth's crust, the oceans, and the atmosphere, reveals that oxygen is the most
abundant element on earth, accounting for half the total mass.
Table 5.6. Percentage by mass of elements in the earth's crust, oceans and atmosphere

Percentage by mass of elements

in the earths crust

Percentage by mass of
elements in the oceans

Percentage by mass of elements

in the atmosphere

Oxygen

47

Oxygen

86

Nitrogen

75.5

Silicon

28

Nitrogen

10.9

Oxygen

23

Aluminium

7.8

Chlorine

1.8

Argon

1.4

Iron

4.5

Sodium

1.0

Hydrogen

0.02

Calcium

3.5

Magnesium

0.1

Carbon

0.01

Sodium

2.5

Calcium

0.05

Others
0.07
( total)
Potassium

2.5

Sulphur

0.05

Magnesium

2.0

Potassium

0.04

Titanium

0.5

Nitrogen

0.02

Hydrogen

0.2

Bromine

0.01

Carbon

0.2

Carbon

0.01

1.3

Others (total)

0.02

Others
( total)
5.4.2. Names and Symbols of Elements
A chemical symbol is the way of representing an element using initial letter(s). There are many different
elements as you have seen above. Every element has a name and a symbol to represent it. Some symbols
are just a single capital letter, such as H. Others have two letters, the first of which is always a capital,
such as Mg.
Rules for assigning chemical symbols to elements
1.
2.
3.
4.

Each element is given a different symbol to represent it.

Some elements are represented by two letters e.g. Ca (for calcium), Cl (for chlorine), etc.
If two letters represent the element, the first letter is always a capital and the second letter is always a
small letter e.g. argon (Ar) and helium (He).
In order to avoid confusion, some elements have their chemical symbols derived from Latin names (See
table 5.8)

All symbols are recognized and are used by all scientists all over the world. Some examples of elements
and their symbols are given in the table below:
Table 5.7. Names and Symbols of some Elements
Element

Symbol

Element

Symbol

Aluminium

Al

Bromine

Br

Copper

Cu

Carbon

Iron

Fe

Chlorine

Cl

Lead

Pb

Hydrogen

Magnesium

Mg

Nitrogen

Mercury

Hg

Oxygen

Potassium

Phosphorus

Silver

Ag

Sulphur

Sodium

Na

Silicon

Si

Calcium

Ca

Iodine

Manganese

Mn

Fluorine

Tin

Sn

Gold

Au

Chromium

Cr

Zinc

Zn

Nickel

Ni

It is easy to remember that the symbol for aluminium is Al, and for carbon is C. But some symbols are
harder to remember because they are taken from Latin names. For example, potassium has the symbol, K
from its Latin name Kalium. Sodium has the symbol, Na from its Latin name Natrium. See the complete
list in the following table.
Table 5.8. Elements with Latin names

English name

Latin name

Chemical symbol

Sodium

Natrium

Na

Gold

Aurum

Au

Potassium

Kalium

Mercury

Hydragyrum

Hg

Silver

Argentum

Ag

Antimony

Stibium

Sb

Lead

Plumbum

Pb

Tin

Stannum

Sn

Iron

Ferrum

Fe

Copper

Cuprum

Cu

Tungsten

Wolfram

The reason for assigning some elements with Latin names was to avoid confusion among scientists when
representing different elements. For example, the symbol for silicon is Si. It could be impossible to
represent silicon by the symbol S and at the same time represent the element sulphur by the very symbol,
S. Similarly, potassium could not be represented by the symbol P that was assigned to phosphorus. So in
order to avoid such confusion, scientists decided to use Latin names to represent some elements. In so
doing, the anticipated and unnecessary contradiction among scientists from different parts of the world
was avoided.
Symbols are particularly useful when more than one atom is present in a substance. For example,
hydrogen gas consists of pairs of hydrogen atoms joined together. So hydrogen gas is shown as H 2. When
more than one atom is joined together like this, we call the substance formed a molecule. Atoms making
up gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc, always exist as molecules. Sulphur exists as a
hexagonal ring of eight atoms. Phosphorus exists as a tetrahedron of four atoms. Table 5.9 shows some
elements that exist as molecules.
Table 5.9. Elements that exist as molecules
Element

Atomic symbol

Molecular symbol

Oxygen

O2

Nitrogen

N2

Hydrogen

H2

Sulphur

S2

Phosphorus

P2

Chlorine

Cl

Cl2

Fluorine

F2

Bromine

Br

Br2

Iodine

I2

5.4.3. Classification of Elements

Elements can be classified as either metals or non-metals. Metals and non-metals have different physical
and chemical properties. This is the criterion used for classification of these elements into metals on one
hand and non-metals on the other hand. Table 5.10 summarizes the physical and chemical properties of
some common elements.
Table 5.10. Properties of some common elements
Element

Solid,
Density
Date of
discovery

Metal or nonmetal?

liquid
or

Melting
point(C)

Boiling
point(C)

( g cm3)

gas?
Oxygen

1774

Non-metal

Gas

-219

-183

0.00132

Nitrogen

1772

Non-metal

Gas

-210

-196

0.00117

Carbon

Ancient

Non-metal

Solid

3500

4827

22

Iron

1735

Metal

Solid

1540

3000

7.9

Copper

Ancient

Metal

Solid

1080

2500

9.0

Lead

Ancient

Metal

Solid

327

1744

113

Gold

Ancient

Metal

Solid

1060

2700

193

Silver

Ancient

Metal

Solid

961

2200

10.5

Hydrogen

1766

Non-metal

Gas

-259

-253

0.00008

Aluminium

1825

Metal

Solid

660

2450

27

Zinc

1746

Metal

Solid

419

910

7.1

Mercury

Ancient

Metal

Liquid

-39

357

13.6

Iodine

1811

Non-metal

Gas

114

183

4.9

Chlorine

1774

Non-metal

Gas

-101

-35

0.003

Sodium

1807

Metal

Solid

98

890

0.97

Potassium

1807

Metal

Solid

64

760

0.86

Sulphur

Ancient

Non-metal

Solid

119

444

2.1

Phosphorus

1669

Non-metal

Solid

44

280

1.8

5.4.4. Metals and non-metals

There are 94 naturally occurring elements. Some of them are very rare. Francium, for instance, has never
been seen. The radioactive metals neptunium and plutonium, which we make artificially in quite large
amounts, only occur in very small (trace) quantities naturally. Most of the elements can be classified as
metals. The rest are non-metals. To understand these elements better, refer to the Periodic Table of
Elements at the back of this book.
Classification of elements into metals and non-metals is based on differences between their physical and
chemical properties. Differences between metals and non-metals are shown in table 5.11.
Table 5.11. The differences between metals and non-metals
A: Physical properties
Metals

Non-metals

1. Have high densities except for sodium and

potassium

Have low densities

2. Shine and can be polished

Are dull and cannot be polished

3. Are malleable and ductile, that is, they can be

Are brittle

hammered into sheets and drawn into wires

4. Have high tensile strength

Have low tensile strength

5. Have high melting points except for sodium,

potassium and mercury (which is a liquid at room
temperature)

Have low melting points and many of them are

gases

6. Are good conductors of heat and electricity

Are poor conductors of heat and electricity

except carbon, in the form of graphite, which
conducts electricity

7. They make a ringing sound when struck (they are

sonorous)

They are not sonorous

B: Chemical properties
1. Give basic oxides, that is, oxides which react
with acids

Give acidic oxides, that is, oxides which react with

bases

2. Replace hydrogen in acids to form salts

Do not react with acids in this manner

3. Form positive (+) ions

Form negative (-) ions

4. Form electrovalent chlorides which are stable in

water

Form covalent chlorides which react with water.

5. Do not react with hydrogen

Form stable compound with hydrogen

The properties discussed above are of a general nature and exceptions do occur. Hence, some elements
may appear to be intermediate between metals and non-metals. These are called metalloids or semiconductors. Others may differ from the two groups in just one or two cases. Such elements have some of

the properties of metals and others that are more characteristic of non-metals. See the Periodic Table at
the back of this book for illustration.
Compound and Mixtures

Form 1

Chemistry

Matter contains a mixture of many elements or compounds. In gaseous phase the atmosphere (air) is a
mixture of many gases like Nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur di oxide, nitrogen oxides, oxides of carbon, ozone
and traces of inert gases along with water vapor. In liquid state the water contains many dissolved salts
of metals like Na,K,Mg,Zn,Al etc, Even organic liquid like petroleum is a mixture of many compounds
5.5. COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined together. A mixture
is something that contains two or more elements not combined chemically.
It is always difficult to identify a mixture from a compound. Before going any further into this topic, let
us start by looking at the differences between compounds and mixtures. These differences are
summarized in the table below.
Table 5.12. Differences between mixtures and compounds
Mixtures

Compounds

1. The components of a mixture can be

separated by physical means, e.g.
filtering, magnetic separation,
decantation, etc

The components of a compound can be separated by

chemical means only

2. The composition of a mixture can vary

widely, e.g. a mixture of 20g of sand with
1g of salt or vice versa.

