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ETF YEARBOOK 2008
POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
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Borhène Chakroun and Pasi Sahlberg (eds) with contributions from Mounir Baati, Anar
Beishembaeva, Slavko Gaber, Andy Hargreaves, Outi Kärkkäinen, Vacklav Klenha, Jean-Raymond
Masson, Gérard Mayen, Søren Nielsen, Margareta Nikolovska, Slava Pevec Grm, Peter Schuh,
Louise Stoll, Ronald G. Sultana, Recep Varcin and Arjen Vos
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FOREWORD 3
PART 1
BIBLIOGRAPHY – PART 1 85
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
PART 2
AFTERWORD
Peter Greenwood 125
6
Part 1
INTRODUCTION:
MAKING POLICY LEARNING
WORK
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
The first part of the Yearbook draws In Chapter 3, Søren Nielsen, Recep Varcin,
lessons from an unprecedented and Outi Kärkkäinen and Arjen Vos adopt the
systematic approach to putting policy Greek concept of ‘agora’ – a place where
learning into action. It is particularly market and politics meet and blend, where
unprecedented in that, first, it covers private emotions and opinions meet public
countries in transition whereas international opinion and political consensus – to argue
literature on policy learning refers mainly to that an innovative evaluative approach with
Western countries; second, it covers a a sharper focus on organising policy
wide range of countries and regions learning platforms may facilitate stronger
(Morocco, Kyrgyzstan, the Western Balkan stakeholder involvement and horizontal
countries, and Turkey) with different network learning, leading to more
contexts and governance systems. consistent follow-up decision-making.
The particular focus of all articles in this Margareta Nikolovska and Arjen Vos
first part of the yearbook is on vocational offer another angle from which to
education and training (VET). Initial interpret policy learning in Chapter 4. The
experiences are presented from ETF ETF peer learning projects provide
attempts to facilitate VET reforms using further insight into how policy learning
policy learning principles in a number of principles can be applied from
countries. The authors invited to contribute international experiences. The chapter
to this volume are representative of that examines several peer learning activities
larger group in that they see the decisive in the Western Balkan countries. The
influence of policy learning principles on peer learning process is taken a step
their work in and with partner countries. further by critically questioning the link
They were all directly involved in the between peer learning and policy change
projects and initiatives described. Some in the countries concerned.
chapters are the result of collective work
involving colleagues from the ETF and In Chapter 5, Vaclav Klenha, Anar
experts from partner countries. Beishembaeva and Søren Nielsen describe
an attempt to support structural vocational
In the opening chapter, Borhène Chakroun training reform in Kyrgyzstan through a
presents a synthesis of policy learning from policy learning approach facilitated by the
theoretical and practical perspectives. He ETF. They focus specifically on three
argues that policy learning inevitably sets elements of policy learning facilitation:
up different kinds of tension: between the (i) rationale behind the application of policy
process and the end result, between the learning principles in the context of Kyrgyz
time needed for learning and the urgent VET reform; (ii) main challenges to policy
need to develop policy and between the change; (iii) lessons regarding the
role of facilitator and advisor. He concludes facilitation role of the ETF. This chapter
that policy learning is a complex process illustrates the complexity of policy learning
which supports the emergence of new and suggests that external cooperating
models of governance and capacity partners also need to be sensitive to their
building but that often takes more time and own approaches and intentions.
resources than planned and that its real
impact is difficult to measure. In Chapter 6, Mounir Baati and Peter Schuh
provide an example of their own role as
In Chapter 2, Gérard Mayen, based on his policy learning facilitators in Morocco. They
experience in Jordan, considers policy describe how the participatory approach
learning as a process where policymakers initiated by the ETF to develop a strategic
progressively learn to take full and plan for strengthening apprenticeship
conscious account of the importance of the training in agriculture and crafts is viewed by
role of social partners in the reform local experts and policymakers. The
process. He also examines, as a reflective conclusion is that policy learning does not
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INTRODUCTION: MAKING POLICY LEARNING WORK
9
1
1. WHAT CAN WE LEARN
FROM POLICY LEARNING?
Borhène Chakroun
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
policy learning. They link the emergence of of its importance for policymaking although
policy learning to the desire to challenge it may not always be named as such. For
conflict-oriented theories. The review takes in instance, many donors are abandoning a
the following concepts: “political learning” piecemeal approach involving individual
developed by Heclo (1974), “policy-oriented projects in favour of a sector-wide
learning” developed by Sabatier (1987), approach. This aims for greater
“lesson-drawing” analysed by Rose (1991), sustainability and ownership of domestic
“social learning” discussed by Hall (1988) policies (Europeaid, 2007). The Paris
and “government learning” developed by Declaration on Aid Effectivenes 1 provides
Etheredge and Short (1983). Bennett and a recent example of this trend; on page two
Howlett conclude that the concept of policy of the declaration, ministers of developed
learning has been “overtheorised and and developing countries pledge they “will
underapplied” and that “the relationship be guided by development strategies and
between policy learning and policy change priorities established by partner countries”
contours and components has only begun to when it comes to choosing the most
be investigated and understood”. effective ways of delivering aid.
Although it is useful to refer to the ideas of I consider it useful to explore the reasons for
the above mentioned authors, I would like what we can call policy learning failure in
to retain another perspective, put forward partner countries before explaining why the
by Raffe and Spours (2007) and Grootings ETF decided to put policy learning into
(2004), that sees policy learning as a way practice and to use it as a guiding philosophy
for governments or systems of governance for its interventions in partner countries.
to inform policy development by drawing
lessons from available evidence and 1.2 Policy learning failure in partner
experience. countries
In the context of the ETF’s partner Policy learning failure in partner countries,
countries this means examining to what in part, reflects the failure of both policy
extent policy learning approaches have borrowing from abroad and the desire of
helped those countries to inform policy. policymakers to find fast solutions to urgent
This includes the capacity of partner problems (see Philips, 1989 for a more
countries to learn from their own detailed discussion). Sultana in Part 2
experience and from that of other briefly discusses the failure of the earlier
countries. Thus policy learning should lead model of supporting policy development in
to policy change and increasing policy less developed countries through the direct
effectiveness (Grootings, 2004). transfer of knowledge and expertise.
Although the words policy and learning are John Dewey’s theory of experience could
by no means newcomers to the debate on perhaps throw some useful light on our
how to reform VET systems, in recent efforts to understand policy learning failure
years they have moved from the periphery (Dewey, 1938, p.28). He argued that “any
to the centre of the discussion on policy experience is mis-educative that has the
development. The question of how policy effect of arresting or distorting the growth
learning can lead to policy change has of further experience”. Dewey believes
occupied many researchers and there are several ways in which prior
practitioners, particularly in countries such experience can be counterproductive. It
as the UK and Sweden. Some authors can engender callousness or cause a lack
attribute the failure to produce good policy of sensitivity and responsiveness which
to failures in the policy learning process can make people less open to new
(Raffe and Spours, 2007). experiences. Different experiences may be
so disconnected from one another that,
In partner countries, policy learning has not while each is agreeable or even exciting in
received as much attention. Nevertheless, itself, they do not teach us anything. The
there are signs of an increasing awareness very disconnectedness of these
1 See www.oecd.org/dataoecd/11/41/34428351.pdf
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1. WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM POLICY LEARNING?
experiences also runs the risk of artificially organisations and to the ETF in particular
generating dispersive, disintegrated, with its long experience of establishing
centrifugal habits. observatory functions in most partner
countries (see Chapter 7 for a detailed
International development aid provides a discussion of this). Three important
wealth of examples of these kinds of elements tend to be weak or missing in
experiences. How many countries, for almost all partner countries: a tradition of
example, have benefited from the systematic data collection and analysis,
generous gift of a ready-made curriculum policy evaluation studies and research.
and skills needs analysis when their ability While the first two points are
to make good use of it is extremely limited? systematically highlighted (see Sweet, in
How many countries have decided to press), the research dimension has almost
import the foreign VET model only to find it always been ignored. In almost all partner
so alien to their specific context so as to be countries, research capacities are weak or
practically useless? How many ministries totally lacking, thus depriving education
have been plagued by infighting between policymakers of a vital source of
different project management units so that knowledge and expertise.
every donor-funded project ends up being
totally disconnected from the rest? Therefore it seems there are at least three
overlapping factors that lead to policy
In their discussion of policy learning failure learning failure in partner countries:
in secondary education in the UK, Raffe misleading experiences caused by donor
and Spours (2007) found that it was intervention, highly politicised models of
caused by the inability and unwillingness to governance which are not conducive to
learn from past experience and by learning policy learning and the limited knowledge
from the experience of other countries but base.
only superficially. Chapter 5 mentions the
loss of policy memory in Kyrgyzstan that
occurred after the DACUM curricula 2. THE ETF’S APPROACH TO
reforms. Chapter 6 also mentions the POLICY LEARNING
difficulties in helping the Moroccan team
learn from past experience in spite of the The beginnings of policy learning as an
policy learning nature of the whole process. intervention approach for the ETF can be
traced back to the ETF Advisory Forum
Policy learning failure is also linked to the meeting in 2003 where the concept
model of governance in place in each attracted considerable attention. As a
partner country (see for example the result, the ETF and its partners agreed to
discussion of the Arab Human adopt policy learning as a tool for
Development Report, 2005). In most supporting national reforms (ETF, 2003a).
partner countries, the process of The rationale given was that “systemic
policymaking is far from transparent. reforms of vocational education and
Policymakers often work with little training will only be successful and
coordination or recourse to policy analysis sustainable if policy development,
and with a low level of consultation and formulation and implementation are firmly
involvement of social partners and civil based on broad ownership and
society. In almost all partner countries, embeddedness in existing institutions”
accountability is to the state rather than to (Grootings, 2004). Thus policy learning is
the general public (World Bank, 2008). This viewed as a source of policy change and
aspect is discussed in more detail in the ownership and as a way of making policy
final section. more effective.
Even when policymakers do try to learn The decision to adopt policy learning as an
from previous experience, the lessons intervention approach was based upon
may be very difficult to spot due to their several assumptions. The first was that
limited knowledge base. Such problems learning paradigms could be used to
will be familiar to many international organise policy learning approaches.
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
The second was that partner country learning environments and produces
institutions could engage in a policy good learning outcomes (Grootings,
learning process by involving new 2004).
stakeholders and making use of their policy
memory as well as international experience 2.2 The role of partner countries
in the field. The third was that the role of
the ETF would be to facilitate this process. Following several initiatives (see ETF
Yearbook, 2005), the ETF decided to
2.1 Learning paradigms launch a new generation of policy learning
projects in 2007. The idea was to test the
Analysis of policy learning generally policy learning approach and see how far it
focuses on the process of policy change could contribute to VET policy change in
rather than the underlying process of partner countries. Three countries –
learning. The challenge for policy learning Morocco, Kyrgyzstan and Turkey – agreed
was how to get policymakers actively to participate.
learning from local and international
experiences. Grootings (2004) summed up An initial problem was how to translate
the main characteristics of the learning and explain the concept of policy leaning
paradigm as “active learning”. Recent into different languages. Mapping the
theories on learning argue there are many connection between policy learning and
ways people learn apart from simply the process of making policy in each of
receiving information from a teacher. the partner countries constituted a
These hold that learning is first and second hurdle. Chapter 6 explores the
foremost a situated social activity (Lave relationship between the policy process
and Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998), that a and policy learning and puts forward
lot of tacit learning takes place which is not some reasons why the actual experience
easy to define or quantify but which is there can often fail to live up to expectations.
when needed (Schön, 1983) and that
learning is dynamic and that good learning
depends on experiential learning (Kolb, 3. THE ETF’S ROLE AS A
1984). FACILITATOR
Once again Dewey’s theory of experience Although there was a general agreement
can provide useful insight. By seeing that facilitating a policy learning approach
experience as a continuous and highly should be the guiding principle of ETF
interactive process of exchange between interventions (Grootings, 2004, Grootings
individuals and their environment, Dewey & Nielsen, 2006, recent ETF Work
argued that people assign their own Programmes), the question of exactly how
meaning to information. They do so based the ETF should go about this was not
on what they already know and only retain specified. A critical issue for the ETF is
what is relevant for them. By so doing, they that many people see the concepts of
construct their own understanding of reality policy advice and policy learning as
as a basis for action. Different people will interchangeable. I believe there is a
therefore form different interpretations of tension between the two concepts and
the same event and may act differently on what they can offer partner countries in
the basis of the same information. practical terms (Chakroun, 2007).
Although resolving this tension is not a
Theories of learning also argue that question solely for the ETF, the question
learners are more successful at acquiring of whether it is best to use a policy
and using knowledge, skills and attitudes learning approach or offer policy advice is
when they have been actively engaged in crucial: in my opinion, the former can build
the process. This active involvement also a strong sense of ownership and deliver
helps increase their motivation to learn, empowerment as well as learning
making it easier for people to take whereas the latter runs the risk of
responsibility for their own learning. proffering ready-made analysis and, in
So active learning creates conducive some cases, unsolicited advice.
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1. WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM POLICY LEARNING?
This volume as a whole presents a strong society and researchers. This trend could
argument for continuing to change the role herald an emerging new form of
of the ETF from delivering policy advice governance of the VET system in several
and providing policy solutions to policy partner countries. I will return to this idea
learning interventions that help partner in more detail later.
countries to help themselves.
3.1.2 The content of learning
3.1 Key lessons
Several researchers have mentioned the
There are of course many lessons to be difficulties of pinning down the content of
learned from the analyses and findings in learning in policy learning processes
the following chapters. However some key (Freeman, 2006). In their analysis of
points stand out and could provide several policy learning approaches,
inspiration for future ETF work with partner Bennett and Howlett (1992) stressed that
countries. Four key questions must be “[…] existing theories vary on what this
considered when undertaking a policy object is. While all see learning as the
learning process: general increase of knowledge about
policies, some see this in terms of
n Who are the policy learners? instruments, some in terms of
n What is the content of the learning? programmes, and some in terms of policy
n What are the key actions or processes goals or some combinations of these three
of learning? elements”. Heclo (1974) and Grootings
n What is the impact of policy learning on (2004) believe that to a certain extent what
resulting policies? is learned is policy itself. For Grootings,
“the basic assumption underlying the
3.1.1 Policy learners concept of policy learning is not so much
that policies can be learned but that actual
In his discussion about policy learners, policies are learned policies”. Rose (1991,
Peter Hall (1988, cited in Bennett & 1993) thinks of it in terms of
Howlett, 1992) suggests that both state “lesson-drawing”, where the lesson is “an
and societal actors are the main actors of action-oriented conclusion about a
policy learning. programme or programmes in operation
elsewhere” (1991, p.7).
In Chapter 5, the authors give a broad
description of what they call the Several chapters in Part 1 provide
stakeholder working group and the range examples of two types of learning
of actors – government officials, school contents which broadly correspond to the
managers, local experts and social ones outlined above. The first, closer to
partners – involved in the policy learning the definitions of Heclo and Grootings,
process in the project featured. refers to the actual processes of
policymaking. The second suggests that
Chapter 3 mentions the important role the content learnt consists of mastering
played by practitioners and researchers in capacity building instruments such as
the steering committee involved in impact scenario building, VET policy building
assessment. The role of the newly blocks and how to design VET policy in
re-established Turkish National Committee the case of Kyrgyzstan or how to design
of Teacher Training – a network of key an apprenticeship strategy in the case of
policymakers and practitioners – is likely to Morocco.
be even more significant.
The facilitator’s decision to use capacity
Thus when policy learning is put into building instruments works on the
practice it brings together a wide variety of assumption that institutions lack the
learners. In the some of the most capacity to produce the desired policy or
advanced cases such as Turkey, it has are unable to do so fast enough. The
managed to bring together policymakers, observations of the authors of Chapter 6
practitioners, representatives of civil would seem to back this up. “While the
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
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1. WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM POLICY LEARNING?
ideas by contrasting them with fresh ones. perspectives see policy learning as
Policy learning, particularly when it takes instrumental for policy change. For Raffe
place as part of a peer learning event, is a and Spours (2007), policy learning has an
matter of understanding other systems to impact not only on the policies themselves
better understand your own2. This comes but also on the way they are designed.
over strongly in Chapter 4; where the
authors affirm that paying attention to the As the following chapters show, it is hard to
type of policy to be implemented in a identify or quantify how much policy
particular country context and to the change is due to policy learning. However,
people involved in implementation I would argue that the evidence on how it
increases policymakers’ understanding of changes the way policy is made is much
how different aspects of policies, people clearer.
and places interact and combine in
particular ways to shape implementation n Kyrgyzstan: Chapter 5 provides clear
processes and outcomes. Feedback and evidence of changes to the method of
observations from policymakers from policymaking. In Kyrgyzstan, as in other
neighbouring countries on national policy former Soviet republics, there was little
issues in VET support self-reflection and experience of policymaking as this had
better understanding of the specificities of previously been done centrally in
their own systems. Moscow. As a result of policy learning, a
new VET policy task force involving new
Dismantling myths: Participants in the stakeholders was set up by the Kyrgyz
Balkan case see the policy learning government.
exercise as a way to dismantle the myth of n Morocco: In spite of the negative verdict
the superiority of EU VET systems and to on some of the political dimensions of
learn from neighbours. This was not the the work done, the depth of consultation
case of the Kyrgyz team who had access and cooperation established between
to “too many visions” when they drafted departments represents a major
their policy paper. In this case, as pointed achievement for the policy learning
out in Chapter 6, looking at too many initiative.
policies prevented them from seeing the n Turkey: The main conclusion of Chapter 3
characteristics of their own system “It starts is that policy moved, through the impact
and ends with visions and principles spiced assessment approach to a space – the
with different concepts taken from agora – where not only politics are
documents related to the EU VET policy important but practitioners’ actions and
framework, and fails to integrate and build research activities are too.
on available national evidence,” note the
authors. The present discussion is still ongoing.
This volume is based on a small number of
3.1.4 The impact on policy examples, some of which are still
underway. It is also true that more time
Bennett and Howlett (1992) believe the must pass before we can really assess the
impact of policy learning should be results of policy learning processes. What
measured in terms of change to policy. then is needed to reach a more definite
They note that most people believe that conclusion? I believe there are many
policy learning does not occur “unless grounds for suggesting policy learning
there is some kind of policy change which produces a better outcome than
results from that learning process” (p.285). conventional policy advice.
Other academics (Olsen and Peters, 1996
cited in Raffe and Spours, 2007, p.4) find it First, using a policy learning approach sets
easier to look at policy learning in terms of the scene for a collaborative model of
the outcomes of resulting policy and infer policymaking, as described by Raffe and
that successful learning has taken place if Spours (2007). Most chapters in this
these policies produce good results. Both volume highlight the ability of policy
2 As Goethe said on learning languages, “Who does not know a foreign language does not know anything
about his own language”, Kunst und Alterthum
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
learning to engage a wide range of between the time needed for learning and
stakeholders from the public sector the urgent need to develop policy and
(including policymakers and practitioners), between the role of facilitator and
the private sector and civil society in advisor. Several chapters call for longer
general. To varying degrees, all chapters timescales for policy learning or, as Raffe
share a view of policy learning as a and Spours (2007, p.226) put it,
collective enterprise which leads to a more “recognition that policymaking schedules
democratic process of consultation and should reflect the needs of policy learning
greater ownership. as well as political and administrative
imperatives.”
Second, policy learning is also about
developing national capacity to lead As for the relationship between policy
reforms. Capacity building occurs through learning and policy change, the different
learning to use different instruments such chapters do not provide conclusive
as scenario building or impact evaluation. It evidence that participating in policy
can also draw in new stakeholders such as learning processes causes policy goals to
social partners, researchers or practitioners change. However they do describe clear
and help them move from the periphery to changes in the way policies are made.
the centre of policymaking (Lave and Among these are including new
Wenger, 1991). stakeholders, promoting more democratic
decision-making and collaboration and
Third, it would seem logical to expect that introducing new tools to support
an active learning process which policymaking.
encourages interaction, collaboration and
reflection will also promote a better Policy change is difficult to achieve and
understanding of policy issues and lead to difficult to quantify. The strength of policy
better designed policies. learning interventions in the cases
described was that in some cases it
encouraged stakeholders to get actively
4. CONCLUSIONS involved in steering the process and
develop their own understanding of policy
Policy learning processes are powerful issues. Using a policy learning approach
tools for promoting collaboration between paves the way for a new model of
different stakeholders and sharing governance. By promoting the kind of
experiences. As we have seen, they also active learning which is an intrinsic part of
encourage situated problem solving and a policy learning process, it also helps to
reflection. This is especially important build national capacities. It is clear that
when the aim is to develop national policy learning has plenty to teach us here
capacity to lead processes of reform. at the ETF and that we still need to further
explore its richness. It is also clear that it
Nevertheless policy learning inevitably can make a valuable contribution to
sets up different kinds of tension: facilitating the policy debate in partner
between the process and the end result, countries.
18
2
2. THE ETF’S
INTERVENTIONS IN JORDAN,
A FINE LINE BETWEEN
ADVICE AND GUIDANCE
Gérard Mayen
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
and administration to make Jordan a that its drivers (particularly new drivers such
knowledge society able to cope with the as social partners) are where they belong: in
effects of globalisation. This ambitious reform the driving seat. Furthermore, to extend the
programme set targets for the period from analogy, they also need to have a suitable
2006 to 2015. driving licence.
The National Agenda identified, among other This poses two major challenges: first, the
issues, several labour market and TVET resistance of the public system to accept
challenges and targets that cover: the new stakeholders as drivers, and
(i) reducing unemployment; (ii) absorbing the second, their lack of capacity to take on
annual inflow of new job seekers (projected this responsibility. Both of these challenges
to grow at 4% per annum); and (iii) increasing have been considered and are now at the
the participation of women in the labour heart of the policy learning activities
market. This is combined with the need to initiated by the ETF in Jordan. These
develop the capacity of enterprises activities are carried out in the form of a
(particularly small and medium sized ones) to cascading participatory approach of
adapt to technological changes and provide stakeholders from a wide arena (public,
quality products in a globalised market. In this private, non-governmental sectors and to
context, the Ministry of Labour has been some extent, donors).
given the mandate to lead the employment
and TVET strands of the National Agenda.
4. POLICY LEARNING
In parallel, the Ministry of Education through PROCESS
the Education Reform for the Knowledge
Economy project (ERfKE) and the Ministry of Policy learning activities were developed to
Higher Education through the Higher serve the parts of Jordan’s reform agenda
Education Reform for the Knowledge that aimed at developing a knowledge
Economy project (HERfKE) are engaged in economy based on the quality of its human
wide scale reforms. Both ministries deal with capital.
the segments of technical and vocational
education within their jurisdictions. 4.1 Task forces
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2. THE ETF’S INTERVENTIONS IN JORDAN, A FINE LINE BETWEEN
ADVICE AND GUIDANCE
3 Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Council,
Employment-Technical and Vocational Education and Training (E-TVET) Sector Reform Document, May
2008
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
4 The World Bank through the implementation of its Jordan Employer Driven Skills Development Project that
started early in 2008 and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) through the
implementation of the BEST project.
5 See Jordan Employer Driven Skills Development Project, World Bank preparation and pre-appraisal mission,
22 August-20 September 2007.
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2. THE ETF’S INTERVENTIONS IN JORDAN, A FINE LINE BETWEEN
ADVICE AND GUIDANCE
scaffolding has been used by several donors), and on the other hand staff in
researchers when analysing adult training charge of implementing the reform
(Mayen, 1999; Kuningel, 2007) and might process.
be an appropriate frame in which to
analyse the activity of ETF staff and This coincided with other ETF interventions
experts in charge of facilitating the through different projects such as the
learning process. Policymakers in partner Observatory Function, the National
countries can be regarded as policy Qualification Framework Project, Social
learners (Grootings, 2004) and policy Partnership, and MEDA-ETE6 activities that
learning can be facilitated by creating a all contributed to the policy learning process
relevant support system. Bruner et al. among stakeholders. The key challenge was
(2006) developed detailed descriptions of to apply the same principles of policy learning
an interactive system of exchange in to all interventions. This required the
which “the tutor operates with an implicit coordination of all activities as well as close
theory of the learner’s acts in order to communication with local and international
recruit his attention, reduces degrees of consultants working on behalf of the ETF.
freedom in the task to manageable limits,
maintains ‘direction’ in the By contributing to the development of
problem-solving, marks critical features, policy papers for the minister and preparing
controls frustration, and demonstrates conceptual steps to develop the new
solutions when the learner can recognise governance model mentioned above,
them” (p. 207). ministry staff became involved in all steps.
They also gradually became more involved
Bruner and his team (Wood, Bruner and in drafting the actual documents.
Ross, 1976; Wood, 1980) demonstrated
that where support is contingent on the ETF interventions looked at process and
activities of the individual and related to staff skills, as well as the constraints of the
what the individual is currently trying to do, policy agenda.
then considerable progress may be made.
The process aimed at creating a support
system for staff to help them to develop
7. POLICY FACILITATION AS A and master new concepts and develop
SCAFFOLDING PROCESS their capacity to manage teams to discuss
those concepts and turn them into action.
In addition to and in parallel with the The Jordanian staff have taken increasing
support provided to the participatory responsibility for the process including
discussions described above, the ETF presenting at and facilitating meetings. The
contribution to policy learning also included ETF’s initial role is now entirely in the
capacity building activities for Ministry of hands of the team members. A direct
Labour staff, developing a management positive consequence is the improvement
structure within the ministry to deal with the of staff skills in drafting policy documents.
reform process, contributing to policy
document preparations and participating in As an example, during a two-day
a large number of technical committees. Stakeholder Workshop in Aqaba in May
2008, several staff members prepared and
As agreed between the ETF and the made their own content-related
Ministry of Labour, an ETF staff member presentations to a high level stakeholder
(the author of this chapter) was seconded audience (including the minister), facilitated
to the latter as a policy advisor to share all workshops and reported back using
and transfer knowledge for the benefit of a computerised tools. Also by being invited to
wide range of audiences: on one hand high participate in donor missions, meetings and
level policymakers (the minister and stakeholder working groups, staff had more
secretary-general, but in practice also and more opportunities to deliver
executive staff of other stakeholders presentations, provide information and
institutions, key social partners and contribute to the knowledge building of
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
7 Unemployment in Jordan, by Gérard Mayen, Christine Guégnard, Xavier Matheu and Musa Shteiwi, ETF,
2005.
24
2. THE ETF’S INTERVENTIONS IN JORDAN, A FINE LINE BETWEEN
ADVICE AND GUIDANCE
private sector social partner said that The purpose of this chapter was not to
his institution “had understood the portray the ETF as a lone advocate of
crucial role of human resources policy learning. The ETF is only one of the
development and its readiness to adapt contributors to this process. Policy learning
its structure to deal with it”. Another is a long-term process that has now been
example comes from a key launched and will be improved through a
representative from the General large variety of interventions and
Federation of Jordanian Trade Unions, mechanisms. Many other interventions
who questioned why his institution had contribute to policy learning and help
not been invited to the Parliament to Jordanian counterparts to build the human
discuss the TVET law. Both of them are resource development system that works
members of the Reform Steering best for them. Compared to technical
Committee and have participated in an assistance from donors, the ETF
ETF study visit to the EU to learn more contribution is very limited in terms of
about social partnerships. A final resources. Nevertheless, the ETF has
example concerns the awareness added value that few other institutions can
among social partners of the need for demonstrate: the broad expertise of its staff
further capacity building before a place and the thorough knowledge of EU policies
in the ‘driving seat’ can be legitimately in the sector.
claimed. It is illustrated by a request to
the ETF from three social partners to be
supported in building internal capacities. 10. CONCLUSION
In this chapter, ‘policy learning’ has been
9. LEARNING BENEFITS FOR considered as a process where
THE ETF policymakers have progressively learnt to
take account of the importance of their own
Policy learning is not a ‘one-way trip’. It is role including the role of new comers
about collective learning. It should aim to meaning the social partners, in the reform
be, and thought of afterwards as a win-win process. It has enabled the social partners
experience. A number of positive returns to move progressively from the periphery to
on investment for Jordanian stakeholders the centre of decision-making processes.
have been outlined above. For the ETF The effect of policy learning on
the learning process has been a rich policymaking processes has been
experience which provides a deeper described while the difficulties of such a
knowledge of the internal functions of a learning process both for government and
partner country TVET sector (the technical social partners has been highlighted.
learning). It has given an increased
understanding of strategy and Although identifying and analysing effects
coordination mechanisms among of policy learning on policies is difficult,
stakeholders and an indication of there are several indicators of a change in
subsequent levers to act on (the the policy goals through the linking of TVET
conceptual learning). It has and will help with socio-economic development and
to build initiatives with a good knowledge competitiveness. Furthermore, there has
of the cultural environment and also been a change in the way policies in
relationships (social learning). It also TVET are informed and led particularly
provides opportunities to support the through the systematic participatory
development of tailored solutions built on approach and increased involvement of
the latest and most advanced concepts. social partners.
It opens the door for new networks and
partnerships. Through the exchange of ‘Policy learning facilitation’ has also been
experience and conceptual confrontation described as the process whereby
the ETF is able to participate in the international assistance genuinely helps
development of models which are truly countries to develop and implement their
targeted to the specific needs of a own reform policies. Beyond suggesting
country. that support must be tailored to the needs
25
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
of partner countries, the facilitation role has carefully at the processes of policymaking
been portrayed using the scaffolding in Jordan and to pay attention to its role as
metaphor. Facilitators should regulate their policy advisor with the aim of helping
support in terms of their counterparts’ people help themselves. In the end, it is a
abilities and capacities. question of moving from the position which
acknowledges the need for policy advice to
It has been the policy learning approaches one which actively recognises the
which have led the ETF to look more importance of collaboration and learning.
26
3
3. POLICY LEARNING – THE
EXPERIENCE OF IMPACT
ANALYSIS IN TURKEY
Søren Nielsen, Outi Kärkkäinen,
Recep Varcin and Arjen Vos
27
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
can and should play in their cooperation arguments developed and lessons learnt
with colleagues in partner countries. for future work towards a more dynamic
and proactive use of project and
Policy learning is sharing experience from programme evaluations.
the past to develop knowledge for the
future. It also covers the distillation of
knowledge from other countries and 2. THE MVET PROJECT:
knowledge that is produced locally into new REFORM OF THE OVERALL
knowledge. It contributes to creating ORGANISATION OF
coherent system-wide reforms that fit into a VOCATIONAL TEACHER
local context and it facilitates system-deep TRAINING IN TURKEY
reforms of VET systems because it
enables all stakeholders to learn new roles As one among very few transition
and develop new working routines. countries, Turkey has perceived the reform
Developing concrete approaches that can of its vocational teacher training system as
make policy learning work in practice is a a central part of general VET reforms. A
challenging task. The ETF, working in a project focussing on general VET reforms
privileged position at the interface between (SVET) and the Modernisation of
research and practice, can take such Vocational Education and Training (MVET)
approaches forward as a mediating agency project sought synergy through a common
between the two fields. Targeted impact monitoring committee.
analysis could be yet another tool for policy
learning, if properly designed and The MVET project focused on the
conducted in a participatory approach. improvement of the quality and relevance
of vocational teacher training in Turkey and
Reform of the organisation of vocational was designed to address the following
teacher education is an essential part of needs:
overall VET reform in Turkey. The design
of such systemic vocational teacher n to strengthen cooperation between the
education reform offers many angles for employer of vocational teachers (the
discussion. For analytical purposes, we will Ministry of National Education) and the
approach the activity from two provider of vocational teacher training
perspectives. Both are central to the (the Higher Education Council in charge
argument developed here. First the of university education, known as YÖK);
innovative design and results of an impact n to ensure that vocational teachers have
analysis of the EU-funded vocational relevant pedagogical skills as well as
teacher training reform project, skills related to the world of work;
Modernisation of Vocational Education and n to link vocational teacher training to an
Training (MVET), is analysed. Then the overall framework for human resources
extent to which evaluations can provide a development in Turkey, including pre
meaningful and proactive contribution to and in-service training;
policy learning, rather than serving merely n to align Turkish vocational teacher
as accountability functions delivered post training more closely to the EU.
festum, is discussed.
The EU funded project, implemented from
The rationale behind the choice of the July 2003 to December 2006, had a total
evaluation model is examined, then the budget of €14 million.
specific impact assessment model is spelt
out in detail. Selected findings and The project had three key outputs. Firstly it
recommendations on vocational teacher produced ten occupational standards and
training policy are presented, leading to the modular curricula for pre-service technical
description and analysis of learning priority areas and a teacher qualification
platforms that are deliberately built into the framework based on five in-service
impact analysis design, along with an modules. Secondly, the staff of 14
assessment of their potential for policy vocational teacher training faculties were
learning. Finally, the chapter sums up the trained to introduce and implement the
28
3. POLICY LEARNING – THE EXPERIENCE OF IMPACT ANALYSIS IN TURKEY
8 These key challenges to improve the relationship between research, policy and practice in education and
training within the European Union and to improve the effectiveness of the knowledge ‘continuum’ cycle is a
concern of all EU countries. See: Commission Staff Working Document, Towards more knowledge-based
policy and practice in education and training, SEC(2007) 1098.
9 Symposium “Knowledge for Action – Research Strategies for an Evidence-based Education Policy”,
28-30 March 2007 in Frankfurt/Main, during Germany’s EU Presidency.
29
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
30
3. POLICY LEARNING – THE EXPERIENCE OF IMPACT ANALYSIS IN TURKEY
will be developed and applied to a specific Another strategic choice agreed with
and concrete case, the Modernisation of Turkish key players and the EC Delegation
Vocational Education and Training (MVET) was to use the impact analysis as a
project in Turkey. In the efforts to enable learning platform for launching a policy
the use of new knowledge produced and learning activity by building the analytical
effective mediation, researchers, focus of the impact analysis on a ‘policy’
policymakers, practitioners, beneficiaries logic and not on the MVET pilot project
and donor agencies are brought together in logic.
the arena – the agora – where each has
something to learn and teach. Policymakers and practitioners in Turkey
pointed out that one possible hurdle was
the fact that the Ministry of National
4. THE APPROACH TO THE Education does not have a developed
MVET IMPACT ANALYSIS vocational teacher training policy. This
applied to the evaluation as much as it had
A fundamental question that affects many to the actual implementation of the MVET
evaluative assessments is: who is the project. The main emphasis therefore had
client? The approach to the impact to be put on the project’s policy and
assessment of the MVET project in Turkey strategy component (component 4).
was therefore carefully discussed with the
EC Delegation, key Ministry of National Key players in Turkey suggested
Education (MONE) actors and senior structuring the impact analysis around the
representatives from the Council for Higher policy and strategy paper, starting from the
Education (YÖK) at meetings in Ankara practical, pragmatic MVET white paper
between 7 and 10 May 2007. It was agreed recommendations and involving key
that the activity should be development policymakers and stakeholders in forward
oriented and focus on how MVET project looking discussions. The entire process
results can be taken forward by the was anchored around the Steering Group.
Ministry of National Education and YÖK in
their development of further policies and in However, a short, descriptive, analytical
ensuring that valuable results are actually and evaluative survey of the project design
implemented. and its achievements also needed to be
produced. This was mainly done by local
The approach was based on a policy experts who worked together with ETF staff
learning philosophy, where national using questionnaires, interviews,
ownership, fit into context and sustainability observations and semi-structured panel
are important. The current situation, the discussions. These tools were designed
next targets, and the kind of support and developed together with the Steering
needed to reach these targets were focal Group members, most of whom were key
points. Within the spirit of the agora as project beneficiaries in technical education
outlined above, the ETF and all project faculties. The data collection process itself
stakeholders and shareholders worked was also meant to constitute a learning
together step-by-step. arena where researchers, teacher trainers,
project implementation units and
To ensure national ownership, a Steering administrators put forward their ideas on
Group was set up that could link the the objective of the project and on the
assessment to other planned national future policy development and
vocational teacher training events, known implementation.
as VET TT events, such as the ETF
development project on teaching and
learning, the ETF Peer Learning Activity in 5. THE IMPACT ANALYSIS
Turkey and the development of a national MODEL
vocational teacher training network that
helps Turkey to play a stronger role in Education evaluation comprises different
Cedefop’s similar network. disciplines. It often has many masters to
31
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
32
3. POLICY LEARNING – THE EXPERIENCE OF IMPACT ANALYSIS IN TURKEY
this reform, and (iii) to enhance national puts the following issues on the agenda as
ownership and ensure the sustainability of policy options for Turkey13.
such reforms. This was achieved by
establishing a Steering Committee that 1. At the VET system level, the policy
would oversee the actual assessment, proposed to solve the problem of huge
organising meetings with university faculty vocational teacher overproduction and
staff, carrying out dissemination events, underrated employment upon
and presenting findings and graduation is two-fold: (i) restructuring
recommendations at a national event in university faculties into technology
January 2008. faculties providing the higher level VET
qualifications needed by the Turkish
labour market; (ii) a complete revision of
6. FINDINGS AND POLICY technical qualification levels to bring
OPTIONS FOR FUTURE these in line with European standards.