Compounds are fixed in their compositions by mass of

elements present, e.g. there are always 2 atoms of hydrogen
to 1 atom of oxygen in a molecule of water (H2O)

3. Mixing is not usually accompanied by

external effects such as explosion,
evolution of heat, or volume change (for
gases)

Chemical combination is usually accompanied by one or

more of these effects

4. Properties of a mixture are the sum of

the properties of the individual
constituents of the mixture.

The properties of a compound are quite different from

those of its constituent elements. For example, water is a
liquid whereas its constituent elements, hydrogen and
oxygen, are both gases.

5. No new substance is produced as the

mixture forms

A new substance is always produced when a compound

forms.

5.5.1. Compounds
A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined together. This is a
very important difference from mixtures. Mixtures can contain more than one element but the elements
are not chemically combined. The number of chemical substances known is approximately four millions.
All compounds on earth are made from about one hundred simple materials. Such compounds range
from simplest substances, like water, which contains only two elements, to those complex materials of
which our own bodily tissues are composed. The following is a short list of common compounds and the
elements they are made of.
Table 5.13. Elemental composition of some compounds
Compound

Constituent elements

Water

hydrogen and oxygen

Carbon dioxide

carbon and oxygen

Ethanol

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

Sugar (sucrose)

oxygen, hydrogen and carbon

Sodium chloride
sodium and chlorine
(common salt)

Marble (calcium carbonate)

calcium, carbon and oxygen

Sulphuric acid

hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen

Sand

silicon and oxygen

Clay

aluminium, oxygen and hydrogen

Compounds have different properties from the elements that make them up. For example:
1.
2.

Water (H2O) is a colourless liquid at room temperature but the elements that make it, hydrogen and
oxygen are both gases.
Sodium chloride is a white solid made of sodium and chlorine. Sodium is a solid, highly reactive metal,
and chlorine is a greenish yellow gas with a chocking smell.
Preparation of a binary compound
A binary compound refers to a compound made up of two different elements. In a binary ionic
compound, the total numbers of positive charges and negative charges must be equal. The following
experiment demonstrates a typical preparation of a binary compound.
Experiment 5.4. Preparation of iron sulphide
Procedure:
1. Weigh 56g of iron filings and 32g of sulphur.
2. Put the two elements in a mortar, grind them thoroughly and mix uniformly.
3. Put the mixture into a dry test tube. Heat the test tube, at the bottom, with a small flame. The mixture
will glow.
5. When it glows remove the flame. The glow will then spread slowly through the mixture without
further heating.
6. Allow the test tube to cool, and then break it away from the mass of material left.
Result:
A dark grey, almost black, solid will be formed. This is iron sulphide. The reaction that took place can be
presented as follows
Fe(s)+S(s) FeS(s)
Here 56g of iron react with 32g of sulphur to produce 88g of iron sulphide.
5.5.2. Mixtures
A mixture is something that contains two or more substances not combined chemically. The substances
may mix up completely or they may remain separate.

Our environment is a mixture of all forms of matter. For example, the earth's crust is a mixture of soils,
rocks, minerals, and water. Sea, river, and lake waters contain dissolved gases, living organisms and,
sometimes, salt. Air consists of gases, water vapour, and dust particles. The components of each of these
mixtures could be elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur or gold. Alternatively, the mixture might
consist of elements and compounds such as hydrocarbons (e.g. petroleum), water, metallic oxides or salts.
Other substances that can form mixtures when placed or mixed together include sand and sugar, maize
and bean seeds, soil and table salt, water and mud, etc.
Classification of mixtures
Mixtures can be classified as solutions, suspensions or emulsions. This classification is based on whether
the mixed substances dissolve completely or not. It also depends on the nature of the mixtures that result
upon mixing. Let us look at each category in detail.
Solutions
A solution is a uniform mixture of two or more substances. Such mixtures may be a solid in a liquid, a
liquid in a liquid, a liquid in a gas and, very rarely, a gas in a gas. (See table 5.14). We most often think of
a solution as being made of a solid dissolved in a liquid. For example, solutions of sugar or salt in water
are quite common. A solid that dissolves in a liquid is called a solute while the liquid in which that solid
dissolves is called a solvent. For example, sugar and salt are solutes and water is a solvent.
However, other substances that are not normally solids can be found dissolved in a liquid. For example,
the gases, carbon dioxide and oxygen, dissolved in water are important for life to continue in oceans,
seas, lakes, rivers, etc.
Less obvious perhaps, but quite common, are solutions of one liquid in another. Alcohol mixes (dissolves)
completely with water. Beer, wine and whisky do not separate into layers of alcohol and water (even
when the alcohol content is quite high). Alcohol and water are completely miscible, that, is they make a
solution.
Solutions of gases in gases are very uncommon. Technically, air could be described as a solution of
several gases in nitrogen, though this could be unusual everyday use of the term. However, it is
interesting to note that different gases always mix completely with each other.
Table 5.14 Examples of types of solutions
Solutes
Solid

Liquid

Gas

Gas

Naphthalene slowly
sublimes in air to form
a solution

Water vapour in air

Oxygen and other

gases in the air

Liquid

Sucrose (sugar) in
water and salt in water

Ethanol (alcohol) in water and

various hydrocarbons in each
other (petroleum)

Carbon dioxide in
water (carbonated
water)

Solvents

Solid

Steel and other metal

alloys

Mercury in gold and hexane in

paraffin wax

Hydrogen in metals

Suspensions
A suspension is a cloudy mixture of solid particles suspended in a liquid. A solid is said to be in
suspension in a liquid when small particles of it are contained in a liquid, but are not dissolved in it.
If the mixture is left undisturbed, the solid particles will slowly settle to the bottom of the containing
vessel, leaving the pure liquid above them.
Muddy water is a typical suspension. The mud would settle after a time if left undisturbed leaving brown
residue on the bottom of the containing vessel and clear water above. The particles of mud would be
retained by filtering whilst the water (and any solids in solution) would pass through.
If you mix flour or chalk dust in water, it forms a suspension. Their particles are simply dispersed
(spread) throughout the water and would eventually settle down to the bottom of the vessel if left
undisturbed for sometime.
Table 5.15 shows the differences between solutions and suspensions
Table 5.15 Differences between solutions and suspensions
Solutions

Suspensions

Homogeneous

Heterogeneous

Transparent/clear

Opaque/not clear

Particles completely

dissolved

Components separated by evaporation

Particles separate on standing

Components separated by filtration

Emulsions
An emulsion is a cloudy mixture of tiny droplets of one liquid suspended in another liquid. Sometimes
two immiscible liquids will not separate out into two layers when mixed together. One of the liquid may
form droplets and spread throughout the other to form an emulsion. Cooking oil and water do not mix but
they will form an emulsion when they are mixed and shaken. Droplets of oil will spread throughout the
water. Unlike pure liquids, emulsions are cloudy (opaque). So you cannot see through them. The
emulsion will not settle like a suspension. Which other liquids you know can form suspensions?
Formation of mixtures
Mixtures can be formed from different substances in two major ways.
The first type constitutes homogenous mixtures, where the substances are totally mixed together uniformly.
Examples include solutions of salts and sugars in water.

The second type constitutes heterogeneous mixtures, where the substances remain separate and one
substance is spread throughout the other as small particles, droplets, or bubbles. All emulsions and
suspensions fall under this category. Examples include suspensions of insoluble solids or oil droplets in
water.
5.6. SEPARATION OF MIXTURES
To make use of the materials around us, we need methods for physically separating the many and varied
mixtures that we come across. One of the distinctive characteristics of a mixture of substances is that it is
usually possible to separate the constituents by physical means. There are many different physical
methods used to separate a wide variety of mixtures. The particular method employed to separate any
given mixture depends upon the nature of its constituents. The following are some of the methods in
wide use.
5.6.1. METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES
1. Filtration
This method is best applicable in separation of components of mixtures called suspensions. A mixture of
chalk dust or flour with water can be separated by filtering the suspension. The suspended particles get
trapped in the filter paper. The trapped particles are called the residue. The water is called the filtrate.

Figure 5.8. Decantation of muddy water

3. Evaporation

This method is used to separate substances that form a solution. In such a mixture, the solute is
completely dissolved in a solvent to make a uniform solution. To separate these substances, the solution
is heated so that the solvent evaporates, leaving the solid residue behind. A mixture of salt or sugar in
water can be separated by applying this method.