REFORM INITIATIVES It is proposed to make this part of a
national qualifications framework
Less than 5% of teacher training graduates development process and at the same
end up as vocational teachers. Graduates time provide an input to feed into the
are underrated when offered alternative restructuring of higher education in
jobs. Vocational teacher training faculties Turkey in the spirit of the Bologna
need restructuring to become technology process. Due to the fact that this
faculties as part of the higher education overhaul of qualifications and
reform. And the relations between YÖK restructuring of faculties has not yet
(the Higher Education Council in charge of been undertaken, it has been very
universities) and the Ministry of National difficult to reform vocational teacher
Education are problematic. These factors training in isolation.
set the scene for policy development, for 2. The relationship between the Ministry of
the ministry, for universities and for National Education and YÖK needs to
students. be reinforced. YÖK is responsible for
vocational teaching qualifications at the
The MVET project achieved most of its universities, while the Ministry of
objectives (Kiraz et al., 2007). The National Education is its client. This
recommendations on the components of situation is similar in many countries but
curriculum, teaching methodologies, in Turkey there must be a much
student-centred learning, pedagogical stronger interface between demand and
equipment and quality assurance pose a supply. The outcomes of the MVET
heavy menu for follow-up policy decisions. project and the development of
However, the in-depth interviews carried vocational teacher training can improve
out in 14 university environments through only through agreements at the highest
the impact analysis indicate that most of level. So a top priority is to establish
the activities can now be delivered by platforms and modalities for this
Turkish institutions and experts. cooperation. A revitalised national
Conceptual understanding and committee for vocational teacher
methodological expertise are available. training could be a potential institutional
Therefore, the move from pilot projects to home for such collaboration, if properly
systemic generalisation now mainly equipped with a professional
depends on policy decisions, allocation of secretariat.
resources, strategic organisation, local 3. Another strategic choice for the Ministry
experts trained by the MVET project, and of National Education is to set up a
incentives for change agents. vocational teacher training policy unit,
formulate a coherent teacher training
The MVET project identified a number of policy and set aside the necessary
systemic obstacles which need to be resources for implementation. The
tackled. Following the logic of the forward Ministry of National Education needs
looking strategy the impact analysis report the impact analysis documents to
13 The policy issues listed follow the findings of the impact assessment report (Kiraz et al., 2007).
33
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
change focus from a pilot project logic there are differences in capacity among
to a policy logic. According to departments and faculties. However,
policymakers and practitioners in among all MVET project components
Turkey, the Ministry of National we can identify the expertise
Education does not have a developed development needs at different
vocational teacher training policy and universities. Horizontal learning in
strategy and therefore finds it difficult to networks is recommended but needs to
cope with the implementation of new be structured. Therefore, YÖK should
donor-led initiatives while at the same develop initiatives to implement
time allocating the necessary funds for horizontal learning networks through
broader implementation. which faculty staff share experiences
4. There is a need to establish a and engage in capacity development
specialised VET centre in Turkey which efforts.
also covers vocational teacher training. 6. There is a need to open teacher training
There are 25 university-based in two directions: towards the work
vocational teacher training institutions, environment that will absorb the
but there is no institution that can vocational students and schools. To be
ensure that conceptual, methodological a professional, competent vocational
and organisational learning is teacher today means being familiar with
consolidated, institutionalised and taken the demands of the employment
forward in a routine way. Vocational system, having the necessary
teaching and learning is a rich research vocational knowledge and skills and
field that needs to be developed. understanding of how these may
International expertise is not optimally develop in the future. As far as links
used and institutional capacity has to be with schools are concerned, the
created to consolidate and cascade challenge for vocational teacher training
MVET outputs to accumulate new is to produce teaching competence that
‘home-grown’ expertise in the field. A is relevance for vocational schools.
national VET centre should accumulate While initiatives have been taken in
expertise and focus on research, some universities towards nurturing
innovation and development. Also in faculty-company links, this is not the
Turkey, there is a lack of didactical case with faculty-school partnerships.
thinking on vocational subjects which The easy solution for the Ministry of
can best be developed in centres of National Education would be to ask
expertise. A VET centre should be vocational school leaders about their
placed in one of the universities teacher competence needs and consult
involved in vocational teacher training. It with the faculties to see how they might
could start by taking the strategic lead in respond to these needs.
the broader implementation of the 7. There is a huge demand for in-service
MVET project results, accumulating all teacher training courses in VET. On
international and national donor-driven average, current courses only allow
project outcomes and serving as a teachers to attend one course during
policy learning and development centre. their entire careers. The existing model
5. The project documented that university for continuing teacher training is
faculty staff still need considerable supply-based. Provision procedures are
competence development, both in terms dictated from above and only partly
of vocational and technical skills, and successful. Continuing vocational
didactic and pedagogic skills. teacher training targets individuals and
Networking the 14 faculties and not groups and does not take into
supporting the continued professional account institutional and organisational
development of faculty staff should be a development needs. There is a need for
priority for YÖK in pre-service demand-led training that is delivered
vocational teacher training, and for the close to or within schools. Pilot projects
Ministry of National Education in could start immediately where, on an
in-service vocational teacher training. experimental basis, those faculties and
The impact analysis documented that others providing continuing vocational
34
3. POLICY LEARNING – THE EXPERIENCE OF IMPACT ANALYSIS IN TURKEY
training initiate the training process by platforms that enable key actors and
going to the vocational schools and, stakeholders to discuss future issues
together with teachers and principals, before, during and after the evaluation.
identify the actual training needs. The ´mode 2´ based agora model
Learning partnerships between training outlined earlier has enabled the effective
providers and vocational schools could creation of a participatory processes at
probably emerge. For vocational teacher every stage of the assessment. The
training faculties, feedback mechanisms following instruments were incorporated
would allow experiences to be in the impact analysis design. Under
channelled back and used as input into each heading we sum up possible next
ordinary teacher education programmes. steps.
8. In Turkey, as in most other countries,
the concept of continuous professional 7.1 National Steering Group
development of teachers is almost
exclusively seen as continuing training To ensure true national ownership, the
provided by centralised delivery MVET impact assessment set up a
systems. In reality, continuous national Steering Group that was
professional development is a much involved from the outset, taking part in
more promising strategy, it is much initial discussions of the evaluation
cheaper, and it re-establishes the design, monitoring the assessment
recognition of teachers as professionals activities and linking the results from the
and stakeholders of reform. It impact assessment with challenges for
introduces action learning principles, future policy design and implementation.
horizontal learning from each other, and The Steering Group included
on-the-job learning supported by representatives from the Higher
external consultancy. Such activities Education Council (YÖK), the Ministry of
can be coordinated by schools and can National Education, the Turkish
fit into individual schools’ year plans Employment Organisation (ISKUR), the
where time is set aside for these new Vocational Qualification Authority,
purposes. This will require a university faculties and the EC
decentralisation policy with more Delegation. They met in October 2007 to
freedom for schools to organise their discuss the design and organisation of
own staff competence development on data collection in university faculties, and
the basis of locally identified needs and in December 2007 to discuss preliminary
without central approval procedures. An findings and recommendations. The
approach along these lines could lead Steering Group members also took part
to innovative local initiatives which will in the final conference on 24 and 25
in turn foster professional development January 2008 and gave feedback on the
efforts. impact assessment. Important issues
were discussed at these meetings and
the findings were thoroughly analysed.
These included some serious institutional
7. ORGANISATION OF POLICY and political barriers determining various
LEARNING PLATFORMS AND stages of project implementation which
NEXT STEPS had not been fully covered. The Steering
Group did, to some extent, take
It is a foregone conclusion that policy ownership of the impact analysis.
recommendations like the ones
mentioned here do not just come about Next steps
by themselves. They would often
probably not even be taken into account The ETF was positively surprised by the
when an evaluation report is delivered. commitment shown by members and
This is the reason why the impact concluded that this model should be used
analysis design is built in ‘transaction more often in the future, as it enables
spaces’ along with an infrastructure for ownership, embeddedness and has the
policy reflection by establishing learning potential for enhanced sustainability.
35
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
7.2 Data collection initiating dialogue in on future policy actions. The workshops
all university vocational teacher training brought together the demand and supply
faculties sides of local vocational teacher training.
After a short introduction of the MVET
An initial assessment activity focused on project impact analysis, the future of
the review of all available project teacher training policy was openly
documents. A survey instrument was discussed in line with an agenda set by the
prepared, containing qualitative and key issues raised in the MVET policy and
quantitative questions. A draft of the strategy paper.
questionnaire was mailed to all
beneficiaries for comments. Then a site Next steps
visit schedule was prepared for 14
faculties at 11 locations, in all covering 36 Fundamental reform and changes to the
departments/training programmes that existing conditions are needed.
had been supported by the MVET project. Independent from (but inspired by) the
In each faculty two days were spent on MVET project, YÖK is in the process of
average. In each department, a joint reforming vocational teacher training
meeting was organised with faculty staff faculties. The graduate employment
explaining the purpose of the study. problem is broadly acknowledged. The
Rather than selecting a sample, the common view is that students who want to
assessment team carried out face-to-face be teachers should take a year or a year
sessions with 195 interviewees in the and a half of additional pedagogical
departments. training after graduation. Therefore, all
faculties should be involved in the process
The two days spent in each environment of change. Faculties claim that their
lead to in-depth discussions with numerous graduates are furnished with all the
staff members and, equally importantly, necessary credentials and have more
raised awareness among faculty staff of practical training, which in turn, increases
impending changes. their employability giving them a proper title
and job profile.
Next steps
7.4 Policy agenda setting
Due to the design of the impact analysis
the evaluators helped to create stronger The MVET impact analysis had a broader
interaction and networking between the focus than just consolidation of the
faculties. Such embryonic networking is a valuable results of the project. It was also
strong asset for Turkey and should be designed in a forward looking perspective
strengthened and better structured in the to influence the vocational teacher training
future, also in the areas of policy design, policy agenda in Turkey by singling out
implementation and monitoring. neglected or ineffective conditions or
programmes and by bringing new policy
7.3 Regional workshops options to the attention of policymakers,
providers of vocational teacher education,
During the policy impact assessment, school principals and teachers, students,
targeted workshops were organised at social partners and the general public. This
university faculties in Elazig, Ankara and focus on innovation and improvement was
Sakarya. Participants were faculty agreed with the national Steering
members (of both supported and Committee during the impact analysis
non-supported universities), social design phase. The ETF followed up on this
partners, vocational school teachers and ambition by organising presentations and
principals, students and local discussions of the key findings with the
administrators. The participation of local new President and Vice-President of YÖK
stakeholders in the regional workshops and with the Ministry of National Education
provided invaluable and insightful feedback Deputy Under-Secretary during separate
on the outcomes of the project as well as meetings in February 2008.
36
3. POLICY LEARNING – THE EXPERIENCE OF IMPACT ANALYSIS IN TURKEY
37
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
was right to join international networks. The It taught the lesson that impact analysis
Ministry of National Education supports this should not be carried out by a single
idea and will see how a national vocational evaluating body if it is to generate learning
teacher training network can be set up and opportunities. ‘Transaction spaces’ must
financed. In his final comments on the be established which involve researchers,
MVET impact analysis, now taken forward policymakers as well as practitioners in
by the conference, Dr. Abdullah Sönmez, the process. From the very start dedicated
Dean of the Technical Education Faculty of learning platforms must be designed and
the University of Gazi, summed up the set up that engage national key actors and
policy learning implications by underlining stakeholders in dialogue during and after
that MVET is much more than a project: it the assessment. This ETF impact analysis
has provided a new awareness and a new therefore incorporated instruments such
policy platform for Turkey, on which as a national steering group, data
ongoing discussions on the reform of collection as a collective learning process,
vocational teacher training can now take regional workshops, policy agenda setting,
place. Engaging the national Vocational dialogue among authorities, and a broader
Teacher Training Committee and the final conference as strategic learning
Turkish network linked to the EU-level platforms.
Cedefop vocational teacher training
network (VET TTnet) could become an This method worked well and has been
important ‘driver’ in shaping and instrumental in overcoming some of the
implementing the necessary policy reforms. barriers in the knowledge continuum cycle.
It has brought together policymakers,
providers of vocational teacher education
8. CONCLUSION as well as establishing a new platform for
vocational teacher training policy
This chapter has discussed an approach to discussions in and with Turkey in the years
impact analysis based on a policy learning to come. The Ministry of National
logic. We have tried to use the policy Education and the EC Delegation in
learning philosophy as a guideline for the Ankara therefore asked the ETF to
design of evaluations of donor-led projects. undertake a similar impact analysis of the
A lot of effort and money is spent on EU funded VET reform (SVET project) in
evaluations in transition countries and the 2009.
chapter has demonstrated that, rather than
just serving an accountability function, The approach to the analysis provided us
evaluations can be used to generate with much contextualised knowledge and
proactive contributions to policy learning. an array of policy options for VET reform in
Forward looking impact analysis which is Turkey. Its results confirm that new forms
organised as development evaluation and of evaluation of major foreign donor
has improvement as its main objective can financed projects can help to ensure that
provide national policymakers and reform achievements are consolidated and
stakeholders with a review of the main taken forward and that they may result in
achievements against the potential of an improved decision-making with a potential
activity and as such facilitate future for changed practice within a national
continuation of reform initiatives. The policy learning perspective. We believe that
specific example outlined in this chapter such a policy learning tool could be used
has been welcomed by the Turkish with positive results also in other transition
authorities and the EC Delegation. countries.
38
4
4. ETF PEER LEARNING:
FROM POLICY LEARNING TO
POLICY CHANGE IN
PARTNER COUNTRIES
Margareta Nikolovska and Arjen Vos
14 The reasons behind moving from the peer review to the peer learning approach are discussed in detail by
Grootings et al. (2006).
39
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
Evaluations of peer reviews (Gordon and concerned and also to ETF work on policy
Thompson, 2005) indicate that policy learning. The ETF is now in a better
recommendations are not much used and position to strengthen the links between
have little influence on the policy process. policy learning and ongoing policy
The same evaluations confirm that the processes in countries reforming their
learning experience of peers matters most education or VET systems.
– all participants concurred that individual
knowledge creation and the learning The ETF sees policy learning as an
process itself are the most important instrument to support stakeholders in
outcomes of the peer review project. The partner countries to achieve sustainable
ETF concluded that its peer reviews can change in their education and VET
still be a useful instrument for policy systems. Policy development, formulation
learning where there is a strong and implementation should be firmly based
commitment on the part of the national on broad ownership and fit within the
government and the reviews are carried institutional structures that allow the
out every four or five years. stakeholders to participate (Nikolovska,
2007). However, as the purpose of the ETF
The ETF peer learning methodology has programme is not simply to create policy
thus not been developed to replace peer learning environments for individuals but to
reviews, but as an attempt to find another enable them to formulate reform policies as
pragmatic and efficient tool that will build a result of their learning, there are at least
on existing local knowledge and capacities two issues to be addressed in this chapter.
integral to the specific environment of The first is the challenge of being able to
partner countries’ education reform retain an environment conducive to
policies, and to local education and VET learning for all participants as part of the
systems. Learning and policy are central to ETF peer learning methodology. The
this new approach15. second concerns the potential of the ETF
role as policy learning facilitator to make
Peer learning is a modest and flexible policy learning instrumental in policy
instrument which recognises that the change – and this is much more complex
learning process may be more effective (Grootings, 2007). Both issues are directly
than policy recommendations in report form connected to how the ETF can improve its
where the objective is to strengthen the knowledge of how to facilitate policy
capacity of policymakers and VET experts learning that will lead to sustained policy
to develop and implement policies. change.
40
4. ETF PEER LEARNING: FROM POLICY LEARNING TO POLICY CHANGE IN
PARTNER COUNTRIES
inclusion policies, where peer learning is Four main goals underpin current ETF
defined as ‘mutual learning processes activities in peer learning in the
based on the systematic evaluation of good pre-accession region:
practice and assessment of selected
policies or institutional arrangements n improved mutual knowledge and
coming under the various National Action understanding of VET systems, issues
Plans’ (INBAS/NIZW, 2005). and developments;
n promotion of networking, exchanges of
The framework of ETF peer learning experience and cooperation among
broadly follows the logic of the EU VET experts, stakeholders and
approach to the concept. However, given policymakers, leading to an analysis of
the fact that the ETF’s role in South policy options suitable for local systems
Eastern European VET reform is to and traditions;
facilitate policy learning by making n increased awareness and expanded
available instruments and sources for opportunities for learning from VET
education and training, and by assisting reform experiences in EU Member
and guiding stakeholders’ participation and States and (potential) candidate
interaction, ETF peer learning is based on countries;
the principle of a learning platform carefully n linking national policy reform initiatives
created and facilitated around major policy to the EU Instrument for Pre-Accession
issues of concern in the participating Assistance (IPA) programming cycle.
countries. By involving policymakers and
VET experts/practitioners as peers, The peer learning approach can be seen
conditions are created for better targeted as a tool to reinforce stakeholders’
capacity building around the policies in capacities to formulate and implement
place and policy outcomes. systemic education reform policies. The
added value of this approach is the
The direct involvement of both organisation of a concise regional learning
policymakers and VET experts was platform for country stakeholders, the
introduced in 2006, using the following enhanced potential for reflection on country
methodology: reform activities as well as a more targeted
debate on the EU Education and Training
1. A common issue for policy learning is 2010 agenda. The two rounds of ETF peer
decided in cooperation with the learning activities have focused on
countries involved. system-level problems – VET financing in
2. A country background paper is 2006 and policy impact on schools in 2007
prepared by the participants in the form – as experiments in both the process of
of a ‘self-study’ document. policy learning, and how policy learning
3. A thematic concept paper is elaborated can contribute to policy change.
by the ETF on the selected topic for
peer learning. Nedergaard, in an article on mutual
4. Peer learning events are organised in learning processes in which he attempts to
the participating countries. clarify the learning process in international
5. A cross-country synthesis report is communities, refers to policy learning as a
prepared on the state of the art and gradual process of realisation, where
findings of the peer learning exercise. cognitive categories are redefined on the
6. Dissemination activities are organised in basis of new knowledge. In addition, policy
various forms – articles, country learning often implies that the actors
workshops, regional conferences. (policymakers and other stakeholders)
involved are assumed to be learning
something (Nedergaard, 2006). The ETF
peer learning concept reflects this concept
of policy learning. The ETF concept notes
on peer learning17 make clear that policy
learning emphasises the active
41
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
18 Different aspects of the advantages and disadvantages of peer learning as a method for policy learning are
discussed in Part 2 of this Yearbook.
42
4. ETF PEER LEARNING: FROM POLICY LEARNING TO POLICY CHANGE IN
PARTNER COUNTRIES
43
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
In the 2007 ETF peer learning exercise, the policy issue selected was ‘Implementation
of education polices: impact on schools and school management’. This policy issue
has been applied in different contexts in relation to the countries involved, Albania,
Kosovo and Turkey. Each of these countries selected a country team of a policymaker,
two school principals (one from a pilot and the other from a non-pilot vocational
school), as well as a VET expert. The team consisted of peers from the three countries
and one ‘guest peer’ from the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and one from
Montenegro20.
The team moved from country to country and took part in the three day peer learning
events to observe and discuss the policy issue from different points of view. A deeper
understanding of how policies ‘travel’ up and down the various intermediary levels
between the centre (i.e. ministry of education as main ‘policy designer’) and the school
(major unit where policies are implemented), was the main topic for the 2007 ETF peer
learning team. A powerful way of understanding the implementation process was to
ask two related questions:
n How do school-level actors and stakeholders make sense of new policies, and how
do they interpret them?
n Do they faithfully implement policies that have been centrally determined to the
letter, or do they transform them, possibly by adapting them to suit the school
environment, the school’s institutional culture and the surrounding community’s
needs?
n What opportunities exist for school-based actors to contribute to the improvement of
the policies?
n Are there cases where school-based actors subvert policies that have been decided
at a higher level than the school? If so, how and why does this happen?
n Are such transformations and adaptations, accommodations and resistances
educationally sound, or are they problematic?
n How do new policies implemented in pilot schools travel to non-pilot schools, if at
all?
n Who decides when a policy has been successfully implemented and disseminated,
and on what grounds?21
44
4. ETF PEER LEARNING: FROM POLICY LEARNING TO POLICY CHANGE IN
PARTNER COUNTRIES
asking questions, while at the same time it beginning, not the end, of efforts to improve
builds up commitment on the part of the policymaking and support partner countries
hosts. The purpose of the self-study in formulating policies, there is ample
document is thus to have team members opportunity for the ETF to support the
analyse national policies, legislation or improvement of these self-study documents.
programmes that have been implemented.
It should identify the key problems, key
indicators and qualitative information, 5. POLICYMAKERS PLAY A
describe the formulated policy intentions, KEY ROLE
priorities, barriers and the effects of
implementation, and set out the most ETF peer learning has systematically
important tasks and decisions still pending. brought together policymakers and another
group of stakeholders, indicating that the
Although the self-study country report is an focus is on the transition from policy
essential part of the peer learning project, development to policy implementation, a
providing background information for the process that involves many stakeholders.
discussions and creating strong stakeholder The main idea of the approach is that the
involvement, the ETF’s two years of policymakers learn from the self-study of the
experience shows that the country teams do topic and from being part of a peer team, as
not always succeed in developing the paper well as from the visits to policy arenas in
beyond the level of a simple policy report and different countries. This approach may be
a (self-)critical analysis. The focus is normally considered as transitional, moving away
clear and targeted, but often the report is from an expert-driven knowledge-transfer
quite descriptive and too open about the model towards participatory forms of policy
challenges of policy implementation and learning in which policymakers and other
policy objectives. As policy analysis is the stakeholders consolidate their learning.
The self-study document in 2007 focused on ‘Managing the teaching and learning
process in schools: opportunities and barriers’ in participating countries. Each team
developed two case studies of recent VET policy reforms that have had an impact at
school level. For example, one of the case studies of the Albanian country team
focused on the modularisation of the curriculum, as one of the earliest education
reforms that still poses a challenge for implementation. Modularisation introduced new
VET concepts and practices in Albania, and possibly more than any other reform has
had important implications for the role of the teacher and the teaching/learning
process. Education policy and practice have also been influenced through the
introduction of protocols which have had an impact on the curricular structure, content
and methodology in several different areas.
The short and focused self-study aims at providing background information and
analysis that should stimulate the interviews and debates during the peer learning
events. In writing up these case studies, the teams provided information on the
following:
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
More effective policy design and In trying to solve these types of problem,
implementation may result from closer policymakers have little interest in
confrontation of policymakers with the discussing measures that have never been
realities of policy implementation in put into effect. The experience of seeing a
schools, as in the 2007 peer learning measure in effect elsewhere demonstrates
project. The ETF experience is that that it can be realised (Rose, 1993). Rose
policymakers are aware of the potential points out that in the effort to reduce
impact of their reform initiatives. At the dissatisfaction with existing policies,
school level, however, there are policymakers have three alternatives: to
differences in perception that affect the turn to their national past, to speculate
outcomes of the reform. Policymakers in about the future, or to seek lessons from
practice have to act, and the political current experiences in other places.
scene, especially in environments Learning involves scanning programmes
undergoing radical change such as elsewhere, producing a conceptual model
transition countries, does not always leave of a programme of interest, and comparing
much space and time for careful and it with the existing programme that has
gradual learning. On the other hand, caused dissatisfaction. Once this has been
policymakers need new learning, which done, various kinds of lessons can be
very often contradicts established drawn (Bennett and Howlett, 1992).
knowledge and routines. They have to
engage in daily political decision-making Therefore policymakers are increasingly
and, depending on their position in the looking across the borders, seeking
system, active engagement may often take information, examples of best practice and
priority. For them, perhaps even more so policy or peer advice, in order to launch,
than for other learners, learning is more develop or implement policies in the
than merely a cognitive process: learning is national context. One way of developing
practice. awareness on the importance of key issues
in education and training is to let
Policymakers, like everybody else, learn policymakers see, talk with and hear from
from experience. The importance that people involved in developing strategies for
they give to experience depends on their these policy issues or implementing them.
concerns about feasibility: Can a Attention to the type of policy to be
proposed policy be carried out? In reality, implemented in a particular country context
policymakers face two major problems: and to the people involved in
setting priorities for the interventions they implementation increases policymakers’
are going to make, and choosing the right understanding of how different aspects of
instruments for the implementation of policies, people and places interact and
priorities and interventions22. combine in particular ways to shape
Policymakers everywhere in the world outcomes (see Part 2).
often ‘take action’ to solve a problem, i.e.
they show dissatisfaction with existing It is important to take into account that
policies. They try to solve so-called those who are involved in ETF peer
ill-structured public policy problems23. In learning are seen in the double role of
the centre of any attempt to solve an learners and experts. While the expert role
ill-structured problem is the complex of policymakers is clear, the challenge is to
stakeholder relationship that exists in understand what they can learn from the
education and training. Even assuming peer learning exercise. The 2007 exercise
that the policymakers know what they should be seen as a process in which
wish to achieve, it is not always clear policymakers, together with school
how they can do so. directors, had the opportunity to learn from:
22 On the complexity of the education reform environment in partner countries see discussion on policy
tensions in Nikolovska (2007).
23 The ill-structured nature of a public policy problem refers to its complexity. Dunn (2004, pp. 75-76) points out
that policy problems are complex because they are interdependent, dynamic, subjective and artificial. These
characteristics make it necessary to structure policy problems carefully and with the participation of
stakeholders.
46
4. ETF PEER LEARNING: FROM POLICY LEARNING TO POLICY CHANGE IN
PARTNER COUNTRIES
n interaction with their school director discussions with central, regional and/or
peers in the team about their district-level education and local authority
perceptions of initiated or new reforms; officials, social partners, companies,
n feedback and observations from international donor representatives and
neighbouring countries’ policymakers visits to several vocational schools (formal
on national VET policy, which could act education sector) and adult training centres
as a mirror for self-reflection; (non-formal education sector).
n experience from VET reforms in other
countries that may be different or similar In 2007 both schools piloting the VET
to own country policy problems; reforms referred to in the self-study
n exchange of opinions among peers and documents were visited, as were some
direct feedback from others’ experience non-pilot schools. Interviews were held with
in VET reform; key policymakers, principals and teachers.
n reflection on the potential relevance of Separate focus groups were organised to
the policy/programme/problem encourage spontaneity in response to
elaborated in the ‘self-study’ document24. questions.
24 The ETF facilitation approach of the peer learning discussion forums in particular tries to build in elements
that will actively stimulate reflection on the self-study document
47
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
n agree and formulate recommendations and ‘the impact of peer learning activities is
and specific policy guidelines for greatest on the individuals who participated
improvements to be presented and in them, but these are not always the
further discussed with national people who are involved in making policy
authorities. This is how the ETF decisions’.
attempted to strengthen the policy
learning part of the exercise, particularly The main aim of peer learning is to have an
linking the self-study document findings impact on policy development and
to findings on the ground. implementation; however, policies are
made by people and institutions. Taking
The interviews with stakeholders during the curriculum reform as an example, we
country peer learning events are a very stipulate that it implies policy choices about
important aspect of peer learning. new subjects competing for space in the
Stakeholders are part of the policy process curriculum, new knowledge and skills to be
– they shape, they lead, they retreat, they attained, new student assessment
chop and change the policies in sometimes methods, new textbooks and teaching
unexpected directions. Comparing the materials. Curriculum goals have to
opinions of different stakeholders on the accommodate national, regional or local
same topics helps towards a deeper priorities, a range of social concerns, and
understanding of the issue and their way of the demands of industry and other sectors
thinking. The impression is that the policy of employment. The new curricula should
process is ‘hidden’ and not very clear to meet the education needs and aspirations
outsiders. The complexity of the process is of teachers and students. Policy choices
greatly influenced by the complexity of the about curriculum reform ought to be the
stakeholders. Therefore it is very likely that result of compromises of various kinds and
a better understanding of the stakeholder reflect the assumptions and values of those
relationship in a given country context will who construct them. As a result, specifying
throw light on its policy processes. curriculum reform is a highly contested and
Although the ETF methodology pays complex process which involves a number
significant attention to stakeholders, this of key actors that are affected by the
aspect can still be improved. For example, reforms25.
the policy learning exercise could include
stakeholder analyses for each particular Implementation of these reforms is a very
country to give an impression of their challenging task – no other part of the
power relations and specific roles. policy cycle risks failure to such an extent.
Failure to implement a policy and therefore
to argue that certain selected policies have
7. THE IMPACT OF PEER no impact on solving a problem may result
LEARNING AND THE from different kinds of underestimations.
CHALLENGE OF POLICY Four key dimensions – policies, people,
CHANGE places and pace – have an impact on
implementation, both individually and in
The key questions about peer learning are interaction with each other. The unpacking
whether it leads to any change and what of elements in these four dimensions and
impact it has. The impact of peer learning consideration of how they interact in
is considered to be a weak point according particular ways, leads to a better
to the European Commission evaluations. understanding of how implementation
In its report on the implementation of the unfolds in education systems (Sultana,
Education and Training 2010 work 2008).
programme since 2006 (European
Commission, 2008), the Commission The position of the participants and their
states that ‘the impact of the outcomes on proximity to policy decision-making are
national policy development and policy determining factors in the potential impact
implementation needs to be strengthened’ of the peer learning exercise. The most
25 For a more detailed analysis of the tensions during the reform cycle between policymakers and practitioners,
which are emerging at school level, see Nikolovska (2007).
48
4. ETF PEER LEARNING: FROM POLICY LEARNING TO POLICY CHANGE IN
PARTNER COUNTRIES
49
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
To increase the impact on policies, the ETF We have argued that the ETF approach
together with key stakeholders from the towards peer learning is a specific one.
countries has developed national action Each peer learning project lasts one year
points based on the outcomes of peer and brings together a group of 10 to 15
learning. During the final conference of peers from three or four countries of South
2007, a substantial amount of time was Eastern Europe. The focus is on a specific
spent on organising discussions between topic agreed with the countries, which is
national stakeholders on the conclusions relevant either because it has not received
and the next steps, and this was followed much attention or because it is of an
up during national dissemination events. innovative nature. Peer learning events
The impact of these events is difficult to take place in all the main participating
assess. It will largely depend on the quality countries. Each of these countries is
and relevance of the action plans, available represented by one policymaker and one
resources and commitments of the or two other stakeholders, such as VET
countries and donors, and on ETF country experts or school directors. The national
managers’ ability to use the results in representatives prepare for peer learning
cooperation with the partner countries. by drafting a self-study document
identifying key issues for discussion in their
Because the ETF peer learning project has country. They host a three-day peer
focused particularly on the development of learning event and in turn are guest peers
the methodology and on stimulating in the other countries. In each country
innovative debates in partner countries, the around 15 stakeholders are interviewed on
thematic cycle was limited to around one the topic. They represent national, regional
year. The following year there was a new and local authorities, specialised institutes,
topic. At the same time it has been argued schools, social partners and companies,
that to increase the impact, on policies in which allows views and opinions on the
particular, more knowledge-sharing issue to be compared from different angles.
activities and follow-up of the results of Each day ends with a ‘wrap-up’ session
peer learning should be undertaken. One where the participants share their
year is not enough. Therefore, the experiences and have in-depth discussions
conclusion can be drawn that the ETF peer on the selected topic. A cross-regional
learning methodology would meet with report is written at the end of the visits,
more success if it was embedded in a reflecting the findings of the participants
multi-annual project, where more time and presenting a comparative analysis of
could be devoted to selecting and practices in the countries concerned. The
networking the most appropriately conclusions are presented at a final
positioned peers and much more time and conference for around 100 stakeholders
resources to follow-up actions. from all South Eastern European countries
and proposals are developed for national
actions on the basis of the outcomes.
8. CONCLUSIONS These outcomes are finally presented in
national seminars to a wider group of
The ETF peer learning approach has stakeholders.
proved to be a powerful learning tool for
the participants, all of whom indicated in This approach has several strengths and a
the evaluation sheets that they learned a number of weaknesses. The main strength
great deal from discussions with peers, of the approach lies in the organised
sharing experiences from different preparation of the study documents. These
countries and meeting a wide variety of national studies often function as the
stakeholders. Most found significant starting point for reflections which are
learning benefits in the broader conceptual further developed throughout the peer
framework and better understanding of the learning events in the countries. For the
importance of the country context. They peers, they are a source of information and
were also ready to commit themselves to identification of the perceived key
knowledge sharing meetings in the problems. Another strength is that each
countries concerned. country ‘defends’ its education practice and
50
4. ETF PEER LEARNING: FROM POLICY LEARNING TO POLICY CHANGE IN
PARTNER COUNTRIES
is challenged to give opinions on other flexible instrument that can enhance the
countries’ practice. This balance of ‘attack’ quality of policy development and
and ‘defence’ leads to discussions about implementation at partner country level. It
the local context. A very important third could be used in many circumstances
strength lies in the comparisons between where policy options are formulated. Its
countries. Mirroring experience from others use is not restricted to a particular phase
is essential for a better understanding of of the policy cycle – both in the early
one’s own national education practice. No phases of policy development, as well as
less important is the ‘stakeholder clash’ during implementation. Above all, it is
between policymakers and school directors about learning from the experiences of
or VET experts or social partners. This others, and it is therefore of greatest
brings different perspectives into the peer benefit when used in a multi-country
learning discussions, also allowing analysis setting.
of the dynamics of policymaking and
implementation in partner countries. The major weakness is that the impact of
peer learning remains rather vague. The
The role of individual peers seems to be extent to which individual peer learning
a decisive factor, but achievements will becomes collective or organisational
largely depend on their position and learning, or how much policy will change as
attitude. An influential and active peer will a result of peer learning, depends on
be in position to change policy, different factors. Although peer learning
organisation or behaviour more than can influence the actions of governments
someone with no decision-making power. or donors, this is not enough to make a
We have also mentioned that the firm, positive evaluation on the impact. This
duration of ETF peer learning is is one of the fundamental challenges for
approximately one year and as education the ETF in the future – given the fact that
changes are made slowly, the future peer learning is one of the ETF’s tools for
challenge for the ETF will be to look for policy learning, it is important to bear in
appropriate ways to further develop the mind approaches that can help to better
methodology as part of wider reform understand its impact on the policy making
initiatives. In this way sufficient time and process. This certainly has some
resources can be devoted to in-depth similarities with the EU’s Open Method of
analyses of a policy issue, in order to use Coordination. The Open Method of
peer learning for reflecting on policy Coordination largely depends on the policy
options while benefiting from others’ areas in which it has been applied, on the
experience. This would also allow for a different actors involved in the reforms and
more structured follow-up which would on the selection of a proper set of
substantially boost the potential impact of indicators for measuring the impact of the
peer learning. Finally, peer learning is a policy reforms.
51
5
5. DEVELOPING KYRGYZ VET
POLICY AND STRATEGY –
THE CHALLENGE OF
FACILITATING POLICY
LEARNING PROCESSES
Vaclav Klenha, Søren Nielsen and
Anar Beishembaeva
This chapter describes and analyses an 1. What can be learnt from a quite radical
ambitious attempt to facilitate structural attempt to make use of policy learning
VET reform in Kyrgyzstan through a policy approaches in Kyrgyzstan?
learning approach organised by the ETF. 2. What are the strengths and
It aims to provide evidence from which the weaknesses of the policy learning
ETF can draw lessons for future policy intervention strategy and how can
advice provision to partner countries. The tensions in the methodology be
case is set in the landscape of Kyrgyz overcome?
education and training modernisation 3. What have we learnt about the specific
efforts, focusing in particular on new demands on international experts in
knowledge and lessons learnt by all policy learning?
parties involved. The Kyrgyz reform
process, still full of uncertainties, is now The chapter starts with an introduction
gathering momentum thanks to a of choices made. Next there is a
combined endeavour by national and description of the context of VET policy
international actors. development in Kyrgyzstan, followed by
a section on how policy learning ideas
Against the backdrop of a description of and principles were applied on the
reforms towards a well-defined and ground. In the final section we sum up
nationally owned VET policy and strategy, the lessons learnt and set out some
we raise three substantial questions about guidelines for refining the ETF
the policy learning concept and approach.
methodology applied in Kyrgyzstan:
53
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
1. WHY DID WE APPLY POLICY the last decade and continuing in selected
LEARNING PRINCIPLES IN sub-sectors of VET. Though our target has
THE VET REFORM CONTEXT been facilitating the work of national
IN KYRGYZSTAN? stakeholders, the key international donors
are regularly updated on progress. They
VET reforms in transition countries often will play an important part in reviewing and
depend heavily on the presence and consulting the resulting strategic document,
contribution of international donors, which may finally become a gateway to
resulting in a mix of positive and less better coordinated donor assistance for
positive experiences. Especially in initial modernising VET in Kyrgyzstan. We are
phases of transition but sometimes also still in the middle of this process, at a
long afterwards, donors have played a key stage when the draft policy and strategy is
role in developing awareness of the need to be presented to the national VET
for VET reforms, influencing the reform community and to the donors active in this
policy agenda and providing resources for area.
strategy development and implementation.
In turn, many national policymakers were
more interested in receiving funds than in 2. NATIONAL CONTEXT OF
policy making. They were convinced that VET POLICY DEVELOPMENT
the key problem was the impoverished
state of their education infrastructure. They The political situation in Kyrgyzstan has
have often lacked the capacity to assess been volatile with frequent changes in
the appropriateness of donor proposals for government, including changes among
the institutional context of their own VET ministry officials. There is limited continuity
systems. among those attached to the policy
development process.
This mismatch of donor and recipient
expectations and behaviour has thwarted Although its economy is still weak and
the sustainability of many donor-supported vulnerable, the country maintained its
reform initiatives. Much of the earlier macroeconomic stability, improved the
assistance to VET reform in transition business and investment climate, and
countries was guided by principles of policy managed the growth of services and small
copying and policy taking (King and enterprises.
McGrath, 2004; Grootings, 2004, King,
2005; Ellerman, 2005). Stakeholders and The level of democracy is the highest of the
policymakers in transition countries have Central Asian countries, with general
not been able to learn much about their freedom of expression and a strong civil
new roles in a changing VET system, society.
although they may sometimes have
become experts on the systems of other Major social issues, like poverty, still need
countries. to be addressed. With a GDP per capita of
USD 542 in 2006, the Kyrgyz Republic
These are the main reasons why in remains one of the poorest of the CIS26
Kyrgyzstan the ETF argued for a new countries. In 2005 an estimated 43% of the
approach to VET policy reform. The key population lived below the national poverty
issues have thus become the identification line with 11% in extreme poverty. The
of priorities and strategic planning by incidence of poverty is higher in rural
national stakeholders themselves, with the areas. Unemployment and migration are
ETF acting as facilitator of the process serious challenges.
aimed at consensus building in support of
national ownership. The approach also Moreover, education is negatively affected
attempts to build on and integrate the rich by poverty. The social and economic
donor project experience accumulated over situation in the country has led to a
26 The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) covers Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and
Uzbekistan.
54
5. DEVELOPING KYRGYZ VET POLICY AND STRATEGY – THE CHALLENGE OF
FACILITATING POLICY LEARNING PROCESSES
27 The Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), the UK
Department for International Development (DFID), the World Bank Group and the United Nations Agencies.
The EC and Germany, which had not initially been part of that strategy, took steps in 2007 that aimed at
joining the JCSS.