5. Fractional distillation
Separating the liquids from a mixture of two (or more) miscible liquids is again based on the fact that
liquids will have different boiling points. However, the boiling points are closer together than for solidin-liquid solutions. It is difficult to separate mixtures of liquids whose boiling points differ by only a few
degrees. In this case, fractional distillation is used.
For example, ethanol boils at 78C whereas water boils at 100C. When a solution of ethanol and water is
heated, ethanol and water vapours enters the fractionating column. Evaporation and condensation take
place as the vapours rise up the column. Ethanol passes through the condenser first as the temperature of
the column is raised above the boiling point. Water condenses in the column and flows back into the flask
because the temperature of the column is below its boiling point of 100C.
The temperature on the thermometer stays at 78C until the ethanol has distilled over. Eventually, the
thermometer reading rises above 78C. This is a sign that all the ethanol has been separated, so heating
can be stopped. By watching the temperature carefully, the two liquids (fractions) can be collected
separately.
Various forms of fractionating column can be used. Their general purpose is to provide surfaces, e.g. flat
discs, on which ascending vapour can condense. Glass beads in the column provide a large surface area
for condensation.

Figure 5.12. Sublimation of ammonium chloride

7. Chromatography
This method is commonly used to separate a mixture of coloured substances (solids or dyes). An example
of this is the separation of dyes that make up black ink. Chromatography works better when a solvent is
used. The commonest solvent is water, though other solvents such as ethanol or ether may be used for
those substances that do not dissolve in water. There are two types of chromatography, namelycolumn
chromatography and paper chromatography. The two types of chromatography follow the same principle,
but paper chromatography is the simplest form to set up, and hence is more commonly used.
On which principle does chromatography work? Let us consider an example of separating dyes that
make up black ink. In this case, water is used as a solvent.
Experiment 5.5. Separating dyes in ink
Procedure
1. Put a small spot of the water-soluble ink onto a strip of filter paper as shown in figure 5.13.
2. Place the filter paper in a beaker of water. Make sure the level of the water is below the level of the ink
spot.

3. Leave the filter paper until the water has risen to the top of the paper.
4. Remove the paper and allow it to dry.
5. Note the colours the ink contains.

Uses of Chromatography
Chromatography is used in many different ways. The following are some of the application of
chromatography:
1.
2.
3.
4.

It can be used to find out the components of a liquid or solid, or even to identify different substances.
It can be used by security agents and medical personnel to analyse blood and urine samples.
Causes of pollution in water and in animals that live in water can also be detected using chromatography.
In chemistry, chromatography is used to test the purity of substances and in separation of mixtures.
8. Layer separation

Mixtures of two immiscible liquids can be separated with a separating funnel. The mixture is placed in a
separating funnel and allowed to stand. The liquids separate into two different layers. The lower denser
layer is then "tapped" off at the bottom.
For example, when a mixture of kerosene and water is poured into the funnel, the kerosene floats to the
top as shown in figure 5.15. When the tap is opened, the water runs out. The tap is closed again when all
water has gone, leaving the kerosene in the funnel.

The solvent extraction works on two principles:

1. One solid in the solution must be more soluble in the extracting solvent than the other.
2. The extracting solvent must not be miscible with the solvent in which the mixture of solids is
dissolved. Neither should it react with it.
10. Centrifugation
A centrifuge is used to separate small amounts of suspension. Centrifugation is used with insoluble solids
where the particles are very small and spread throughout the liquid. In centrifugation, test tubes
containing suspensions are spun round very fast. The solid gets thrown to the bottom. Here, it is no
longer the force of gravity on the solid that causes settling. Instead, there is a huge centrifugal force acting
on the particles due to the high speed spinning of the samples. This causes the solid to be deposited at the
bottom of the centrifuge tube.

11. Magnetic separation

If the solid mixture contains iron, the iron can be removed using a magnet. This method is used to
separate scrap iron from other metals. Magnetic iron ore can be separated from other material in the
crushed ore by using an electromagnet. In the process of recycling metals, iron objects can be picked out
from other scrap metals using electromagnets.
12. Crystallization
This process involves evaporation but the speed of evaporation is much slower. In principle the salt
solution can be left in the evaporating basin for a long period until all the water has evaporated but in
practice this takes longer time.
The process begins by evaporating away the liquid. However, because the crystals are needed,
evaporation is stopped after the solution has been concentrated enough. The concentrated solution is
allowed to cool slowly and crystallize. The crystals so formed can be filtered off and dried.
A similar process is used to extract salt from the sea. Salty sea water is placed in wide basins and put in
the sun. Water evaporates off, leaving the salt crystals in basins.
13. Winnowing or threshing
This is a method used to separate grains from husks or bran. The process makes use of the differences in
density of the constituents in the mixture. When the winnower is shaken around, grains, being denser
than husks or bran, sink to the bottom of the winnower. The less dense husks or bran moves to the top.
They are then blown off the winnower by wind or breath, or sometimes picked by hand and separated
from the grains.

<img alt="" data-cke-saved-src="/ckfinder/userfiles/images/Winnowing.jpg"

src="/ckfinder/userfiles/images/Winnowing.jpg" width:330px"="">
Figure 5.18. Separating thresh from grains by winnowing
5.6.2. Significance of separating different mixtures
We separate mixtures in order to obtain the mixture constituents and put them into appropriate use. The
world around us is made up of mixtures of different substances. These substances are often of little use
when they are in the form of a mixture. For this reason, separation of the individual components of
mixtures is deemed inevitable. There are several reasons for separating mixtures. The following are
example of some of these significances.
1. (i) Fractional distillation is used industrially to separate the various fractions of crude oil such as natural
gas, petrol, kerosene, diesel, lubricating oils, waxes, asphalt and bitumen. All these fractions have a
significant use in mans industrial, domestic and commercial activities. The functions or use of all these
fractions is well known to everyone of us. Can you mention the functions of each fraction? You will learn
more about these products in organic chemistry section.
(ii) Fractional distillation of liquid air separates the air into its component gases. This is important because
these components have many uses in our everyday life. Some of these fractions and their functions are
summarized below:
Component

Use

Nitrogen

Manufacture of fertilizer

Oxygen

Used in hospitals, steel making, diving and space travel

Argon

Filling light bulbs

Carbon dioxide

Fire extinguishing, used in carbonate drinks, etc.

Helium

Filling airships and water balloons

Krypton and Xenon

Used in photographic flash lamps

2. Filtration and purification of drinking water make use of processes such as decantation, filtration and
sometimes distillation. The bottled water we drink is prepared by some or a combination of these
processes.
3. In mining, an electromagnet is used to separate magnetic iron ore from other materials in the crushed
ore.
4. In the manufacture of ethanol by fermentation in breweries, distillation is used in the final stage to
purify ethanol to its purest form (surgical spirit) in which the ethanol is usually sold. Likewise,
distillation of fermented starch (8-12% ethanol), yields alcoholic drinks called sprits (whisky, gin, brandy,
rum) which contain about 35-40% ethanol.

5. (i) Paper chromatography is very useful in analysis of substances present in a solution. For example, it can
tell whether a substance has become contaminated or otherwise. This can be very important, because
contamination of food or drinking water, for instance, may be dangerous to our health.
(ii) Chromatography has proved very useful in the analysis of biologically important molecules such as
sugars, amino acids, and nucleotide bases. Molecules such as amino acids can be seen if the paper is
viewed under ultra- violet light.
(iii) Paper chromatography is the test that can be used to check for the purity of a substance. If the sample is
pure, it should only give one spot when run in several different solvents (see figure 5.13).
6. Other separation methods are also used to check whether purification has been successful. Samples
obtained by distillation can be re-distilled. The purity of crystals can be improved by re-crystallisation. A
water sample can be tested for amount of dissolved material by evaporating a certain amount of water to
dryness. The solid waste can be weighed. This would give the amount of dissolved solid in the water.
The process of purification is of crucial importance in many areas of chemical industry. Medical drugs
(pharmaceuticals) must be of highest possible degrees of purity. Any contaminating substances even in
very small amounts may have harmful side effects.
7. (i) Separation of cream from whole milk is done by the process of centrifugation. As the milk is spun,
the heavier contents are forced down and the lighter cream rises up. After centrifugation, the cream is
poured off the top by decantation. This is the initial stage of milk constituent separation, after which other
components such as milk proteins (cheese) are separated.
(ii) Centrifugation is applicable in blood analysis, where the solid part of blood is separated from the
liquid part by centrifugation. Blood is a suspension containing microscopic blood cells (corpuscles) in a
liquid called plasma. If blood is centrifuged in a test tube, the blood cells are flung to the bottom, leaving
the liquid plasma on top.
8. Knowledge of separation of two immiscible liquids can be applied in the extraction of metals such as
iron from their ores. For example, at the base of the blast furnace, the molten slug forms a separate layer
on top of the liquid iron. The two can then be "tapped" off separately. The method is very useful in
organic chemistry as part of the process called solvent extraction.
9. Evaporation process is used in the extraction of common salt from seawater whereby the sun
evaporates water molecules from salty water, leaving crystals of the salt behind.
10. Layer separation technique is applied in the recovery of liquids from contaminants.
11. Solvent extraction process is applied in the extraction of certain edible oils from seeds, and in the
extraction of some metals from sludge mixture.