28 Until the beginning of 2007 the Ministry of Labour and Social Protection was responsible for basic VET.
55
ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
After years of neglect VET is now in focus to around 10% of annual government
again, due to the sharply increased need for support to the entire education sector and
a skilled work force at medium qualification is more than the annual national VET
levels. There are six times more higher budget. The ETF itself has implemented
education students (with economy and law more than 30 projects since 1996,
as most favoured subjects) than students in including the establishment of the National
vocational education. This is seen as an Observatory for VET (which later became
obstacle to economic development, now an independent Forum of Education
emphasised by the government and Initiatives), over 20 seminars or workshops,
increasingly also by the employers and and study visits to nine EU countries. All in
entrepreneurs, who experience a growing all there has been quite extensive project
gap in the supply of skills. input, the outcomes and impact of which
are neither easy to trace, nor
Though employer representation is still systematically evaluated.
fragmented, it is becoming a potential
driving force in Kyrgyz VET reform. The The most significant donor initiatives today
trade unions are getting involved as well are the Asian Development Bank USD 10
while they work on a better understanding million grant project for primary VET, and
of their role and capacity. The growing the European Commission initiative to
NGO sector steps in as another social prepare a sector policy support programme
partner. (SPSP) in education. The former funds
practical immediate modernisation steps,
In addition to the split governance of VET, such as school rehabilitation and
there is a significant policy influence of the integration, curriculum innovation and more
president’s and the prime-minister’s flexible financing of basic VET. The latter
(government) administrations. Recently provides a new perspective of a major
also the Jogorku Kenesh, (the Kyrgyz innovation programme for the whole
Parliament) has shown increased interest education sector.
in VET through its Committee for Education
and Science. Amid the multitude of players
there is a growing sense of urgency but so 4. ETF VET POLICY LEARNING
far it is not clear who will take the political PROJECT IN KYRGYZSTAN
lead.
The ETF has run its Policy Learning
Development assistance is a major source Project in Kyrgyzstan since 2007. It helps
of funds for the reform of Kyrgyz VET. A the Kyrgyz authorities define VET priorities
number of donors have been active in the and identify policy options. The project is
area, with many achieving good results at designed as a social learning process
pilot school level (such as GTZ and where local actors gradually learn to take
Helvetas) but so far without system-wide over full responsibility and make
impact. They have now formed a round consensual decisions on the future of VET.
table (including the ETF) and produced a The project facilitates the learning needs of
common position paper (A Donors’ View of national policymakers.
the Kyrgyz Vocational Education
System29), and GTZ and Helvetas have The main principles of the ETF policy
taken initiatives to work on policy learning approach included tools and
development with national stakeholders. instruments, such as the logical framework,
According to a recent ETF review of donor scenario techniques, stakeholder analysis,
projects in VET, approximately USD 36 brainstorming, priority setting, IT supported
million was disbursed between 1998 and decision-making, and a review of past
2007 in VET-related projects. This is equal experiences.
29 Asian Development Bank (ADB), Eurasia Foundation of Central Asia (EFCA), European Training Foundation
(ETF), Forum for Educational Initiatives, German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Helvetas (Swiss Association
for International Cooperation), International Labour Organisation (ILO), Intercooperation, InWent, Tempus,
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), USAID, University of Central Asia, World Bank Rural
Education Project.
56
5. DEVELOPING KYRGYZ VET POLICY AND STRATEGY – THE CHALLENGE OF
FACILITATING POLICY LEARNING PROCESSES
While this was designed as a learning recently established strategy units and
process, the focus shifted to a product there is continuing tension between the two
orientation when the need appeared to bodies for a leading role in overall VET
feed into the planned EU Sector system administration. It is hoped that the
Programme in Education, to be started in Presidential Administration can build a
201030. Both the Commission and the bridge between them and possibly take up
Kyrgyz Government recognise and put the leadership role.
demands on the ETF-facilitated preparation
of a national policy and strategy for VET. Social partners, in particular employers,
It is part of an overall national policy and are expected to play a role in VET and
strategy for the education sector, which will even contribute to its funding. The
become the basis of the Sector Government would like the employers to
Programme. ‘order’ workers from the state and employ
those with formal VET qualifications, rather
Although the Sector Programme will cover than hiring people from the street. The
the whole education system, it will focus on employers argue that they have to be
development priorities as they will be guaranteed a return for their investment, in
defined in the overall education policy and the sense of getting productive VET
strategy. Thanks to the VET policy graduates with the right skills and
initiative, which was well underway when competences. Labour migration is another
the idea of the Sector Programme emerged factor that influences the funding of VET,
a year ago, VET became a major because well-trained people often leave
component of the preparation process. The Kyrgyzstan for better paid jobs in nearby
VET Policy Task Force, set up by the ETF countries.
and formally endorsed by a Presidential
Decree on 15 May 2008, is in a very good The perspective of vocational schools (and
position to ensure the integration of the of municipalities or regions as their
VET policy and strategy in the overall immediate administrators) is largely framed
education policy and strategy, and to help by the perceived opportunity to improve
VET to become one of the key priority their status in terms of physical
areas in the sector programme. infrastructure, better salaries for
headmasters, teachers and trainers, and a
more positive public image. They are less
5. THE POSITIONS OF concerned with their potential new role of
DIFFERENT STAKEHOLDERS opening up to serve different groups of
learners, becoming innovative and
Already in 2006 and with the help of the developing their staff accordingly. Regions,
ETF, the idea of a joint VET policy was municipalities, schools and teachers are
agreed between the basic and secondary still seen (and see themselves mostly) as
VET administrations. It receives a new implementers dutifully following centrally
impetus from the EU’s Sector Programme adopted policies and strategies, rather than
initiative and also from the increased as active stakeholders on whom the
attention of the president and government success of the reform depends and who
to VET after years of prioritising higher can contribute to policy development.
education.
Individuals, such as students, their families
So far, neither the Ministry of Education and adult learners, who often bear a
and Science nor SAVE have taken an substantial part of the costs of education
effective lead in the joint policy and training, would like to see VET as a
development. Verbally the ministry agreed viable livelihood or career option, providing
to take the initiative but each party adequate returns in terms of better
continues to build reform strategies for its chances for (self)-employment. One VET
own sub-sector, even though the Country policy Task Force member quoted a rural
Development Strategy (CDS) speaks of parent: “I have sold my cow to be able to
one VET system. Both institutions have send my children to the vocational school.
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
I want the state to make sure that they schools and NGOs alongside the top level
receive a good quality training, which institutions. The national VET policy Task
would help them get well paid jobs”. Force, established in early 2007, consists
of the following key stakeholder
Donors are increasingly aware that the representatives:
outcomes of their aid should finally have an
impact on national policies. Kyrgyz officials n Head of Social and Gender Policy
are increasingly interested in having a Sector, Administration of the President
system-wide impact. The sector-based n Head of Department, Ministry of
approach, such as that adopted by the EU Education and Science
2010 sector programme now offers the n Head of Strategic Unit, Ministry of
perspective of a better coordinated effort, Education and Science
shared between donors and the Kyrgyz n Director of Kyrgyz Academy of
authorities, and among the donors Education
themselves as confirmed by their ongoing n Director, State Agency of Vocational
discussions about a proposed joint trust Education
fund for education. The VET donors round n Head of Strategic Unit, State Agency of
table initiative and the Asian Development Vocational Education
Bank in its current project may also n Head of Department, State Committee
positively influence VET policy and strategy for Migration and Employment
development, while the EU Sector n Director, Vocational Lyceum
Programme will give the Kyrgyz n Director, Construction College, Chair of
government a prominent role in Board of College Directors
coordinating donor intervention in the n Director of a private school and NQF
sector. Coordinator
n Head of Forum for Educational
Initiatives
6. KYRGYZ VET POLICY TASK n Head of Department, State Agency for
FORCE Tourism
n Vice President, Chamber of Industry
In the course of the past five years and and Commerce.
through different projects, the ETF team
has tried to familiarise its Kyrgyz partners This group, working for more than a year
with new concepts and developments, now, has gone through a development
support their understanding against the process, moving from individual and
background of their experience and the organisational self-protection and
national context, and mobilise their own defensiveness to active listening,
strategic planning capacity. This work is far understanding and sharing. In the box
from finished. below we list some of the noteworthy
points made by the Kyrgyz working group
In the process the focus was gradually members during the discussions at the
moved from the two leading institutions workshop in November 2007, which
towards a multi-stakeholder task force or illustrate their self-awareness and
working group, taking care to involve also perceptions of the task.
n “We are stakeholders with different backgrounds, which is healthy but quite new for
us – we need to share opinions, complement each other and agree on solutions.”
n “We need to move from our post-Soviet administrative system to a more liberal
model of flexible VET, the question is how quickly or slowly can we do that.”
n “When we are established by the presidential decree, it will give us authority and
influence, but also a big responsibility.”
n “Our group is now a team which can develop productive and creative relations and
we can work as partners with the help of consultants and experts.”
n “We need to focus on what is the product (result) of our education and training,
given that 80% of young people aged 17 enter the labour market.”
n “Our current laws are not a barrier to modernising education and training, changes
are needed in the legal regulation of lower levels.”
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5. DEVELOPING KYRGYZ VET POLICY AND STRATEGY – THE CHALLENGE OF
FACILITATING POLICY LEARNING PROCESSES
n “However, the entire legal base follows the old paradigm – it is input based, not
outcome based.”
n “We do not know how our economy will be doing and where we are going – a good
policy for continued uncertainty will be needed.”
n “We need to understand that if the schools and teachers remain poor, we will not be
able to do much.”
n “We do not want to destroy the current system, we aim at parallel developments.”
1. Identifying the most urgent issues of the Kyrgyz VET system = 46 items.
2. Rating the 46 issues, their sequence, their average scores and standard deviations.
3. Subjecting the VET policy building blocks identified to multi-criteria analysis and
arranging them on the basis of their average scores.
4. Combining the outputs of steps 2 and 3 in which process VET policy building blocks
were filtered down to nine priority building blocks:
VET policy building blocks Priority building blocks
Qualification structure Qualification structure
Professional teachers Professional teachers
Modern infrastructure Good curriculum and textbooks
Good curriculum and textbooks Involvement of social partners
Open exams Necessary information about labour market
Involvement of social partners Professional ministries, good coordination
Necessary information about labour market Management of the education system
Professional ministries, good coordination Motivated students
Open education system System of monitoring and assessment
Management of the educational system
Adequate financing
Motivated students
System of monitoring and assessment
Good legislation
General upbringing and education
Accreditation and state attestation
Social protection taking into account
regional interests
5. Generating the most important components and their rating for each priority block,
thus setting priority areas for action for each of the nine priority building blocks.
6. Discussing the outcomes.
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
The nine VET policy building blocks were considerably, decisions could be taken
processed in three smaller, mixed groups, quickly on much of the content by twelve
each producing drafts for three priority equally weighted voices, each and
building blocks, using the results of the everybody contributed to and
computer-supported brainstorming acknowledged the outcome which was
sessions. There were three rounds of seen as their collective result.
group work, each followed by plenary
feedback and discussion, producing nine However, such an exercise should be
strategic drafts, one for each building viewed with caution. Different groups in
block. The agreed structure of the drafts different settings can provide different
was as follows: outcomes – in our case we could assume a
certain validity of results because the group
1. problems related to the building block; was a mature one and the exercise was
2. what has already been done (or will be done in the middle of a five-day workshop,
done) to solve the problems; which allowed both conditioning the group
3. organisations involved (stakeholders); beforehand and proper follow-up. Still,
4. possible solutions/strategy, describing some of the ‘filtered off’ building blocks had
two options: to be restored later to keep the strategic
a) minimum solution, framework complete.
b) maximum radical solution;
5. time frame;
6. other related issues; 8. DRAFT VET POLICY AND
7. risks and obstacles. STRATEGY PAPER NOW
READY
The exercise proved to be quite a
success. The group clearly enjoyed its By mid-2008 the draft policy paper became
high-tech innovative nature and gave it available and thus the Task Force had
top marks in the final satisfaction sheet. finished its work. The draft Kyrgyz VET
And indeed, the enormous field of policy and strategy (24 pages) follows a
discussion was narrowed down structure defined by the ETF.
1. Main issues common to basic VET and secondary VET (3 pages), using analytical
parts of existing documents and ensuring that the issues are all addressed in the
following sections.
2. Vision and principles of reformed VET (1 page), starting from the vision and
principles and elaborating these in agreement between the Working Group
members with a view to incorporating principles applied in donor projects.
3. Position of VET in an education system with a lifelong learning perspective
(2 pages), trying to outline a desirable structure of VET in terms of levels,
governance, types of schools, pathways, and links to general and higher education.
4. Strategy for developing VET (2 pages), describing briefly the strategic direction for
VET as laid out in the Country Development Strategy, including economic and
social development and their implications for VET, and subsequently broadly
outlining how the desired changes in VET towards the vision and principles can
happen in that particular framework.
5. Measures to be taken (12 pages), using the drafts produced through group work in
Turin on 26-28 November 2007 as a basis and detailing what, how, who and when.
This includes thoughts on what and how donor project experience can be used,
trying to foresee obstacles to the process and offering ways to overcome them.
Costs are also included, with suggestions indicating who could contribute what.
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5. DEVELOPING KYRGYZ VET POLICY AND STRATEGY – THE CHALLENGE OF
FACILITATING POLICY LEARNING PROCESSES
The drafting process, however, did not go This tension between process and product
as smoothly as had been expected by the is fundamental for understanding how
ETF. It revealed a number of tensions and policymakers in countries in transition
obstacles in the organisation of policy develop new policies in education and
learning arrangements which deserve more training. Indeed, for us policy development
in-depth analysis. We will make a is policy learning (see ETF Yearbook
preliminary analysis here and present 2004).
guidelines for overcoming some of the
barriers identified. Policymakers are not only policy learners,
they also have to act, and acting on the
While the Task Force members were political scene, especially in environments
excellent in their analysis, interaction and that are undergoing radical change, does
involvement, it was difficult for them to not always leave a lot of space and time
move from a research format to the actual for careful and gradual learning. But
formulation of the policy and strategy policymakers in transition countries
paper, in spite of the facilitating efforts of engage in systemic, radical reforms and
the ETF. We had to organise an additional are in need of new learning which very
workshop and help members to commit the often contradicts with established
main sections of the text to paper. After knowledge and routines. They have to
that, the ETF team had to shorten the text engage in daily political decision-making
and edit a considerable part of it to fit into and, depending on their position in the
the agreed structure and the format. This system, that active engagement may often
was considered problematic due to the risk take priority. For policymakers therefore,
of losing national ownership of the strategy. perhaps even more so than for other
learners, learning is more than merely a
cognitive process: learning is practice.
9. LESSONS AND Their learning, following Lave and Wenger
CONCLUSIONS FOR ETF (1991), is situated learning as it is an
FACILITATION integral and inseparable aspect of their
social practice.
What are the reasons for the discrepancy
between active and lively interaction in ä In its facilitating role, the ETF must
learning processes and hesitation when it realise that free learning spaces barely
comes to formulating products? Where are exist for policymakers and key
the barriers? stakeholders. Demands for concrete
results will have overriding importance
Policy learning versus product and such results must thus be ensured
expectations from the start of policy learning
activities.
The activity in Kyrgyzstan had been planned
by the ETF as an experiential learning Policy is new to participants
project (Kolb, 1984) with space for creativity
and an open horizon. Although not As we wrote in the first line of the chapter,
altogether neglected, the result orientation the policy learning activity defined in
was not so prominent. However, the Task Kyrgyzstan was highly ambitious. It was
Force members were high-level people and ambitious in the sense that in any country it
the policy dynamics in the country raised is very difficult to formulate a vision, define
high expectations about the outcome of the principles and give strategic directions for
learning activity. Expectations from national achieving stated goals. It was ambitious
authorities and stakeholders, the EC also when compared to other and more
Delegation and the international donor developed transition countries where this
community increased sharply during 2008 task is normally done by foreign VET policy
when a whole new education sector policy experts. Finally, it was particularly
was suddenly to be informed by the VET ambitious in the national Kyrgyz context.
policy paper. With the formal Presidential
mandate given to the Task Force in May In the area of policy development, even the
2008, the stakes increased even further. term as such may have been new to the
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
Kyrgyz participants. Instead of a VET policy cycle, including the final text formulation
and strategy there were only legislation phase. The group members contributed to
and decrees. Suddenly the new political the content of the document but there was
environment forced people and institutions no clear agreement in the group on how to
to change their thinking in the direction of divide responsibilities for delivering the final
designing policies rather than laws. version. We did not succeed in setting up,
as foreseen, an editorial team of two or
Apart from this shift from administration to three Task Force members who, together
management in ambiguous conditions, new with ETF staff, could finalise the policy
qualities became important such as paper. It has also been difficult to establish
subject-related excellence, perseverance, cross-sectional critical commenting on
courage and diligence. The ability to get other members’ work, and any justified
the others behind you and the capacity to criticism from the ETF team made the
steer a course suddenly became crucial group very unhappy. We need to
competences. Such issues are understand better the nature of this
encapsulated in the term ‘good resistance towards delegating (and
governance’, a phrase that was hardly accepting) responsibility, structuring the
heard 15 years ago. The word group and acknowledging criticism, which
‘governance’ comes from the Greek for was on a concrete text and not on people.
‘steering’. For a boat to be steered safely it Is this a fear of criticism, a high and polite
needs not only a good captain and crew. It respect for each other and an
also needs reliable measures and unwillingness to give and to accept
instruments to gauge its progress. But criticism? Or is it something else rooted in
exactly these tools were not available in a the Soviet past? Without a proper
country like Kyrgyzstan, where understanding, it might become a quite
policymakers suddenly faced a range of destructive barrier in a policy learning
players who all tried to influence policy: arrangement, because we put ownership at
national academics, politicians risk when we, in the final stage, had to
representing different parties, foreign pursue the quality and relevance that is
consultants, EU and World Bank officials, necessary for a text of this calibre and did
bilateral donors, teachers, parents and not get the full support of the learners.
employers all pulled in sometimes very
different directions. This was the political There is a challenge for inter-cultural
environment for policymakers and civil understanding which we will have to grasp
servants who had to cope with the better. Policy teams consist of experts and
complexities and tried their best to guide a specialists who bring their emotions,
policy development and approval process. dreams, values, norms and traditions with
them to the situation. We must understand
ä In its policy facilitation role, the ETF will them better and find ways to cope with the
have to dig even deeper into an reality in countries like Kyrgyzstan. It may
analysis of institutional dependency and be conditioned by a deeper layer of the
mental echoes of the past and always national culture and traditions. Whatever
reflect on the context in which policy the reason is, if we want to pursue these
formulation is to take place. It may be activities we need to know why such
on the right track as far as the problems arise.
organisation of learning environments
and processes is concerned, but it must ä In its policy facilitation role, the ETF will
be constantly mindful of the local policy have to develop a higher level of
formulation phases. intercultural competence in its
interactions with countries in transition.
Balancing local commitment with An immediate and direct lesson to be
intercultural understanding learnt is the need from day one to get a
‘psychological contract’ with participants
Throughout the process the Kyrgyz of policy learning groups and to agree
participants have shown an incredible on: (a) the result is a product of quality,
commitment to all stages of the project (b) the necessity to structure the group,
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5. DEVELOPING KYRGYZ VET POLICY AND STRATEGY – THE CHALLENGE OF
FACILITATING POLICY LEARNING PROCESSES
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
3. What have we learnt about the specific and using their networks to build the
demands on international experts in information base, discuss and develop a
policy learning? final product. The consequence and partly
the weakness of such a strategy is the
From our work with the Kyrgyz VET policy vulnerability of results, and the huge effort
task force we learnt that our attempt to and input required in the short-term period
employ policy learning approaches can to develop capacity and organise relevant
lead to the expected result – a processes.
comprehensive strategic document
developed and owned by a group of The main lessons learnt for our policy
national stakeholders in the transition facilitation role are that we must be better
country context. Even though at one stage at calculating in the high product
we had to intervene to help structure the expectations, we must better analyse the
document, members of the group influence of the past and present national
generated and built upon their own contexts, we must further develop our
strategic thinking which is embodied in the intercultural competence, we must focus
material. more on training policy learners in
analysing their national policy environment
The strength of the policy learning rather than international approaches only,
intervention strategy was in drawing on the and we must make better use of didactic
knowledge and wisdom of key instruments from educational science and
stakeholders, building trust between them, practice.
64
6
6. LEARNING FROM
FAILURE: HOW EFFECTIVE IS
A STANDARDISED POLICY
LEARNING APPROACH?
Mounir Baati and Peter Schuh
31 In Morocco, the term handicrafts covers so-called ‘production craftsmanship’ (carpenters, joiners, plumbers)
as well as arts (jewellery, decorated pottery, souvenirs).
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
strategic planning for the two selected outlined by Grootings and Nielsen (2005)
sectors was very short (September to which entail the active engagement of
December 2007). Second, the policy had national stakeholders in developing their
already been defined and specific and very own policy solutions based on the wealth of
ambitious targets for both sectors had national and international experiences
already been fixed. while taking into consideration the fact that
there are no ready-made models that can
Nevertheless, there were several simply be borrowed from abroad.
arguments in favour of ETF intervention to
support the Moroccan government in this A local team was formed by grouping
endeavour. These included the fact that the participants from the ministries and
ETF was already providing support for the associations concerned with the
involvement of new stakeholders in the development of apprenticeships32. This
policy making process in other sectors team was headed and coordinated by the
through the sectoral observatory function Head of the Work-based training
and that the new initiative would have Directorate33 at the Ministry of Employment
brought a more collective policy process. and Vocational Training.
Furthermore, it was considered that policy
learning could have led to a less politicised Before discussing the policy learning
policy process by highlighting the limits of process and outcomes we will briefly
top-down target setting and the importance describe the vocational education and
of the links with labour market needs. training system and the political context of
Third, and linked to this, the process the Moroccan request.
proposed by the ETF would have led to the
development of an implementation strategy
shared across the different ministries 3. CONTEXT OF THE POLICY
involved and would have provided the DEVELOPMENTS
necessary conditions for policy learning
which in turn would lead to a greater During the last decade, the Moroccan
degree of consensus through dialogue. vocational training system has evolved
from a system that was oriented towards
The ETF intervention was designed in social demand to a system more oriented
cooperation with the Ministry of towards actual labour market needs. This
Employment and Vocational Training. The reform has been supported by many
main objective was to support the donors, including the European Union, the
Moroccan authorities in developing their Canadian International Development
own strategy for promoting and expanding Agency (CIDA), the Agence Française de
the apprenticeship scheme. This meant Développement (AFD) and the Deutsche
that the activity would be led by the Gesellschaft für Technische
Moroccans, with the ETF playing a Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). The main pillars of
supporting role. The ETF would be the the reform were the introduction of
facilitator. competency-based training and the dual
system, both of which allow more
The design of the intervention took into involvement of employers in the design of
account the policy learning principles curricula and training delivery.
32 As specified in the ToRs, the Moroccan team included representatives from the following ministries and
organisations:
• The Ministry of Employment and Vocational Training
• The Ministry of Agriculture
• The Ministry of Tourism and Hand-made Craft
• Office de la Formation Professionnelle et de la Promotion du Travail (the main public training provider)
• The High School for Clothing Industry
• Regional academies for education and training
• NGOs active in vocational trainings in the two sectors
• The training commission of CGEM (an employers’ organisation)
• Sectoral employers’ organisations
• The Ministry of Finance.
33 Directeur de la formation en milieu professionnel.
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6. LEARNING FROM FAILURE: HOW EFFECTIVE IS A STANDARDISED POLICY
LEARNING APPROACH?
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
68
6. LEARNING FROM FAILURE: HOW EFFECTIVE IS A STANDARDISED POLICY
LEARNING APPROACH?
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
70
6. LEARNING FROM FAILURE: HOW EFFECTIVE IS A STANDARDISED POLICY
LEARNING APPROACH?
Another caveat is the fact that when meeting and found that the teams’
designing the project we expected that analyses of the current situation in
decision makers representing the different apprenticeships were relevant. This
ministries and departments would take part suggests that even though there is no clear
in the planning exercise. In practice this evidence of any links between the
was not the case, and we did not manage workshop outputs and recommendations
to get people of sufficient political calibre and the decision to undertake a labour
involved. This became particularly clear market analysis, there is evidence that the
during the internal validation seminar for labour market analysis developed as a
strategic planning in the handicraft sector result of the ETF intervention helped in
when we realised that the director in building a rationale for the collection of
charge of training within the ministry had relevant information.
not been informed about the project at all.
He did not take part in the external
evaluation seminar either. Thus, we have 6. CONCLUSION
reason to believe that only practitioners
already involved in improving the Having argued that the policy learning
vocational education and training system process didn’t meet all the expectations
learnt from this policy learning exercise, either in terms of process or outputs, we
rather than the policymakers. close this article with a discussion on
important issues to be taken into account
Connecting policy learning and the for future interventions.
policy process
In this chapter, we have explored the limits
With the support of the ETF, the Moroccan of a normative approach to policy learning
team succeeded in producing a strategy as mentioned in the introduction. We can
plan for the development of two selected come to a conclusion that in countries
sectors. The Director for work-based where the actual processes of
training at the Ministry of Vocational policymaking is complex and where policy
Training declared that he now has a clear learning is subordinate to the ruling political
idea on how to achieve the objectives set project, where policymakers and other
up by the government, both in terms of stakeholders have access to a limited
activities and in terms of responsibilities knowledge base and where the links
and resources needed. However, the between learning and policy development
working group did not manage to break is inhibited, a normative policy learning
down the overall quantitative objectives set approach is not effective. Of course the
by the government for each occupation and solution is not to return to the old
region. As mentioned above, this objective expertise-driven approaches but rather to
was heavily criticised during the identify barriers to policy learning and to
workshops. Moreover, the absence of adopt more realistic approaches and allow
information and analysis about the skills more time for policy learning.
needs of the market meant that the
participants were unable to obtain such a We have identified several barriers to
breakdown during the planning workshops. policy learning in our specific context.
Although we cannot pretend that these
Nevertheless, in line with the ETF barriers are easy to overcome, we can
intervention, the Department of suggest five considerations that might help
Employment and Vocational Training to produce better results in a similar
launched a huge study with a budget of situation.
€300,000 to provide a breakdown of the
potential apprenticeship places offered by Policy memory and evidence
region and occupation. The study was
performed by a local consultancy that If policy learning is about learning from
conducted several surveys and took part in experience, then any policy learning
one of the validation workshops. Their process should cover concrete actions for
representative was very active during the collecting and analysing evidence and
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
72
7
7. EU POLICIES AND VET
REFORMS IN ETF PARTNER
COUNTRIES – WHAT MORE
TO LEARN?
Jean-Raymond Masson and
Slava Pevec Grm
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
74
7. EU POLICIES AND VET REFORMS IN ETF PARTNER COUNTRIES – WHAT MORE
TO LEARN?
providing European citizens with the skills, technical routes with general routes, while
knowledge and competences needed in the majority does not. This can lead to an
the labour market and knowledge based overestimation of the importance of
society. The fact remains that VET caters vocational education and to misleading
for a major part of learners in Europe and a conclusions about its impact on issues
significant share of the future workforce will such as early school leaving. It also
need vocational skills and competences”44. negatively affects the analysis of countries
in transition such as the new Member
These definitions are very broad and rather States (and the ETF partner countries)
vague and hide some key questions for the where changes strongly affect those
design and the implementation of routes, with rapid growth of enrolment in
education and training reforms in the ETF technical routes and even more rapid
partner countries: the differences between decline in vocational routes (ETF, 2005).
vocational and technical routes, the ways
those routes can prepare for higher 3.3 Post-secondary VET and higher
education, the development of education
post-secondary and short vocational higher
education, the levels of qualification Another ambiguity regards post-secondary
provided and more widely the role of VET VET. Although the definition of VET
in lifelong learning strategies. explicitly refers to secondary and
post-secondary VET in Cedefop’s analysis
3.2 Vocational and technical routes of the attractiveness and image of the role
of VET in fighting early school leaving in
A serious ambiguity in EU definitions of particular, the Maastricht Study and
vocational education and training comes Cedefop synthesis of it only consider
from the lack of a clear distinction between enrolments in VET at secondary level. Of
technical education and vocational course they complain about the lack of
education. Indeed not all EU countries relevant data and indicators which hamper
have three distinct routes (general, a more broad assessment of progress but
technical and vocational) at upper they fail to analyse the important changes
secondary level. Recent trends show and developments at post-secondary level
significant differences between technical and this contradicts with the broad
and vocational routes, with the latter definition given above.
leading predominantly to the labour market
while the former tends to lead to higher In fact, the entire definition of post-secondary
education. These differences are often VET is ambiguous and variable. As noted by
more significant than differences between McCoshan (2008, p. 88), “one of the key
technical and general routes. Trends also features of recent trends in the labour market
show considerable transfers between the is the emergence of demand for workers
routes, and an analysis of this is essential skilled to a level between upper-secondary
in order to correctly understand the and tertiary level, often taking the form of a
changes in the education systems and in demand for high levels of occupation-specific
particular the transition between VET and skills coupled to increased levels of
higher education such as in the new underpinning theoretical knowledge. The
Member States (ETF, 2005). ways education systems answer these needs
is often termed ‘post-secondary non-tertiary’
Few documents (Leney, 2005; Cedefop, (PSNT) education, but there are definitional
2004) identify this difference but their issues with how the educational world
analysis does not go into sufficient depth defines it [...] Thus, what some countries
because of a lack of relevant data. Eurostat classify as PSNT others classify as
statistics (European Commission, 2007) upper-secondary or tertiary”.
that try to show the breakdown of
participation of students into general and Indeed, higher education is also increasingly
vocational education are difficult to developing vocational pathways of short and
interpret. A minority of countries count longer duration, under bachelor and master
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
These distinctions are not just rhetoric. In total, although the EU has a broad
Rather than ambiguities, they reflect real definition of VET, this means a lack of
difficulties, since they are embedded in the precision as far as the different components
ways labour markets are structured and are concerned, some ambiguous definitions,
regulated, and differ among EU countries47. and real difficulties arising from the changing
Moving from the ISCED48 classification to demands of the labour market and recent
the EQF49 levels, EU policy towards trends at the borders between VET and
qualification levels is moving towards a higher education. The consideration of VET
mixed approach with some consideration of as a masterpiece of lifelong learning
labour market issues. There is already a strategies gives new insights and allows for a
serious debate between VET and higher better integration between all VET
45 One particular example is France which developed the licences professionnelles in addition to the academic
licences. Another example is Germany which set up the grade of Applied Bachelor in addition to the
Academic Bachelor. More widely, in France, apprenticeship is now a complete route parallel to the traditional
education route, going from the lowest to the highest qualification levels.
46 As advocated during the Cedefop agora on higher education and VET in 2007 (Dunkel and Le Mouillour,
2006) and more recently by the ‘Helsinki’ Study (McCoshan, 2008).
47 The strong distinction in the collective agreements in France between cadres and non-cadres supposes that
qualifications provided at post-secondary level and also in the context of short courses in higher education
remain at lower level than the ones provided at the end of (long) higher education.
48 International Standard Classification for Education.
49 European Qualification Framework.
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TO LEARN?
components and between VET and the While VET reforms are on the political
whole education and training processes. The agenda in these countries and are supported
question is to know how far these elements by EU programmes and other donors as well
are taken into account in the ETF partner as by ETF policy advice and other projects,
countries when dealing with VET reforms. international donors, including the EU, follow
compartmentalised approaches that follow
3.6 VET and lifelong learning in ETF existing administrative divisions. This can be
partner countries observed in the Western Balkans today, just
as it could some years ago in the candidate
In fact, when ETF partner countries initiate countries that are now Member States. When
VET reforms they generally address only a policymakers (mainly at education ministries)
narrow part of it, typically just initial vocational design and implement such programmes,
education in secondary schools. In most ETF their first objective is to sustain and
partner countries, VET still takes in a high modernise what they call VET, but what is
percentage of secondary students and in fact most often limited to the VET component of
the differences between general, technical regular public secondary education.
and vocational routes are still very strong with
no or few pathways between them. Typically, these education reform
Post-secondary education barely exists. programmes start with the adoption of laws
Higher education is still very academically specifying the different components of
oriented with, again, pathways between education and training: general education,
secondary VET and higher education more VET, adult education, and higher
the exception than the rule. In the Western education. The VET component often
Balkans adult training barely exists, except in continues with the design of new curricula
the context of limited labour market training. in pilot schools supported by adequate
In general, businesses show little interest in teacher training and the provision of
skills development because very high levels modern equipment. This is complemented
of unemployment offer the possibility to hire by a national VET strategy, typically
cheap labour. In most MEDA countries, VET supported by a dedicated national VET
is not well developed and housed in specific agency and national VET council. Later on
institutions under specific ministries, or in parallel, a provision is made for
separated from mainstream education and its developing an adult education strategy,
ministry. again supported by a (usually separate)
dedicated agency.
More often than not, lifelong learning is seen
as training provision for adults, comprising In parallel, there are reform programmes in
labour market training for unemployed higher education and employment with
people, and adult education, to give adults provisions for labour market training. It is
access to the diplomas of the education important to highlight the fact that these
system. Formal education is considered as countries are fully involved in the Bologna
being provided exclusively by the public process which is now a well adopted
education system while qualifications benchmark for reforms in higher education,
provided by private training providers are while they follow the Copenhagen process
seen as non-formal. In addition, social through limited exchanges of information
partnership is often reduced to partnerships and practice with EU Member States. This
between ministries, demonstrating the lack situation potentially widens the gap
of interest among many policymakers for between approaches to medium and higher
partnerships with employers’ and workers’ qualification levels.
unions, and the lack of interest among those
unions in issues related to education and Furthermore, as a result of the high level of
training. Instead of seeing VET as centralisation that still characterises most
embedded in a broader lifelong learning of these systems, VET reforms are typically
concept and framework, several ETF implemented from the top down, with little
partner countries tend to view VET and consideration for the real needs and
lifelong learning as two parallel but separate situations on the ground and with little
concepts, mainly under the responsibility of partnership and cooperation with local
the ministry of education. actors.
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5. LESSONS FROM THE VET Training 2010 work programme. All new
REFORMS IN THE NEW Member States and the remaining
MEMBER STATES candidate countries, Turkey and Croatia,
participate actively in the peer learning
The new Member States have been process on education and training. Overall,
exposed to rather similar forces to those a significant learning exercise has
currently at work in the Western Balkans. developed since the beginning of the
VET reforms started in the first half of the transition process.
1990s through EU assistance following the
same kind of compartmentalised approach
as presented above. Although impact was 6. THE SLOVENIAN
significant in the pilot schools where APPROACH TOWARDS
programmes had been implemented, the LIFELONG LEARNING
overall assessment was often
disappointing because little dissemination The progressive approach towards lifelong
had taken place, support by ministries had learning in Slovenia can be seen as a
been insufficient and achievements only learning process where VET has become
rarely became embedded in national gradually integrated into the whole
policies (ETF, 2003b). Furthermore, EU system.
technical assistance had most often been
brought by EU experts who exported Four main steps can be identified:
different models with little consideration of
the suitability of new policies in the context 1. The education reform (1996): a strong
of partner countries (ETF, 2004). focus on horizontal and vertical bridges
in secondary education.
However, EU assistance in general and 2. National Vocational Qualification Act
ETF activities in particular exposed (2000): qualifications can also be
policymakers to the EU policy debate about acquired outside the education system.
education and VET. This was the start of 3. New VET Act (2006): more flexible
the development of policy learning in the and outcome-designed VET
ETF’s partner countries. The activities of qualifications and curriculum reform
the National Observatories which acted as (2001-2007).
clearing houses between the EU and the 4. Lifelong learning strategy (2007).
beneficiary countries in the field of VET
were particularly useful, as were the The education system has been inspired
seminars and projects developed involving by the underlying principles of lifelong
the ETF Advisory Forum (ETF, 2003b). learning since 1980. It was embedded in a
Even if the acquis communautaire in special type of ‘unified’ secondary school
education and training was limited to with the goal of offering all young people
issues linked to the recognition of common standards for further education in
qualifications for regulated professions and the first year and then supporting their
preparation for the European Social Fund orientation towards appropriate branches
(ESF), debates about the transparency of of technical and vocational education.
qualifications and lifelong learning had However, the unified basis of the system
been substantially promoted in the EU with was too demanding for some pupils, which
the involvement of candidate country resulted in low grades, dropouts and poor
policymakers in the debates. vocational qualifications (Pevec Grm and
Zevnik, 2008).