Basic Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus

Form 1

Chemistry

Find ring stands and accessories, burettes, glass tubing, digital balances, tongs and clamps, corks and
rubber stoppers, distillation equipment, and other chemistry lab equipment.
Instruments used for carrying out different experiments in the laboratory are called laboratory apparatus.
Laboratory apparatus can be classified according to their uses as:

apparatus for holding things e.g. test-tube holder, retort stand and clamp, test-tube rack, tongs and
tweezers;
apparatus for taking measurements e.g. thermometer, burette, pipette, measuring cylinder,
measuring flask, beam balance, electronic balance, common balance, measuring syringe, beaker and
stop watch;
apparatus for heating substances e.g. boiling tube, pipeclay triangle, crucible and lid, wire gauze,
deflagrating (combustion) spoon, Bunsen burner, spirit lamp, tripod stand, evaporating dish, wire
gauze and stove;
apparatus for doing chemical reactions (or testing) e.g. beaker, test tube, dropper, flask, watch glass,
gas jar and thistle funnel;
apparatus for filtering e.g. filter funnel, filter paper and cotton wool;
apparatus for grinding e.g. mortar and pestle;
apparatus for storage e.g. reagent bottles and wash bottle;
apparatus for scooping e.g. spatula; and
apparatus for safety e.g. goggles and hand gloves.

The apparatus can also be classified based on materials they are made of. Most of the apparatus are made
of glass. Others are made of metal, plastic or wood. Just a few are made of clay and asbestos.
Table 2.3 summarizes some common laboratory apparatus and their uses.
Table 2.3. Composition and uses of some chemistry laboratory apparatus
Apparatus

Material

Uses

1.

Test tube

Glass

Holding chemicals or, heating substances

2.

Funnel

Glass or plastic

Leading liquids into containers, and for filtration

purposes

3.

Beaker

Glass or plastic

Holding, heating, and mixing liquids

4.

Flask

Glass

Holding, heating, and titrations

5.

Retort stand

Metal (iron)

Holding apparatus during heating

6.

Tripod stand

Metal (iron)

Holding apparatus during experiments

7.

Gas jar

Glass

Gas collection

8.

Wash bottle

Plastic

Washing

Crucible

Ceramic or nonreactive metal

Heating

10

Test tube
holder

Metal and plastic

or wood

Holding test tubes while heating

11.

Weighing
balance

Metal and plastic

Measuring weight (or mass)

12.

Spatula

Metal

Scooping small quantities of powder or crystalline

chemicals

13.

Condenser

Glass

Cooling hot liquids

14.

Pipette

Glass

Accurate measurement of specific volumes of liquids for

titrations

15.

Burette

Glass

Titrations

16.

Trough

Glass

Assists in gas collection

17.

Tongs

Metal

Picking and holding hot substances and apparatus

18.

Measuring jar

Glass

Measuring volumes of liquids

19.

Thistle funnel

Glass

Leading liquids into containers and apparatus

20.

Dropper

Glass and rubber

Dropping indicators into reagents

21.

Mortar and
pestle

Clay

Crushing or grinding substances

22.

Wire gauze

Metal

Even distribution of heat during heating

23.

Spring balance

Metal

Measuring weight

24.

Distillation
flask

Glass

Distillation

25.

Combustion
spoon

Metal

Burning powder in jars

26.

Thermometer

Glass and liquid

metal

Measuring temperature

27.

Delivery tube

Glass

Allowing gases pass through

28.

Bunsen burner

Metal

Heating substances

29.

Separating
funnel

Glass

Separation of immiscible liquid mixtures

30.

Measuring
cylinder

Glass or plastic

Measuring volumes of liquids

31.

Measuring
syringe

Plastic

Sucking in and measuring specific volumes of liquids

32.

Stopwatch

Plastic or glass
and metal

Accurate measurement of time

33.

Watch glass

Glass

Used as a surface to evaporate some liquids, to hold

substances being weighed or observed, or as a cover for a
beaker

34.

Boiling tube

Glass

Is a large test tube used to heat substances requiring

strong heating, or when the sample is too large for a test
tube

35.

Evaporating
dish

Ceramic

Heating and evaporating liquids and solutions

36.

Filter paper

Paper

Filtration

37.

Test tube rack

Wood or plastic

Placing test tubes

38.

Reagent bottle

Glass

Storing different chemicals

39.

Wash bottle

Plastic

Storing distilled water

40.

Safety goggles

Glass

Protecting eyes from chemical spills, strong light and

harmful vapours

41.

Bell jar

Glass

Keeping gases, moisture, air, etc. or creating vacuums

Figures of some chemistry laboratory apparatus

Using some chemistry laboratory apparatus

With the help of your chemistry teacher or technician, practise the use of the apparatus for measuring the
following physical quantities:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Volumes of liquids and gases

Masses of solids
Temperature
Time
Length
Activity 2.1
Aim: To measure volume of liquids using different apparatus
Materials: pipettes, burettes, measuring cylinders, water, beakers.
Procedure
1. Pour some water into a graduated measuring cylinder with a capacity of 100 cm 3. Add the water, one
drop at time, up to a 25-cm3 mark.
2. While adding water, position yourself at eye-level with the mark on the cylinder. This will enable you
to obtain the most accurate measurement. To simplify the work of reading the level of the water, you may
use coloured water.
3. Select a volumetric flask measuring 50 cm3. Pour the water into the flask until it reaches the mark on
the flasks neck.
4. Position yourself at eye-level with the mark. You will obtain the most accurate reading when the mark
appears straight rather than elliptical. To obtain this, put a flask on a flat table.
5. Add water one drop at a time. Do so until the bottom of the curved surface of the water exactly
matches the mark on the flask.
Your teacher will guide you how to measure the volume of liquids using the other apparatuses.

Questions for discussion

1. Did you manage to measure the required volumes correctly?
2. Which of the two apparatus is easy to use to measure volumes of liquids? Why?
Activity 2.2
Aim: To measure the masses of solid substances
Materials: chemical, electronic or spring balance, watch glasses, various substances such as sand, sugar,
salt, flour, stones, fruits.
Procedure

1. Put an empty watch glass on the weighing balance. Note down its mass. Record this as mass M 1.
2. Place the various items you have on the watch glass, one item at a time. Note down the mass. Record
this as M2.
Note: to obtain the mass of an object, we subtract the mass of an empty watch glass from the mass of the
watch glass and the substance. That is, M2 - M1.
For example
Weight of watch glass = 2.6 grams
Watch glass + st grams
Therefore, mass of st 2.6) = 42.4 grams
Questions for discussion
1. What is the mass of each item that you have measured?
2. Record your measurements in a table like the one shown below.
Name of substance

Mass in grams

Activity 2.3
Aim: To measure the temperature of liquids
Materials: thermometer, beakers, tripod stand, wire gauze, stopwatch, a pair of tongs, water
Procedure
1. Pour some tap water into two beakers. Dip a thermometer in each of the beakers. Let it stand there for
one minute.
2. Remove the thermometer from the water and record the temperature.
3. Place one beaker in a fridge and leave it there for about half of an hour.
4. Remove the beaker from the fridge. Dip a thermometer in the water for one minute. Record the
temperature.
5. Place a wire gauze on a tripod stand.

6. Place a Bunsen burner under the tripod stand and light it.
7. Place the second beaker of water on the wire gauze and heat for ten minutes.
8. Turn off the burner. Use tongs to remove the beaker from the wire gauze to avoid burning yourself.
9. Place the thermometer in the beaker containing hot water. Let it stand there for one minute. Remove it
from the beaker and note down the temperature.
Questions for discussion
1. What is the reading on the thermometer when it is placed in:
1.
2.
3.

tap water?
water from the fridge?
heated water?
2. For what ranges of temperature can the thermometer give readings
2.5. CHEMICAL WARNING SIGNS
Chemical warning signs are safety symbols found on containers, especially those used in the laboratory.
The symbols are also found on tanks or containers that are used to carry, store or transport certain
chemicals. Containers holding flammable fuels such diesel, petrol and natural gas, as well as those
containing toxic chemicals normally bear warning symbols. These symbols indicate the danger (hazard)
likely to be caused by the chemicals they contain if carelessly handled.
When performing experiments in the laboratory it is important to read the safety signs on chemical
containers. This will minimize the chances of causing accidents in the laboratory.
All chemists now have to follow strict rules when handling chemicals. These rules must be obeyed
whether you are working in an industry, a research laboratory or a school laboratory.
Before your teacher does any experiment with you, he will have to check for possible hazards and will
warn you of these. It is important that you follow all instructions that you are given. There are many
hazard signs but the most common ones are shown below. These signs are called the Hazchem Code.

Figure 2.11. Some chemical w

warning signs

Before conducting any experiment in the laboratory you must be aware whether the chemical you want
to use is toxic, corrosive, flammable, oxidant, explosive or harmful. This information will help you know

how to handle the chemicals safely. Proper handling of chemicals enables you avoid unnecessary
accidents. Below is an explanation pertaining to some hazard labels represented by the symbols above.
Toxic
Toxic substances include those that can poison you or the other person working close to you in the
laboratory. These substances can kill within a short time or after some few days. They should not be
allowed to get into your body through body orifices (month, nose, eyes, ears, etc). Neither should they be
allowed to contact your skin. They become even more dangerous when they get into the body. If it
happens that these substances touch your skin accidentally, wash it immediately with ample water.
Corrosive
Corrosive substances refer to those chemicals that can burn or corrode (eat away) your skin. They can
also corrode wood or metals. One can become blind if such substances accidentally get into his/her eyes.
If they contact your skin, wash it immediately with a lot of water. Examples of corrosive substances
commonly found in a school laboratory are concentrated mineral acids such as sulphuric acid,
hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, and concentrated alkalis such as sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide and ammonia.
Flammable
These chemicals catch fire easily. For this case, they should be kept away from flames or fires. They can
be set into fire by any kind of sparks, be it from welding or fire. When working with flammable chemicals
in the laboratory all burners must be put off. These chemicals are usually very volatile. The containers
used to carry them must be stoppered immediately after every use. Examples of flammable chemicals are
methylated spirit, ether, acetone and methanol.
Explosive
Explosive chemicals are those that explode rapidly upon detonation (set into fire or ignited). Because the
reaction is rapid, it results into throwing off particles at a high speed. For this reason, they should not be
kept in glass containers. This is because during explosion the particles will disperse around and cause
serious injuries to people. Those explosive chemicals that can react without external detonation are even
more dangerous
Oxidizing agents
These chemicals can stimulate a burning substance to burn efficiently and faster. Therefore, they must be
kept away from fires no matter how small that fire may be. An example of oxidizing agent is oxygen gas.
Harmful or irritant
Harmful substances are those that can impair your health or make you fall sick. They do not normally kill
instantly but have detrimental effects following a long exposure to them. These chemicals do not kill
immediately. However, care must be taken when handling or dealing with them. Irritating substances
cause pains when in contact with the body. They are dangerous to health when in contact with the body
surface for a long period of time.
Air, Combustion, Rusting and Firefighting

Total volume of air present in atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen 21% oxygen and remaining 1% is
made up of other gases such as argon, neon, helium, krypton, xenon and radon.
6.1. AIR
Air is a mixture of different gases. The gases that make up the air include nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, noble gases (argon, helium, neon, krypton and xenon) and a little water vapour. Air may also
contain traces of impurities such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO 2), hydrogen sulphide
(H2S) and other gases. The presence of these gases in air results in air pollution. Table 6.1 shows the
composition of air by volume. The proportion of water vapour and impurities in air is very variable.
Table 6.1. The percentage composition of air by volume
Gas

Approximate percentage

Nitrogen

78.00%

Oxygen

21.00%

Noble (rare) gases mainly argon

0.94%

Carbon dioxide

0.03%

Water vapour

0 4%

The composition of air is not exactly the same everywhere. It changes slightly from day to day and from
place to place. There is more water vapour in the air on a damp day and in air above water bodies such as
oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, etc. Over busy cities and industrial areas there is more carbon dioxide. But the
uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun causes the air to move continually, resulting in winds.
The resultant winds spread the pollutants around.
6.1.1. The composition of air by mass/weight
The determination of air by mass was carried out by Dumas in 1841. The apparatus used consists of three
units as shown in figure 6.2

Figure 6.2. Determination of the composition of air by weight

The three parts of the apparatus include the following:
1. Several U-tubes containing potassium hydroxide pellets to remove carbon dioxide (only one tube
shown in the figure for simplicity).
2. Another set of U-tubes containing concentrated sulphuric acid to remove water vapour (only one tube
shown in the figure).
3. A heated, weighed glass tube containing finely divided copper to absorb oxygen.
The three parts of the apparatus would, therefore, remove all carbon dioxide, water vapour and oxygen
contained in air. The remaining gas which enters the weighed evacuated flask (globe) will be atmospheric
nitrogen and, of course, plus the rare gases.
The copper will have reacted with all oxygen to form copper (II) oxide. The increase in mass of the copper
will give the mass of oxygen. The increase in weight of the globe will be due to the weight of nitrogen
and the rare gases. If we neglect the weight of carbon dioxide, the percentage of oxygen by mass (weight)
in dry, pure air is 23.2% and the remaining 76.8% is the percentage of nitrogen and rare gases.
The presence of nitrogen in air
In order to demonstrate the presence of nitrogen in air, we need to carry out an experiment that will
convert the nitrogen of the air into a chemically recognizable substance. This is easily done by strongly

heating magnesium in the residual gas from the above experiment. Magnesium and nitrogen will react
thus:
3Mg(s) + N2 (g) Mg3N2(s)
Upon treatment with water, magnesium nitrite gives ammonia gas. The gas can be recognized by its
characteristic smell and its action of turning red litmus paper to blue.
The presence of oxygen in air
Oxygen is known as the active portion of the air because it supports combustion and combines with
many other substances. Its presence and composition in air can be determined by using these properties.
Any of the following two (2) experiments can be used to determine the composition, by volume of
oxygen contained in air.
1. Experiment 6.1. Determination of the presence and proportion of oxygen in air by combustion of a
candle
Method
1. Place a small candle on a plastic lid or any object that can float. Then set up the apparatus as shown in
figure 6.3. Sodium hydroxide is used in order to absorb the carbon dioxide gas produced by a burning
candle.
2. Light the candle and place the measuring cylinder over the top. Note the level of sodium hydroxide
solution in the measuring cylinder at the start. A candle will stop burning (go off) once all the oxygen in
the cylinder is used up.
3. When the candle goes off, leave the apparatus to cool to room temperature. The purpose of cooling is
to let the heated and expanded air to return to its normal condition. Then note the level of sodium
hydroxide solution in the measuring cylinder.

Figure 6.3. Determining the presence and percentage composition of oxygen in air by burning a candle
Observation and findings
The oxygen in air enclosed in the measuring cylinder is used to burn the candle to produce carbon
dioxide gas. The carbon dioxide so produced dissolves in sodium hydroxide solution. The dissolved
carbon dioxide causes the level of sodium hydroxide solution to rise up. The oxygen gas used to burn the
candle is practically equal to the amount of carbon dioxide produced. This fact is, therefore, used to
calculate the percentage of oxygen in air.
Model results
In the experiment, the initial volume of air was found to be 70.5 cm3 and the final volume was 55 cm3. The
percentage of oxygen in the air is calculated in two steps:
1. To find the volume of oxygen used up to burn the candle (which is practically equal to the volume of
carbon dioxide produced and then absorbed by sodium hydroxide), we subtract the final volume of air
from the initial volume, i.e.
Volume or oxygen used = Initial volume of air final volume of air

= 70.5 cm3 55.0 cm3

= 14.7 cm3
Therefore, the volume of oxygen used for combustion of the candle = 14.7 cm 3.
2. The percentage composition of oxygen in the air = Volume of oxygen used
Initial volume
=14.7 100
70.5
= 20.8%
Alternatively, the volume of oxygen used up can be calculated by subtracting the initial volume of
sodium hydroxide solution from the final volume. That is:
Volume of oxygen used = final volume of sodium hydroxide initial volume of sodium hydroxide =
Volume of carbon dioxide dissolved in sodium hydroxide.
Therefore, the percentage of oxygen =
Volume of carbon dioxide dissolved in sodium hydroxide 100
Initial volume of calcium hydroxide
In practice, it is difficult to get an accurate result with the above experiment. This is due to a number of
reasons such as:
1. Not all the carbon dioxide is absorbed by the sodium hydroxide.
2. The candle may go out (stop burning) before all the oxygen is used up due to accumulation of carbon
dioxide in the cylinder.
3. The heating of the air inside the measuring cylinder causes the gases to expand. This is why it is
essential that the gases be allowed to cool to room temperature before reading the level.
Experiment 6.2 gives the more accurate results than the combustion of the candle. The copper reacts with
oxygen in the air to give copper (II) oxide.
2. Experiment 6.2. Determination of the presence and proportion of oxygen in air by the combustion of
copper in air
Method
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 6.4. Syringe A should contain 100 cm3 of air, syringe B should
be empty.
2. Heat the copper strongly and pass the air from syringe A back and forth (by pushing the piston of the
syringe inward and outward) over the copper turnings a few times. Allow the air to cool and measure the
volume of air in syringe A.

3. Repeat the heating and cooling until the volume of air that remains in syringe A is constant. The copper
is heated and cooled several times to ensure that it reacts with all oxygen in the sample of air.