The situation changed dramatically after
2000 and the development of the Lisbon 6.1 First phase of the reform
Strategy. The 2001 Commission
Memorandum on lifelong learning was Independence in 1991 and the transition to
disseminated in all candidate countries a market economy gave a great impetus
after which they were gradually involved in for change. A conceptual plan for a new
EU policy developments in education and system of vocational education and training
training and fully associated with the was prepared (Mursak, 1992), which was
Copenhagen Process and the Education & summarised in a white paper (1995) and in
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7. EU POLICIES AND VET REFORMS IN ETF PARTNER COUNTRIES – WHAT MORE
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procedures, bodies and organisations that n Schools and social partners were given
oversee occupational and assessment the right to determine 20% of the
standards, as well as conditions and national objectives and contents in the
procedures for assessing and awarding regional and local curricula.
national vocational qualifications. n The difference between programmes
used in dual and school-based
Integrating the validation of non-formal systems was abolished with a
learning into the national qualification minimum of 24 weeks practical
system was a long process. The MOCCA in-company training.
programme helped with background n A new type of financing was introduced
studies and pilot projects. Many to support increased school autonomy.
workshops and conferences were carried
out between 1998 and 2000 that were These principles became embedded in the
supported by the ETF and other partners. new VET Act that was adopted 2006. The
The National Institute for Vocational reform was given a strong impetus by an
Education and Training and the Slovenian increased involvement in European
Institute for Adult Education also played learning processes. In 2001, the EC
an important role. Memorandum on lifelong learning
(European Commission, 2000) was broadly
6.3 New VET Act discussed and disseminated among
different stakeholders. In 2002 Slovenia
The third key milestone was the adoption joined the Education and Training 2010
of the new VET Act in 2006, which work programme and became actively
followed the intensive pilot phase of the involved in the Copenhagen process. This
preceding years and was based on was an intensive period of learning,
national and international evaluations. embedding and mirroring national
New ways of preparing education developments in a broader context. The
programmes in lower and secondary transparency of the national system was
vocational education and secondary increased through the implementation of
technical education were adopted in 2001 Europass, the learning outcomes
by the Council of Experts for VET. approach, and quality standards inspired
by the Common Framework for Quality
n Social partners were included in the assurance in VET. Currently a credit
preparation of occupational standards accumulation and transfer system which
that became the compulsory basis of aims at bridging the different certification
all VET programmes. systems is being implemented.
n Programmes were modularised to
allow for more flexible and open 6.4 The Lifelong Learning Strategy;
curricula aimed at allowing individual new challenges
learning pathways for students and
adults. Finally, in 2007 a Lifelong Learning Strategy
n Learning outcomes were introduced in was prepared which provided an external
the national framework curricula. impetus to strengthening efforts, better
n Providers were given increased linking different initiatives and systems in a
responsibility for the preparation of the more coherent and comprehensive way,
school curriculum. They became and developing a platform for
involved in setting out the development inter-ministerial cooperation. A master
vision, establishing indicators, action plan is now being drawn up.
monitoring the process of
self-evaluation, and developing new The strategy is very much in line with EU
methods of teaching and learning. The priorities. Key points include the coherent
aim was to adjust programmes to linking of initial and further education, a
employers’ needs, keep common flexible and open system of vocational
minimal standards and enable curricula and technical education which enables
to change quickly when needed. the evaluation and certification of
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
knowledge acquired through different The links developed between VET and the
pathways, and a strong emphasis on labour market and the cooperation
learning in the workplace and motivating between ministries were at the heart of the
employers to invest in education and reforms in Slovenia. Moreover, the need to
training. recognise and validate qualifications
developed through professional experience
At present, the majority of students opt for was a key driver in the change process. It
technical qualifications which give access to offered a rationale for the development of a
both the labour market and higher qualification system which could become a
education. The number of students in framework that integrated qualifications
technical and higher vocational education is from both the education system and the
increasing but in the past five years, labour market.
enrolment in three-year vocational
education programmes has almost halved However, new problems also emerge
and 60% of those who do enrol continue from the difficulty to answer the
their education in two-year programmes. As immediate needs of the labour market
a consequence there is a lack of skilled and prepare for the knowledge economy
workers in many sectors, such as and society. As demonstrated in Slovenia
construction and manufacturing. Decreasing (and confirmed in all new Member
the gap between supply and demand will be States) rapid increases in enrolments in
a huge challenge in coming years. It is, higher education go in hand with
however, expected that through an increases in skills shortages in many
enhanced transition to the knowledge-based industries, particularly at the
economy, the demand for higher mid-qualification level. Here EU
qualifications will increase, particularly in the messages (such as those from the
field of information and communication Helsinki Communiqué) that plea for
technologies. The development of new increased participation in both VET and
attractive qualifications at the medium level higher education seem to be difficult to
in these sectors is therefore a challenge too. implement if we do not refer to the broad
Enhanced local and regional cooperation concept of VET as outlined above.
with companies is now taking place, as a
result of which common issues and Policy learning has developed throughout
challenges may be addressed in the years the Slovenian reform process, revealing
ahead. the importance of national debates based
in particular on research outcomes and the
role of the inter-ministerial coordination,
7. CONCLUSION particularly between the ministries of
education and labour. It reveals the
The analysis of the Slovenian case influence of labour market considerations
provides some lessons and raises new and the need to develop evidence about
questions. the results of reform projects, but also the
importance of viewing national experiences
Even in a country where lifelong learning in a broader international context. This
has provided guiding principles since the reinforces the key role of EU programmes,
1980s, VET reform has been a long, both in terms of assistance before
complex and indeed continuing process. accession and now the open method of
Many key issues still remain at stake. The coordination through peer learning and
lifelong learning perspective has been very benchmarking.
helpful in the design of more flexible VET
which is integrated in the education system
but the implementation of a comprehensive 8. LESSONS FOR THE WORK
strategy that follows the EU model is still OF THE ETF
pending. Some building blocks, such as
effective stakeholder partnership and The first section of this chapter shows that
student-centred learning are still VET reforms are too often designed and
insufficiently developed. implemented with a narrow orientation to
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7. EU POLICIES AND VET REFORMS IN ETF PARTNER COUNTRIES – WHAT MORE
TO LEARN?
upper secondary education and with little A number of conclusions for EU assistance
consideration for adult learning. This in VET reform and ETF work can be drawn.
differs from concepts used in the EU in the
context of the Copenhagen process and n Ambiguities and misconceptions should
hampers the effective use of EU tools and be avoided as much as possible by
messages. But analysis of the new clarifying concepts and going through a
Member States indicates that the scope of comprehensive presentation of EU
VET is changing very rapidly in countries concepts, tools and messages,
moving from planned economies towards including presentations of policy
free market economies and democracy. contexts and practices.
It also shows that less and less VET takes n Exclusive work with ministries of
place at upper secondary level, moving education and their staff in charge of
increasingly towards post-secondary and secondary VET should be avoided.
higher education levels and adult A broader scope for work with VET in
learning. the context of lifelong learning52 must be
considered for reforms in close
It therefore is crucial not to limit VET to the partnership with all relevant ministries,
VET routes in upper secondary education including ministries of finance, social
and not to consider VET reforms in partners, and teacher and regional and
isolation from the whole education and local institution representatives.
training system. The different components n The involvement of the higher education
of the education and training system must community in the VET and lifelong
be identified, with their individual learning reforms, in order to create
characteristics and their internal comprehensive routes to vocational
relationships, and the focus must be qualification at all levels, making the
directed towards (a) horizontal pathways best use of integrated national
between general, technical and vocational qualification frameworks.
routes, (b) vertical pathways between n The promotion of a broad coverage of
secondary, post-secondary and higher labour market needs analyses and
education, and (c) transition pathways from forecasting, making clear the different
school to work and professional pathways contributions of the various components
through work and adult learning where of education and training systems and
effective counselling and guidance systems in particular the differences between
must develop. vocational and technical routes.
n The involvement of social partners and
In that perspective, the EU lifelong learning the business community with specific
framework has already lent strong support approaches linked to their own agendas
to reforms in countries like Slovenia. It is and linked to their need to understand
now a reference for all ETF partner how qualifications and competences are
countries, with the aim of analysing where changing and developing, and how they
each country is and identifying the obstacles should become drivers of the reforms.
and the steps to be achieved gradually. It This also means developing local and
needs substantial clarification combined regional approaches.
with an active promotion of changes in the n The development of evidence about
governance patterns, partnership and reform processes, outcomes and
cooperation approaches at all levels. This in impact, in particular by involving
turn requires decentralisation, increased national researchers and universities in
autonomy and a combination of top-down the design and the implementation of
and bottom-up approaches. VET reform programmes.
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89
Part 2
INTRODUCTION: HOPES AND
PROMISES OF POLICY
LEARNING
91
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The sector-wide approach, development essay explores the potential that learning
policy programmes and policy learning are communities offer for capacity building,
some of the most common alternatives to illustrating this with three examples. She
traditional education policy borrowing and concludes that the decision to develop
lending. policy learning communities requires formal
leadership that endorses values, promotes
This part of the Yearbook is a collection of and models collaborative learning, enquiry
essays by authors who each have a and knowledge animation, and builds
different perspective – often a combination networks to support learning connections
of academia, policy practice and across different policy areas.
educational change – on the world of
education policies and how to change Professor Andy Hargreaves (Boston
them. All but one are written by College) claims that the theory of change
distinguished university professors and should influence what is borrowed.
atypically to mainstream academic writing, However, readily available policies that can
all these chapters are short and offer a easily be borrowed often distort the
window to the personal view of the authors, theory-in-action that policymakers hold
often emotionally and passionately. about how people can be induced to
Authors in this section express their own change. He provides three examples of
views and not necessarily those of the lessons in change, concluding that the
European Training Foundation or any of transfer of policies between two systems is
the European Union institutions. difficult and often doomed to failure.
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INTRODUCTION: HOPES AND PROMISES OF POLICY LEARNING
93
8
8. THE PROMISES AND
PITFALLS OF PEER
LEARNING
Ronald G. Sultana
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
96
8. THE PROMISES AND PITFALLS OF PEER LEARNING
A case in point is the recent policy interest whether or not the latter had formal
in career guidance at the World Bank, the responsibilities in the thematic area or an
ETF and the ILO – a focus that was interest or expertise in it. Donor and aid
triggered by a high-profile OECD review of agencies are of course not unaware of
the field that started in 2000 (OECD, 2004). such dynamics, and some have developed
Policy and research networks, together diplomatic but firm ways of ensuring that
with policy entrepreneurs came together to those who join peer learning events have
influence donor and aid agency investment an appropriate profile. At other times,
in the field, even though several of the however, such control or discretion cannot
countries that were targeted had labour be exercised, seriously jeopardising the
market, socio-economic, political and learning outcomes envisaged.
cultural peculiarities that limit the relevance
of career guidance. If policy leaders from The choice of country or countries to visit
these countries do not see the theme as to encourage peer learning and emulation
relevant or as a priority, they may still opt to is also far from being a straightforward one,
play along with the promoting agency. They and the wrong selection can severely limit
may want to maintain good relations to the effectiveness of the whole exercise. If
ensure that they can benefit from other, peers consider that the resource gap
more appealing projects that may come between their countries and the host
along in the future. They may also see it as context is too wide, they may very easily
an opportunity for capacity building or for conclude that success can be explained
infrastructural resource acquisition, which away by the access that the showcased
they quietly transfer to areas and services initiative has to funds, staff, technology,
that are considered to be true priorities. and so on. They may fail to dig deeper to
Such dynamics and processes are easy to understand why others who have similar or
understand, and suggest that it is critical even more resources have nevertheless
that decisions about learning targets and failed to achieve the same results. They
priorities are made by both the peer may also remain unconvinced that
learning organisers and participants institutional cultures and work protocols
together. impact on motivation in ways that shape
outcomes, and may therefore be unwilling
Linked to this is the choice of participants. to see what lessons they can learn from
This goes beyond ensuring a suitable mix the visit. A less often mentioned obstacle to
which furthers the learning goals of the policy learning during peer visits occurs
peer learning exercise. If, for instance, the when participants are invited to consider
intended outcome is increased sensitivity the achievements of countries (or regions
to the dynamics of the policy in their own country) that they consider to
implementation process, it can make a lot be at the same or even lower levels of
of sense to have teams made up of economic development than themselves.
policymakers and policy implementers at South-South learning partnerships may
the different levels of the school system, thus suffer from a misguided sense of
possibly from both the state and non-state pride.
sectors. Problems arise, however, when
the agency organising the peer learning Finally, there are a number of issues to
event depends on ministries to select consider when choosing the practice that
participants. I have been quite surprised at will be focused on during the peer learning
times by the profile of partners joining peer visit. The trend is to showcase those
learning visits, as well as their motivation policies and practices which key
for doing so. In one case, for instance, it stakeholders consider to have been
became obvious that a senior staff member successful. Clearly, one can also learn a
from a minister’s policy unit was using his great deal from practices and policies that
privileged position to ensure that he was have been less successful — though many
first in line for several study visits abroad. ministries will understandably be reluctant
In another case, it was clear that ministers to be used as an example of what not to
were using study visits to reward loyal or do. Some countries or agencies are
favoured civil servants, irrespective of particularly aggressive in marketing their
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8. THE PROMISES AND PITFALLS OF PEER LEARNING
99
9
9. SNAPSHOTS OF
POLICYMAKING IN A
CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
Slavko Gaber
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9. SNAPSHOTS OF POLICYMAKING IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
Looking back we can claim that At the end of the day, this was more
numerous academic discussions and important than the inclusive management
conferences with teachers, parents, and of the reform and the substantial increase
economic partners largely paid off and of public resources invested in education
were a necessary part of reforms. But at that took place in the decade of reform59.
the same time, strangely enough, our
misconception or lack of recognition of We began to reform education from the
the dependence of education on the perception that it was the most important
structure of society allowed us to way towards the prosperity of individual
conceptualise, legislate and implement a citizens and the country. Even when the
number of solutions that were not easily danger appeared that the ideology of the
accepted by all stakeholders in the Catholic Church would simply replace the
country. former Marxist ideology in state schools,
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and even when members of parliament In the late 1980s, before representative
pushed for radical external differentiation at democracy, resistance resulted in the
the age of 12, we just followed the final general liberalisation of the field of
goal: modern, inclusive and competitive education. School control was substantially
education. reduced and inspection no longer
interfered with either the content or the
methodology of school syllabuses. The
SNAPSHOT 5: criteria of political irreproachability and
ENTHUSIASM WITH membership of the League of Communists
CONSERVATISM as conditions for taking the position of head
teacher disappeared. The victory of the
Enthusiasm for change combined with new approach was reflected in a number of
some kind of conservatism probably made areas. One of these was that in education
things easier. While some parts of the the preparations for the reintroduction of
system changed profoundly (such as the grammar schools started. In 1990, the
when state-financed private education Council for Education of what was still the
was introduced), others stayed as Socialist Republic of Slovenia decided to
untouched as cathedrals in a newly built reintroduce grammar schools.
city. This divergence points to the
pragmatic philosophy of the reformers and While grammar schools were left relatively
to the fact that parts of the Slovenian untouched in the years following
education system had been adequately independence, primary schools received a
reformed in the years before lot of attention. The experimental stage of
independence. In general, despite the new introducing nine-year comprehensive
codification of the entire education system primary education started in 1999. An
in 1996, important parts of today’s external baccalaureate was introduced in
education system derived from the 1995; vocational education changed
elements built into it before the transition substantially and the dual system of
from socialism to representative vocational education, combining German
democracy. Even dissidents, those who and Danish experiences, was introduced.
fought for systemic change, were aware of Adult education was restructured by
the changes that had taken place in the combining public institutions and a
last decade before independence60. market-oriented education supply. Higher
education, which grew very fast after
A typical example is the reintroduction of independence (from approximately 33,000
grammar schools – the gymnasiums. The students to more than 90,000) was
socialist authorities considered grammar restructured and programmes were
schools elitist and abolished them at the renewed. Salaries of teachers were
beginning of the 1980s61 and along with increased substantially, teacher education
them, the traditional matura school-leaving (both pre-service and in-service) changed
examination. Academic circles developed significantly. Curriculum renewal from
resistance which resulted in one of the pre-primary up to upper-secondary
most productive examples of establishing education took place between 1996 and
new structures inside old ones. 1999. During this period more than 75% of
60 In some respect Tocqueville’s deliberation on the necessity of the French Revolution can be applied to the
transition of Slovenia from socialism to representative democracy. The difference lies in the revolution in
France having occurred despite the fact that the new was already contained in the old and that it would have
surfaced even without radicalism and bloodshed, while Slovenia, with a great deal of luck and a bit of
wisdom, succeeded in undergoing a “velvet” transition to a new system. See de Tocqueville, 1967.
61 “The Board of Education [...] in February 1975 drafted the Theses on Careers-Oriented Education in the
Field of Secondary Education.” (Cimperle and Vovko, 1987, p.104). Within the concept of education which
should be connected with industry and prepare students for a vocation, the abolition of grammar schools
was the most discussed issue. The authorities at that time reproached grammar schools for their “elitist
character, causing dualism in the secondary school system, which takes away the possibility of further
education from vocational school students ” (ibid.). Elements of careers-oriented education were introduced
in the 1975/76 academic year for first-year grammar-school pupils. The abolition of grammar schools took
place in the 1981/82 academic year after the adoption of the Careers Education Act in April 1980. For more
on this issue see Milharčič-Hladnik and Šušteršič, 1986.
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9. SNAPSHOTS OF POLICYMAKING IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
teachers responded to the invitation from a invited review teams (OECD) and experts
national commission to participate in the from France, England, Scotland, Germany
proposal and revisions of the proposed and Nordic countries for consultations.
subject curricula documents. This, indeed, During this process we learnt that while we
was profound reform with elements of needed permanent structures for the
conservatism. international transfer of knowledge and
good practice, only we ourselves could
raise the quality, equity and efficiency of
SNAPSHOT 6: education in Slovenia.
ACCOMMODATING EUROPE
We drafted a White Paper on Education INSTEAD OF A CONCLUSION
while the modernisation of school systems
in Europe was guided by the UNESCO From the perspective of the present I can
paper of Jacques Delors, Learning: The see two major mistakes we made in
treasure within, and the European reforming education in Slovenia.
Commission White Paper entitled Teaching
and Learning – Towards the Learning First of all, in a time we considered as the
Society, both of which brought into play an end of history, we believed that Western
additional interest in making comparisons. rationalist concepts of society and
education were universal. Secondly, the
Both reports stressed the significance of market, competition and work-orientation
education for the future of humankind. The that aimed at inclusion in the European
UNESCO Commission emphasised “its distribution of labour received overdue
belief that education has a fundamental attention.
role to play in personal and social
development” (Delors 1996, p.13). Sticking only to the second, I have to admit
Learning: the Treasure Within focused on that we didn’t understand the opposing and
education as one of “the principal means mutually constitutive nature of instrumental
available to foster a deeper and (work and vocation-centred) education on
harmonious form of human development one hand, and non-instrumental
and thereby to reduce poverty, exclusion, (knowledge and joy-centred) education on
ignorance, oppression and war” (ibid.). The the other. Following the European Union
European Commission’s White Paper political mantra, which was formulated a
stressed in particular the importance of few years later as Europe as the most
education for Europe and its capacity to competitive knowledge-based economy,
face the rest of the world. It stated: “[...] the we wrongly tried to reduce or even
countries of Europe today have no other eliminate this inherent contradiction built
option. If they are to hold their own and to into education.
continue to be a reference point in the
world, they have to build on the progress By reducing education largely to a work
brought about through closer economic ties and market-oriented concept, we limited it
by a more substantial investment in to an important but incomplete part of
knowledge and skills” (Teaching and present and future realities. In the times of
Learning, 1995, p.15). the end of work (Rifkin, 2004) we are trying
to reduce learning and teaching to
Both elements – the first a reminder of the instrumental (useful), market-oriented
humanistic part of our being, and the forms. As such, it forces schools to
second a warning to prepare for increased struggle with additional unpopularity. As
competition – are also woven into the may seem strange, in this way not only
White Paper on Education in Slovenia non-instrumental but also instrumental
(1996). While not yet a Member State, we education (i.e. the work-oriented part) lost
wanted our education to “enable inclusion its call and potential.
in the European distribution of labour” (ibid,
p.165). To accommodate the transfer of the In the time ahead the contradicting and
newest European ideas, reform structures complementing elements of instrumental
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10
10. LEADERSHIP AND
POLICY LEARNING
COMMUNITIES: PROMOTING
KNOWLEDGE ANIMATION
Louise Stoll
Over the last decade my research attention The quality of social learning is greater
and development energy have been when social capital is high (Mulford, 2007).
devoted to the issue of creating capacity My initial interest was in how school
for learning to support educational leaders create and develop professional
improvement. By capacity, I mean the learning communities: inclusive, reflective,
power to engage in and sustain the mutually supportive and collaborative
learning of people at all levels of the groups of people who find ways, inside and
education system for the collective purpose outside their immediate community, to
of enhancing pupils’ learning (Stoll, 2009). investigate and learn more about their
This includes policy learning. In this piece, practice in order to improve all pupils’
I explore the potential that learning learning (Bolam et al., 2005). But learning
communities offer for capacity building. I communities don’t have to be confined to
illustrate this with three examples. I then individual schools or organisations.
examine the processes involved and Broadening membership of learning
conclude by considering implications for communities facilitates the extension of the
leadership. available knowledge base. Involving
agencies from other public sectors brings
different professional knowledge that can
1. LEARNING COMMUNITIES support improvement (Cummings et al.,
2007), while parental involvement adds
Creating, developing and sustaining intimate knowledge of individual children.
learning communities lies at the heart of Connecting with colleagues in other
capacity building (Mitchell and Sackney, schools through participation in learning
2000; Stoll et al., 2006; Louis, 2008). networks adds to the existing pool of
Relationships are critical to social learning. professional educational knowledge and
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10. LEADERSHIP AND POLICY LEARNING COMMUNITIES: PROMOTING
KNOWLEDGE ANIMATION
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New Knowledge
The new knowledge
created through collaborative Three fields
work and enquiry of knowledge
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10. LEADERSHIP AND POLICY LEARNING COMMUNITIES: PROMOTING
KNOWLEDGE ANIMATION
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
a) What examples of policy learning e) Are you a leader of any policy learning
communities exist in your system? communities?
b) Who do they involve? Is anyone f) How is leadership distributed in your
excluded? policy learning communities?
c) What conditions facilitate their g) What are the most powerful forms of
existence? knowledge animation you have come
d) What are the barriers that inhibit the across? Why are they powerful?
development of policy learning h) How might you extend these to other
communities in your context? How can policy areas?
these barriers be removed?