Figure 6.4. Determining the presence and percentage composition of oxygen in air by heating copper
Observations and findings
1. The oxygen in the air reacts with copper to form copper (II) oxide, a black solid
Copper + oxygen copper (II) oxide
2Cu(s) + O2(g) CuO(s)
brown metal

black solid

2. The final volume of air in the syringe, at the end of the experiment, is less than that of the original
volume. This is because oxygen in the original air has combined with copper
Model results
The volume of air in the syringe at different heating and cooling is as shown below:
Initial volume before heating = 100
Volume after first heating and cooling = 82
Volume after second heating and cooling = 79
Volume after third heating and cooling = 79

The volume of oxygen used up = Initial volume of air before cooling - volume of air after the last heating
and cooling
= 100 - 79
= 21
The percentage of oxygen in air = 21 100
100
= 21%
The presence of carbon dioxide in air
Carbon dioxide is present in air to the extent of 0.03% by volume. The gas is formed during the
combustion of all common fuels wood, coal, coke, natural gas, petrol, diesel, paraffin oil, etc, all of
which contain carbon.
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
It is breathed out as a waste product of respiration by all animals. All sorts of combustion and burning
produce carbon dioxide. The gas produced by all these processes accumulates in air. However, the
amount of carbon dioxide in air remains constant instead of the tremendous quantities released into the
atmosphere. This is because plants take up carbon dioxide. They then convert it into complex starchy
compounds during photosynthesis. The gas also dissolves in ocean water and other water bodies.
The presence of carbon dioxide in air can be shown by passing air through a test tube containing some
limewater (figure 6.5). After a time, the limewater turns milky. This shows the presence of carbon
dioxide.
The reaction involved is as follows:
Ca (OH) 2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
Slaked lime

White solid suspended in water

Figure 6.5. Testing for the presence of carbon dioxide in air

The presence of water vapour in air
Water vapour is present in air in varying quantities. It is given off by evaporation from the oceans, lakes
and rivers.
The presence of water vapour in air can be demonstrated by exposing deliquescent substances to the air
on a watch glass. These are substances which when exposed to air tend to absorb much moisture from the
air, dissolve in that moisture, and finally form a solution. Examples of deliquescent substances include
calcium chloride, sodium hydroxide and phosphorous pentoxide.
The resulting solution is distilled. The colourless liquid obtained from distillation may be proved to be
water by various water tests such as use of cobalt chloride paper or anhydrous copper (II) sulphate. The
cobalt chloride paper turns from blue to pink in the presence of water. The white anhydrous copper (II)
sulphate turns blue. Any of the two tests confirms the presence of water.
Alternatively, one may expose the anhydrous copper (II) sulphate salt to open air straight away for quite
some time and then observe any change in its colour and/or form. Upon absorption of water vapour
from the air, the white, powdery and anhydrous copper sulphate salt turns into hydrated blue crystals.
The noble (rare) gases
About 1% of the air by volume is made up of the noble gases. The most abundant of the noble gases is
argon. Others are neon, xenon, krypton and helium. The proportion of these four is very minute. Argon
and neon are used in gas-filled electric light bulbs and coloured neon electrical signs. They are
obtained from liquefied air (see figure 6.6).
Air pollutants

The air always contains small quantities of many gases. Such gases include hydrogen sulphide, sulphur
dioxide, as well as dust and other solid particles, especially in industrial areas. These gases are given off
during the combustion of coal, and the fuels resulting from coal.
SEPARATION OF AIR INTO ITS CONSTITUENT GASES
The air we breathe is necessary to keep us alive. It is also a chemical resource. Oxygen is used in steel
making, and nitrogen is used in making fertilizers. To use these gases in this way, they must be separated
from the atmospheric air. Air, as we studied in chapter 5, is a mixture of different gases. The method used
to separate its constituent gases is fractional distillation. The gases have to be liquefied so that the mixture
can be fractionally distilled.
The process of separating the air into its constituent gases is difficult. It cannot be done in the laboratory.
It is only done in industry. The chemical industry needs the gases from the air in their pure form.
The fractional distillation of air involves essentially two stages:
1. First, the air must be cooled until it turns into a liquid.
2. Then, the liquid air is allowed to warm up again. The various gases boil off at different temperatures.
More details are given in figure 6.7
Stage 1: Liquefaction of air

Air is filtered to remove any dust particles (purification).

The air is cooled to -180C to remove the water vapour and carbon dioxide.
The air is then compressed to 100-150 atmospheres. As the compressed air gets very hot, it has to be
cooled.
The compressed cooled air is allowed to expand rapidly. The rapid expansion cools the air to very
low temperatures, and the liquid drops out. At -200C, only helium and neon remain as gases. The
cold gases are used to cool the compressed air.
Stage 2: Fractional distillation of liquid air
The air is cooled and compressed to form liquid air. The liquid air is allowed to warm up. Nitrogen boils
off first because it has a low boiling point, -196C. Argon follows by boiling at -186C and finally oxygen
at -183C (figure 6.6). Figure 6.7 illustrates all the steps that take place during the process.

Figure 6.7. Fractional distillation of liquid air

6.2. COMBUSTION
6.2.1. The concept of combustion
Combustion of a substance in oxygen or air is so common that it becomes almost a habit to use the word
"combustion" as if it referred to this kind of reaction alone. In real sense, it may be applied to any
chemical reaction accompanied by light and heat in which one or more of the reactants are gaseous.
Many common substances burn in air. Substances such as coal, wood, kerosene, petrol, etc, burn in air.
Any substance that burns is called a combustible material. The air or oxygen that supports the
combustion is called a supporter of combustion. This is because we live in an atmosphere of air that
contains oxygen, which is a very reactive gas. The gas surrounds any burning material. Oxygen is
regarded as a supporter of combustion. However, it can sometimes combine chemically with the burning
substance to produce a new substance, as we shall see later.
Combustion of a substance involves its reaction with oxygen and the release of energy. These reactions
are exothermic and often produce a flame. An exothermic reaction is the one that is accompanied by
release of heat to the surrounding environment. Combustion in which a flame is produced is described as
burning. During burning energy is given out in the form of heat, light and sound.
6.2.2. Combustion of different substances in air
Many different substances burn in air to produce different products. Here are examples of combustion of
some common substances:

Sulphur: This is a yellow powder. When burnt in air, it gives misty fumes of sulphur dioxide gas.
Sulphur powder + air (oxygen) sulphur dioxide gas
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Copper: When a piece of copper foil in a pair of tongs is held in a Bunsen flame, it becomes red-hot. On
cooling, a black layer of some substance is observed. This black substance is copper oxide. The reaction
occurs thus:
Cooper + air (oxygen) Copper oxide
2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)
Magnesium: When one end of a piece of magnesium ribbon in tongs is placed in a Bunsen flame, it burns
with a dazzling flame leaving a white ash. This white ash is magnesium oxide.
Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
Hydrocarbons: These are substances containing carbon and hydrogen only. The burning of these organic
substances produces carbon dioxide and water vapour as the main products. If oxygen supply is low,
combustion is incomplete and carbon monoxide may be formed.
Candle wax is a hydrocarbon. When it burns in air, the carbon and hydrogen of the wax react with the
oxygen of the air to give carbon dioxide and water vapour respectively.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
Coal: Coal is a solid fuel that will burn in air to give the following products:
Coal ash + soot smoke + gases (carbon dioxide and steam)
6.2.3. Application of combustion in real life
1. The combustion of a natural gas is an important source of energy for homes and industry. Natural gas
is mainly methane. Its complete combustion produces carbon dioxide and water vapour.
CH4(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Substances like methane, which undergo combustion readily and give out large amount of energy, are
known as fuels.
2. There are some reactions where fuels and other substances burn to produce a flame. These are
combustion reactions. There are also other combustion reactions (exothermic) where no flame is evident.
The most important of these is the crucial biochemical reaction that releases energy in our body cells
called cellular respiration.

Our bodies need energy to make possible the reactions that take place in our cells. These reactions allow
us to carry out our everyday activities. We need energy to stay alive. We get this energy from food.
During digestion, food is broken down into simpler substances. For example, the carbohydrates in rice,
potatoes and bread are broken down to form glucose. The combustion of glucose with oxygen in the cells
of our body provides energy.
Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

The reaction is exothermic and is known as cellular respiration.

3. We combust fuels to heat homes and keep ourselves warm, cook our food, and even burn wastes.
4. Combustion of fuels in automobile engines produces power (energy). This energy is supplied to
different parts of motor vehicles to make them move from one point to another or carry out some crucial
activities such as grinding, pumping, hauling etc. The operation of such machines could be impossible
without combustion of fuel that produces energy to make them work.
5. Combustion of fuel in different burners produces heat and light used for different purposes in a
chemistry laboratory.
6. Extraction of metals: Moderately reactive metals such as zinc, iron and lead are roasted in a special
furnace (kiln) to form oxides. The resulting oxides are then reduced with carbon to get the pure metal.
This process of extracting a metal from its ore by heating is called smelting.
7. In metallurgical industry, combustion is used during welding. Welding is the process of joining
metals by melting the parts and then using a filler to form a joint. It can be done using different energy
sources, including a gas flame.

6.3. RUSTING
6.3.1. The concept of rusting
Rusting is the name given to the oxidation of iron or steel in damp air. It is also called corrosion. Rust is
hydrated iron (III) oxide. It is a soft, crumbly solid and hence weakens the structure of iron and steel.
During rusting, iron reacts with oxygen to form brown iron (III) oxide
Iron + oxygen iron (III) oxide
4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s)
At the same time the iron (III) oxide reacts with water to form hydrated iron (III) oxide (or rust):
Iron (III) oxide + water hydrated iron (III) oxide (rust)

Fe2O3 (s) + xH2O (l) FeO3.xH2O(s)

Note: The x in the equation indicates that the number of water molecules in the hydrated iron (III) oxide
can vary.
So, both oxygen and water are needed to cause rusting of iron.
Rusting is a serious economic problem. Large sums of money are spent each year to replace damaged
iron and steel structures, or protecting structures from such damages. Rusting of bridges, corrugated iron
sheets on house roofs, containers, articles, etc. require an expenditure of big sums of money as well as
labour for replacement. Rust weakens structures such as car bodies, iron railings, and ships hulls, and
shortens their useful life. Preventing it can cost a lot of money. All efforts must be made to stop iron or
steel items from rusting. This can be achieved if we know the conditions necessary for iron to rust.
6.3.2. Conditions necessary for iron rusting
When iron is left in contact with both water and oxygen (or air), it reacts to form hydrated iron (III) oxide.
Iron will not rust on exposure to dry air or air-free water (water that has been boiled to expel all dissolved
air) only. However, iron will easily and readily rust in water that has dissolved air in it. In figure 6.8, only
the iron nail that is in contact with both water and air rusts. Therefore, rusting will only occur in the
presence of both water and oxygen. If one of the two conditions is excluded, in one way or another,
rusting will not take place at all.

Figure 6.8. Testing for conditions necessary for iron rusting

Findings

Nails in tube 1 will rust. Nails in tubes 2 and 3 will not rust.
Reasons
In tube 1, nails are in contact with both water and air (oxygen). In tube 2, the water has been boiled to
expel the dissolved air. In addition, any air above the water is prevented from dissolving in boiled water
by a layer of oil. So, the nails are completely shielded away from air. Therefore, rusting is impossible. In
tube 3, nails are in contact with air only. The moisture present in air is absorbed by anhydrous calcium
chloride. Any moisture that might have been absorbed by the anhydrous calcium chloride is prevented
from reaching the nails by a tuft of cotton wool. The cotton wool also absorbs some moisture directly
from the air. Therefore, tube 3 will always carry dry air (moisture-free air). Hence, no rusting of iron nails
occurs.
This experiment demonstrates the fact that for iron to rust, both water and air (oxygen) must be present.
If one of these conditions is controlled, no rusting can take place.
Similarity between rusting and burning
Chemically, rusting and burning are similar processes in that they both require oxygen.
Consider the burning of magnesium to give magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
In this process, magnesium combines with the oxygen of the air to form magnesium oxide.
During rusting, iron combines with oxygen of the air in the presence of water to form brown hydrated
iron (III) oxide, "rust."
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2xH2O 2Fe2O3.xH2O(s)
In addition, the two processes, burning and rusting, are exactly similar in that they both generate heat.
The only difference is in the time required for each of the two processes to take place. During rusting heat
is given out, but without being noticed because of its slower rate of production. Burning produces
noticeable heat and light.
6.3.3. METHODS OF PREVENTING RUSTING
We have learned that for iron to rust there must be direct contact between the iron and both water and
oxygen from the air. Therefore, in order to stop rusting we must protect iron from either water (moisture)
or oxygen (air) or both. The following are some of the methods used to prevent iron from rusting:
Painting
Painting the iron article creates a waterproof and airproof cover over the surface of the iron. This method
is widespread for objects ranging in size from ships and bridges to garden gates. Paints that contain lead
or zinc are mostly used. These paints are especially good for preventing rusting. For example, "red lead"
paints contain an oxide of lead, Pb3O4.

As oxygen and water cannot reach the iron, it does not rust. However, if the paint layer is scratched off
rusting may occur. So, regular repainting is necessary to keep this protection intact.
Oiling and greasing
The oiling and/or greasing of the moving parts of machinery forms a protective film, preventing rusting.
Moving parts cannot be painted since the paint layer can be easily scratched off during movement. Again,
the treatment must be repeated to continue the protection.
Plastic coating
Steel is coated with plastic for use in garden chairs, refrigerators, bicycle baskets, dish racks, etc. The
plastic PVC (polyvinyl chloride), a trade name for polychloroethene, is often used for this purpose. Plastic
is cheap and can be made to look attractive.
Electroplating
Electroplating is the coating of one metal with a layer of another metal by means of electrolysis, where the
metal to be coated is the cathode and the coating metal the anode.
An iron or steel object can be electroplated with a layer of chromium or tin to protect against rusting. A
tin can is made of steel coated on both sides with a fine layer of tin. Tin is used because it is unreactive
and non-toxic. However, if protective layer is broken, then the steel beneath will begin to rust. So, proper
handling of tin-plated items is needed.
Galvanizing
An iron object may be covered with a layer of zinc. This is called galvanizing. Even if the zinc is scratched
to expose the iron, the iron does not rust. This is because zinc is higher in the reactivity series than iron.
So, zinc reacts with water and oxygen in preference to iron.
The zinc layer can be applied by several different methods. These include electroplating or dipping the
object into molten zinc. When an iron or steel article is dipped into molten zinc and then removed, it
becomes coated with a thin layer of zinc. The zinc forms a protective coat over the surface of iron. This
process is used for dustbins, car bodies, barbed wires and motorway crash barriers.
Sacrificial protection
This is a method of rust protection in which blocks of a metal more reactive than iron are attached to the
iron surface. Zinc and magnesium are more reactive than iron. When blocks of zinc or magnesium are
attached to the hull of a steel ship or oil rig, it corrodes in preference to iron. This is called sacrificial
protection because the zinc or magnesium is sacrificed to protect the iron. When the blocks are nearly
eaten away, they can be replaced by fresh blocks. Underground gas and water pipes are connected by
wire to blocks of magnesium to obtain the same protection.
It is not necessary to cover the whole surface of a steel article with the more reactive metal for sacrificial
protection to work. A ship may have magnesium blocks riveted to its hull every few metres to prevent
rusting of the whole hull.

Figure 6.9. Blocks of zinc (or magnesium) attached to the hull of a ship
Alloying
Alloys are mixtures of metals. For example, iron can be mixed with small quantities of much less reactive
metals to form an alloy called stainless steel. Stainless steel contains iron mixed with chromium, nickel and
manganese. Stainless steel does not rust. It also has a very attractive appearance. It is used to make
cutlery and kitchen equipment.
Use of silica gel
Silica is a common name for silicon dioxide (SiO2). Silica gel is a granular, vitreous, highly porous form of
silica made synthetically from sodium silicate. Despite its name, silica gel is a solid. It is used as a
desiccant, which absorbs moisture to prevent rusting of iron items or articles. Most often, a small bag of
silica gel is put inside bags or boxes used for storing or carrying iron items to absorb any moisture that
may cause rusting.
6.4. FIREFIGHTING
Firefighting is the act of extinguishing destructive fires. A fire fighter fights these fires to prevent
destruction of life, property and the environment. Firefighting is a highly technical profession that
requires training and education in order to become proficient.
6.4.1. Classification of fire
Before starting to fight the fire, it is important to know the size and type of the fire that you are going to
put off. The kind of firefighting material you are going to use will also depend on the type of fire in
question. Fires are classified based on the type of burning materials.

1. Class A fires
These are the fires in which the burning materials are ordinary combustible materials such as paper,
wood, cardboard, coal, rubber, clothing, furniture and most plastics. Water is the best extinguisher for
these fires. However, any other type of extinguisher, except carbon dioxide, may be used.
2. Class B fires
These fires involve flammable liquids such as petrol, kerosene, oil, alcohol, ether, vanishes, etc. For small
fires, a fire blanket or sand may be used. If the fire is large, use foam, dry powder or carbon dioxide
extinguisher. Water should not be used on class B fires because the burning material, being lighter than
water, will just float and spread the fire further.
3. Class C fires
The burning material involves flammable gases e.g. hydrogen, acetylene, coal gas, butane, methane,
propane, etc. The best extinguishers to use in fighting against these fires are foam, dry powder or carbon
dioxide extinguishers. It is important to turn off the gas supply, and spray water on the gas tank to cool it
down.
4. Class D fires
The burning material is a metal. Alkali metals such as sodium or potassium may catch fire when they
come in contact with water and oxygen. At high temperatures, many metals react with oxygen
vigorously. Fires that involve burning metals should not be extinguished by water. This is because the
burning metal can react with water to give hydrogen (another potential fuel). The appropriate
extinguisher to use is foam or dry powder extinguisher.
5. Class E fires
These fires involve electrical equipment such as appliances, wiring, circuit breakers and outlets. You may
use carbon dioxide or dry powder extinguisher to put off these fires. Never use water as it can conduct
electricity and give an electric shock. Also remember to switch off power from the mains.
6. Class F fires
The burning material is cooking oil or fat. A cooking oil fire in the kitchen can be extinguished by
covering the pan with a fire blanket or damp cloth. Foam, dry powder or carbon dioxide extinguishers
also work by cutting off the air supply to the fire. For large fires, wet chemical extinguishers are
recommended.
6.4.2. Choosing fire extinguishers
Before choosing the best fire extinguishers for fighting different types of fires it is crucial to identify the
type of burning materials first, and hence the type of fire such as:
Class A: Solids such as paper, wood, clothing, rubber, etc
Class B: Flammable liquids such as paraffin, petrol, oil, spirit, alcohol, etc.

Class C: Flammable gases such as propane, butane, methane, hydrogen, etc

Class D: Metals such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium, etc
Class E: Fires involving electrical equipment such as appliances, circuit breakers and outlets, etc.
Class F: Cooking oil and fat, etc
6.4.3. Types of fire extinguisher to use for each type of fire
Water extinguisher
This is the cheapest and most widely used fire extinguisher. It is used for class A fires. It is not suitable for
class B (liquid) fires, or where electricity is involved.
Foam extinguisher
This is more expensive than water extinguisher, but more versatile. It is used for classes A and B fires.
Foam spray extinguishers are not recommended for fires involving electricity, but are safer than water if
mistakenly sprayed onto live electrical apparatus.
Dry powder extinguisher
This is often termed as multi-purpose extinguisher, as it can be used on classes A, B and C fires. It is the
best for liquid fires (class B). It will also efficiently extinguish class C (gas) fires. However, take care
because it can be dangerous to extinguish a gas fire without first isolating the gas supply. Special
powders are available for class D fires.
When powder-type extinguishers are used indoors, the powder can obscure vision or damage goods and
machinery. It is also very messy.
Carbon dioxide extinguisher
Carbon dioxide is ideal for fires involving electrical apparatus (class E). It will also extinguish class B
(liquid) fires. However, the extinguisher has no post-fire security and the fire could re-ignite.
Wet chemical extinguisher
This is a special extinguisher for class F fires. The extinguisher contains potassium salts. The salts not only
help to cool down the flames but also form a saponification blanket that effectively smothers the flames
with thick, soapy foam.
Specialist powder extinguisher
This is a specialist fire extinguisher for use on class D fires (fires on combustible metals such as sodium,
potassium, magnesium, lithium, titanium, manganese and aluminium), especially in the form of powder
or turnings.
6.4.4. Components needed to start a fire.

To extinguish fire, it is necessary to remove one or more of the three components of combustion. Any fire
needs a fuel, oxygen (air) and heat to keep it going. Remove any one of them and the fire will go out.
These components are as shown in the fire triangle below.

Figure 6.10. The fire triangle

A fire will continue or start to burn if these components are present:

(i) Fuel: This refers to any combustible material be it solid, liquid or gaseous material provided it can
catch fire and burn. You can stop fire by removing the combustible material from the path of fire.
(ii) Oxygen (air): Oxygen supports combustion. A fuel will only burn if there is sufficient supply of
oxygen. You can extinguish fire by displacing, or taking away oxygen supply from the fire or by blocking
the gas supply to the fire.
(iii) Heat: The temperature should be at the kindling point of that fuel or above it. Every fuel has its own
kindling point. Below the kindling point, the fuel will not catch fire. You can put out fire by lowering the
temperature below the kindling point of a particular fuel. Water may be used to cool down the fuel. The

vapourization of water absorbs the heat; it cools the smoke, air, walls, objects etc, which could be used as
further fuel.
6.4.5. Types of portable fire extinguishers
Fire extinguishers are classified according to the type of chemicals they contain
1. Liquid carbon dioxide extinguisher
This extinguisher contains liquid carbon dioxide. The liquid is contained in a metal container. When the
safety pin is removed, carbon dioxide evaporates as solid "snow" (carbon dioxide sublimes). The snow
settles on the fire and suffocates it.
2. Soda-acid extinguisher
This extinguisher has a metal case containing soda (aqueous sodium carbonate or sodium hydrogen
carbonate). In the metal case there is a glass bottle containing a concentrated acid (sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid). There is a knob attached to the top of a metal case. Hitting this knob breaks the acid
bottle thus bringing the acid and the soda into contact. The two react to give carbon dioxide, e.g.
NaHCO3 (aq) + HC l (l) CO2 (g) + NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
The gas forms bubbles with the solution, thereby forming foam which is forced out of a jet of the case.
The foam is directed to the fire where it covers the burning liquid, excluding all air from reaching the fire.
Some extinguishers are made in such a way that turning them upside down brings the soda and acid into
contact and the reaction proceeds as stated above.

Figure 6.11. Soda-acid fire extinguisher

3. Foam extinguishers
This is different from the sodaacid type in that it contains sodium hydrogen carbonate in the metal case,
but instead of the concentrated acid, it contains aluminium sulphate and saponium in the glass bottle. On
mixing the three components, carbon dioxide gas is produced. The gas is ejected out as foam. The foam
here lasts longer than the foam in the sodaacid extinguisher. The foam so produced also keeps air away
from the burning material.

4. Dry chemical extinguisher

This extinguisher uses powdered sodium hydrogen carbonate and a nitrogen gas kept at high pressure.
When the gas cartridge is broken using the top cap, the carbon dioxide under pressure propels the
powder. The powder forms a layer over the burning material to keep air away.
Table 6.2 summarizes the types of fire extinguishers, indicating the chemicals they contain and the classes
of fire they are suitable or unsuitable for.
Table 6.2 Types fire extinguishers and the chemical composition of their extinguishing agents

Type

Chemical composition
of agent

Suitable for

Unsuitable for

APW (Airpressurized
water)

Ordinary tap water

pressurized with air

Class A

Class B, C, D and E (will spread the

flame and make the fire bigger!)
- Class D

Dry chemical
(DC)

Fine sodium bicarbonate

powder pressurized with
nitrogen

Class A, B,
C and E

- Aircraft and electronics ( corrosive to

metals such aluminium)
Note:
-Though it is safe to use indoors it can
obscure vision

CO2

Halon

Non-flammable carbon
dioxide gas under
extreme pressure

Class B, C
and E

Bromochloro-difluoromethane

Class A and
E

Class A (leaves a flammable substance

on the extinguished material which can
re-ignite later )
Class B and C (least suitable)

Proteins and

Class A and
B

Class E

Potassium acetate

Class F

Class E

Mono-ammonium
phosphate with a
nitrogen carrier

Class A,
Class B and
C

Electronic equipment (leaves a stick y

residue that may be damaging to
electrical appliances such as a
computer)

Powders of NaCl, Cu or
graphite under extreme
pressure

Class D

Class A, B, C, E and F

Foam
fluoro-proteins
Wet chemical
(WC)

ABC

Specialist
powder
(SP)

6.4.6 How to use a portable fire extinguisher

It is very important to know what type of extinguisher you are using. Using the wrong type of
extinguisher for the wrong type of fire can be life-threatening. Fire extinguishers should be used in the
right way and on the right type of fire. All fire extinguishers operate in a similar manner. You may use
the acronym PASS for quick reference. The acronym stands for Pull, Aim, Squeeze and Sweep. The
correct procedure is summarizes below:
1. Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher to make the extinguisher ready for use.
2. Aim at the base of the fire, not at the flames. This is because in order to put out the fire, you must block
the fuel at the base of the flames from oxygen, heat or both.
3. Squeeze the top lever slowly to release the extinguishing agent in the extinguisher.
4. Sweep from side to side until the fire is out. Using a sweeping motion, move the fire extinguisher back
and forth until the fire is completely out. Once the fire is out, do not go away! Watch the area for a few
minutes in case it re-ignites. Recharge the extinguisher immediately after use.
6.4.7 Precautions on using fire extinguishers
The following are some safety precautions you have to keep in mind when using fire extinguishers:
1. Keep a reasonable distance from the fire as it may suddenly change direction.
2. Never use a portable extinguisher on people, instead use a fire blanket.
3. Do not test a portable extinguisher to see if it works. It may leak and later fail to work during an
emergency.
4. Do not return a used portable extinguisher to the wall. Make sure it is recharged first.

5. When a fire gets out of control, notify the nearest fire brigade.