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11
11. ENGAGING POLICY:
NEITHER A BORROWER NOR
A LENDER BE
Andy Hargreaves
Education policies are developed to benefit predicated on more or less explicit beliefs
children and other learners, advance the and assumptions about how people
learning that it is believed society will need change and what induces them to do so.
to secure its future, respond to crisis, Reality TV shows that turn around failing
appease special interests and satisfy the restaurants or ineffective parents involve
electorate. Education policies should initial evaluation, public humiliation,
promote prosperity, equity, inclusiveness coaching and practice, more humiliation
and cohesion as well as the capacity for and final success as people progress
continuous improvement, human through the stages of imposed change.
betterment and the ability to deal with Policies that emphasise failure more than
change that outlasts any particular party or success, and that impose stringent
coalition in power. Whatever the emphasis, performance targets for improvement,
all policies are based on a theory of action follow a similar pattern.
of how people change and are borrowed in
whole or in part from another time or place. Less spectacular efforts to improve are
Ideally, the theory of change should also based on theories-of-action about how
influence what is borrowed; but people change. Identifying exemplary
unfortunately, readily available policies that schools or programmes assumes that
can easily be borrowed often determine people can copy the best. Network-driven
and distort the theory-in-action that change assumes that change spreads like
policymakers hold about how people can a benign infection that people catch from
be induced to change. each other. Advocates of scripted curricula
and imposed performance targets assume
that people cannot be trusted to improve by
1. THEORIES OF CHANGE themselves and need others to monitor and
micromanage their actions in detail.
All efforts to bring about personal, Highlighting exceptions of schools or
organisational or social change are districts that perform against the odds
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
either assumes that if one can be masters degrees from Finland or lesson
exceptional, anyone can; or that study from Japan can seem more
conversations with those who are practical and promise to be more
exceptional can spread modified changes implementable too, but tearing them out
around a system. Technology buffs of context usually undermines their
imagine that gadgets alone will alter how eventual impact.
people learn and teach. Coaches suppose f) Policymakers can find sources of
that people trying new practices require inspiration in other sectors, such as
support and also supervision in order to performance indicators in business,
succeed. And leadership theorists either evidence-based practice in medicine or
search for charismatic heroes who can zero tolerance for failure in the high
bring about miraculous change or invest in reliability organisation of air traffic
wider distributions of leadership that are control.
able to sustain change over time. g) Last, ministers and prime ministers
have been known to draw on their own
How do we choose between different decades-old experiences of schooling
theories-of-action in developing new as students to use policy as an
policies for improvement and change? instrument for nostalgic revival or for
purging biographical demons.
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11. ENGAGING POLICY: NEITHER A BORROWER NOR A LENDER BE
attempt to impose an instant solution on literacy attainment (OECD, 2007; Levin and
San Diego that had been developed over Fullan, 2008). The ready-made solutions
many years in New York was then declared that are advocated by international travelling
a failure. The researchers identified many consultants seem to be going in search of
reasons for this, including: problems or making up ones that aren’t
there, rather than local problems giving rise
a) Military-based and larger San Diego to their own solutions.
was more conservative yet had less
local capacity than smaller District 2
within high-capacity, chutzpah-like New 4. CHANGE LESSONS
York.
b) San Diego’s reforms were imposed in This does not mean that we cannot or
two years, whereas New York’s had should not learn from other contexts. But
been developed over a decade. we should do so intelligently in relation to
c) Large and complex secondary schools clear principles, sensitively in relation to
were included in the San Diego reform, differences in context, and interactively
unlike District 2. through dialogue among educators at all
d) As San Diego’s reform mill became levels within and across the respective
increasingly gruelling, resentment grew systems. I will provide three examples with
against the interlopers responsible for which I have been closely involved by way
its implementation. of illustration.
e) Understandings of literacy and
instruction that had taken a decade to 4.1 Finland
develop in District 2 were interpreted
more superficially in the fast-track Finland receives a lot of international policy
reform environment of San Diego. attention. It ranks No. 1 on most PISA62
assessments, has the narrowest
Stein and colleagues go on to document achievement gaps in the developed world
that a little less was lost in translation with and is a world leader in corporate
a further attempt at implementation in transparency and economic
Philadelphia as implementers tried to be competitiveness. In 2007, I took a team
more sensitive to differences of context. there for the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development to examine
Despite these documented difficulties, the relationship between leadership and
reasons of ideological compatibility and school improvement. (Hargreaves et al.,
cultural affinity, along with the physical travel 2008). Drawing on our evidence and on
of a very small number of international the growing body of other literature on the
consultants, have led to other reform Finnish experience (Sahlberg, 2006; 2009;
initiatives being exported impulsively. One Aho et al., 2006; Castells and Himanen
key instance concerns the transposition of 2003; Grubb, 2006), this is what we
national policy strategies from England to concluded.
other English-speaking countries. These
policy strategies centre on setting imposed a) After being one of the most backward
targets in tested literacy and numeracy at economies in Europe in the 1950s and
different age points along with curricular and after an international banking crisis, the
training emphases in these core subjects. loss of its Russian market, and the
Strangely, while England ranks relatively escalation of unemployment rates to
poorly on international tests in literacy, and almost 19% in the early 1990s, Finland
while the record of its literacy strategy has consciously connected economic
been labelled as unsuccessful, contrived, or transformation towards being a
stuck, the country’s emphasis on testing and creative and flexible knowledge
targets has been eagerly adopted by both economy to the development of a
Ontario and Australia, even though they significantly more decentralised
already rank among the world’s leaders in education system.
62 Programme for International Student Assessment – a triennial world-wide test of 15-year-old students’
scholastic performance coordinated by the OECD.
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b) This effort has been coordinated at the h) Assessment strategies are largely
highest political level where CEOs from diagnostic forms of
leading companies like Nokia meet assessment-for-learning and internal to
regularly with university presidents in a the school. External accountability is
science and technological development confidential and undertaken on a
committee chaired by the prime minister. sample basis for monitoring purposes
c) The coherence is not merely only, not as a census of everyone.
bureaucratic and governmental, but i) Principals are seen as being part of a
visionary and inspirational. Finns have a “society of equals” in their schools, not
common vision that connects their as line-managers. They are often
creative high-tech future to their past as recruited from within their schools and
creative craftspeople. There are more they engage in considerable informally
composers per capita in Finland than in distributed leadership with their
any other developed country, and all colleagues. Principals may not be
young people engage in creative and recruited from outside education, and
performing arts to the end of their many principals teach for at least two
secondary education. hours per week. Teachers say that if the
d) This vision is shared at every level principal is indisposed or ineffective,
among Finns since teachers create their they take over the school as it belongs
country’s future as a creative and to all of them.
inclusive nation. Though paid only at
the OECD average, teaching in Finland Some market-oriented advocates dismiss
is highly competitive with only a the high-performing Finnish example as
one-in-ten chance of acceptance. simply too different (New American
Retention is high among Finnish Commission, 2007). Or they highlight
teachers because conditions are good weaknesses such as Finland’s impending
and trust is high. All Finnish teachers generational crisis of leadership
are awarded masters degrees. Finns succession, as a way of occluding the
control quality at the most important strengths (Fullan, 2008). Or they choose
point – the point of entry. single items such as awarding teachers
e) Within broad guidelines and with masters degrees, that are applied and
minimal steering by the state, highly imposed in isolation and disembodied from
qualified teachers create curricula the democratic and inclusive context of the
together in each municipality for the rest of the system and society (Barber and
children they know best. Curricula and Mourshed, 2007). Or they overly celebrate
pedagogy are not separate – they are in how the system succeeds without
a common tradition of what continental Anglo-Saxon systems of standardised
Europeans call “didactics”. The sense of testing (Sahlberg, 2006).
delivering a curriculum devised by
others from afar is utterly alien to What might more intelligent engagement
Finnish educators. with Finnish strategies look like? The most
f) In small classes rarely larger than 24 transferable (but not necessarily most
students, and with generous definitions ideologically amenable) aspects are the
of special educational needs, the push broad principles of developing an inspiring
for quality is driven largely by quietly and inclusive mission that attracts into the
lifting all children up from the bottom, profession high calibre people capable of
one at time, through knowing them well creating curriculum together for children
in small classes, having specialist they know well in smaller classes.
support as needed, and not having to
deal with excessive paperwork and Without an inspiring and inclusive mission,
endless external initiatives. other less successful measures such as
g) Principals work across schools, sharing market incentives have to be used to
resources where they are needed, and attract and retain highly qualified
feeling responsible together for all the professionals. Without highly qualified
children and young people in their town professionals, teaching cannot be trusted
and city, not acting competitively only so much, which increases the argument for
for the children in their own school. external accountability, standardised
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players who had a high on-base for increased test scores are imposed on
percentage and batters were urged to teachers who take their own extra little steps
attend to it – to do anything it took to get on such as teaching to the test, in order to
base, even drawing a “walk” or being hit by produce the necessary numbers.
a pitch. Systematically attending to this
single statistic throughout the club’s By comparison, the Championship club
selection, organisation and playing Prozone director invites players in to
strategies, got it into the playoffs season discuss their data. At first, only a trickle of
after season, despite falling levels of players come to see him, but as players’
investment. Before, coaches had recruited subsequent performance improves, their
players who reminded them of themselves peers take notice and are very soon
– big guys who could hit a ball hard. Now, following in their team-members’ footsteps
Oakland Athletics had some of the most to join this intelligent community of soccer
peculiarly built players in baseball, but what learners who analyse data to improve
they could all do was get on base performance together. Whether they
consistently! concern individual student achievement, or
comparative international performance, the
The parallel in football is Prozone. This is most productive uses of data in education,
not the latest banned substance of sporting similarly occur not by imposing unwanted
preference! Prozone is a computer targets that lead to unnecessary
program that can track players’ expenditures of energy on superfluous
performance throughout a game – extra steps, but by building intelligent
monitoring and measuring energy levels, communities of professionals and
areas of the pitch covered, and number of policymakers who look at data together in
successful and unsuccessful passes made shared commitments to improvement.
– backwards, forwards and sideways.
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12
12. LETTER TO A NEW
EDUCATION MINISTER63
63 I was inspired to write this fictitious letter by my old friend, Seymour Sarason, who wrote a collection of
letters to a fictitious future president of the United States. I also owe him the story about the man who went
to the doctor which he told on one of his visits to work with me in Helsinki. You can read these letters in his
book Letters to a Serious Education President, Corwin Press, 1993. The idea of the policy epidemic is from
another friend, Benjamin Levin, presented in “An epidemic of education policy: (what) can we learn from
each other?” in Comparative Education, 34(2), 131-141. Any lack of clarity, errors and omissions in this
chapter are entirely my responsibility.
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the problems of education systems; has spent the best part of his life working
ironically, it is often a part of the problem. for educational change, told me a story that
So let us look at your time as education I find very relevant to the question of how
minister openly and courageously, while to heal an education system. It goes like
recognising past educational this:
achievements.
“One day a normally fit and healthy man
In my time, I have met many people in your felt unwell. He soon started to feel so
situation. As you will soon see for yourself, bad that he went straight to his doctor
institutions, interest groups and individuals, and told him that he was losing his
among them your colleagues, students, strength and finding even the basics of
teachers and parents, will all come to you daily life very tiring. The doctor could
with their suggestions about what you not see any signs of illness but gave
should do. Some will come bearing him a check-up anyway. Everything
promises of political or financial support for seemed normal and he told the man he
your work, others will offer to help you fix was perfectly healthy. But this was not
those parts of the education system that what our man wanted to hear. He knew
work improperly. Then there are those who he was unwell and asked the doctor to
will want your support for their own political examine him again. The doctor,
agendas. somewhat annoyed at having his
professional judgement doubted, took
I know you are probably well aware of this. another look. Again, he found no signs
However, allow me to say that you may not of illness but the man continued to insist
be aware of the sheer variety of ideas on on treatment. After thinking for a while,
education you will encounter during your the doctor said: “I want you to do the
time as minister. Two considerations may following routine six times a day for the
help shape your response. It is vital to be next two weeks. Take off all your
absolutely clear about the exact nature of clothes, stand in front of an open
the problems facing your education window and breathe deeply for 20
system. In your previous job, you declared minutes.” “But doctor, it is January and
that “education is not just an important freezing cold outside,” said the man, “if I
issue, it is the issue because the future of do as you say, I will surely catch
our people and our culture are at stake.” pneumonia.” The doctor replied “In that
But giving education top priority does not case, come back and I will cure you
constitute a diagnosis. You may find it because I know how to treat
useful to think about the education system pneumonia!””
and its problems in the same way a doctor
thinks about a patient. If someone has a For me the irony of this story is not the fact
serious illness, diagnosis is not always that this is so often what happens in real
easy even for the most experienced of life. It is the fact that in the world of
doctors. A correct diagnosis often begins education reforms we so often end up
with the realisation that the patient is not doing what we can do rather than what we
suffering from one ailment but rather a should be doing. But we can only do
complex mix of ailments. There is no need something about the real issues if we have
to worry about how complex these understood what they are in the first place.
problems are, but you must avoid being Clearly I am not telling this story to illustrate
influenced by the urgent nature of the the failings of the medical profession. For
problem so that your diagnosis misses the me, this story poses an important question:
real cause of the sickness and ends up how can you go about identifying what is
only treating the minor symptoms. the biggest issue facing your education
system? This first question raises more
Your opposite number at the ministry of questions such as – how well equipped is
health can tell you better than I can how your administration to understand the real
doctors treat their patients but the nature of the problem? How willing are you
relevance of this analogy to the education to rein in the instinct to adopt “solutions,”
sector is obvious. A friend of mine, who including those put forward by your
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12. LETTER TO A NEW EDUCATION MINISTER
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agendas. Education reforms still aim at countries are adopting a similar approach
equity goals, and social mobility is to education reforms. But a closer look
mentioned, but not as they were once. shows this is not necessarily the case.
And reforms are, to be correct, also What actually happens is that ideas are
based on other points than just borrowed from one education system then
economic arguments. If I, or better still, applied to another as though the culture,
you, examine education policies in people, teachers and pupils were all
randomly selected countries, we would interchangeable. A friend who served as a
both readily note a change in how the deputy education minister once told me
need for education reform is expressed. that rather than carefully selecting the most
appropriate blueprint for reform, his
So if education policy themes are common ministry seemed to be suffering from a kind
to many countries across the world, is this of policy epidemic.
the result of a process of mutual learning? I
would suggest a different metaphor to Although this may seem distasteful, there
explain the global transfer of education may be similarities between how education
policies. But first, let me explain why I think policies and diseases spread.
learning is difficult for governments, and Epidemiology uses three terms – the
even more so, dare I say, for individual agent, the host and the environment – to
ministries as they suffer from specific describe how severe infections move from
problems that often prevent them from place to place. People become ill as a
learning from others. result of interactions between all three. Not
everyone gets infected, even though they
You, and certainly your advisors and may have been in the same place as
technical experts, have access to global someone who actually caught the disease,
education data and to some of the most because some people have more
brilliant researchers on education. You also resistance to the same agent than others.
interact with other ministers and their
advisors and researchers. But at the end of Just for the sake of interest, may I invite
the day, you are dealing with political you to consider how the global education
issues, since most education reform is all reform movement (or germ) behaves like a
about politics. Technical rationality and germ in an epidemic. Just like diseases,
problem solving – familiar to anyone who education policy ideas spread quickly
works in public administration – rather than around the world but whether they “infect”
posing problems take up the time of most governments or not depends on the needs
ministers and their staff. However genuine for reform and the level of awareness of
learning thrives on the exchange of ideas, the education expert communities in each
innovation and opportunities for reflection. country. Several governments may be
A second problem is that access to infected by the same germ, but the severity
superficial information and ideas through of the infection will vary greatly.
the media and the internet often acts as a
substitute for real learning. I would like to offer you two moral
imperatives you may find useful in your
The way education policies emerge around work and these are prevention and repair.
the world, I have concluded, is not best What I mean may become clearer if you
described as a process of mutual learning. think about these two words in the context
In your statement of intentions as of an epidemic. When you are worried
education minister, you suggest that the about your child’s health in the midst of a
work of your predecessors with the dangerous flu epidemic, the first thing you
international education community, think about is how to prevent him or her
especially with foreign consultants, has not becoming infected. Only if the worst
always helped your fellow citizens happens do you look for a cure, namely the
understand the fundamental problems repair. Simple enough. But I dare say that
facing education. Indeed, they may even up to now, education policies in both your
have triggered new ones, as you claim. country and mine have concentrated much
Seen from afar it can look as if many more on repairing than prevention. With
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12. LETTER TO A NEW EDUCATION MINISTER
health care reforms, in contrast, the idea of But there is another, even better, strategy –
prevention has long been seen as a becoming a serious leader in education,
cheaper and more effective alternative to someone who can show the way and install
the cure. I feel sure you will agree with me an authentic passion for getting involved in
on this. education reform in your citizens. You may
wonder – how do I go about energising
What you need to know as you move the public thinking on education to strengthen
emphasis from repairing to prevention in its “resistance to infection” by policy ideas
education reform is that prevention has two that may be popular but are not effective?
separate but interconnected strands. First, What I am suggesting, to be sure, is not
education policies must effectively prevent easy. However, encouraging participation
your schools, teachers and students from by your citizens can only make your
getting into serious trouble, such as education system stronger and more
students dropping out due to lack of responsive.
motivation or good teachers leaving their
jobs due to poor working conditions. I also encourage you to engage in mutual
Second, you must be sceptical and learning with your colleagues in other
question the policy ideas and information countries. As you have stated many times,
that the global education reform movement there is no point in blindly copying policies
will bring to you and your staff. The best and ideas from other education systems.
preventive strategy, in my modest opinion, The less your education policy changes
is ensuring that your best technical resemble an epidemic and the more they
education experts available are constantly are the result of mutual learning, the closer
advising you and collaborating with you – you will be to the goals you have set
and, of course, that you carefully listen to yourself.
their suggestions.
In his famous speech “Beyond Vietnam: a
The aim of this letter is to wish you good time to break silence” delivered at
luck in this important mission. It is also to Riverside Church, New York City, in April
provide some ideas on how to be well 1967 Martin Luther King Jr. said, “a time
equipped to receive, process and act upon comes when silence is betrayal”. But all too
the flood of education policy advice that will often those who speak truth to power come
reach you through many channels. You to regret it. The way I see it, time is now.
may view policy development and With these thoughts, let me wish you good
education reform in your country through luck once more and assure you that I will
an epidemiologist’s eyes; an awareness of be following your leadership in education
the role of agents, hosts and environments with great interest.
related to improving the performance of
your education system. Another strategy Yours faithfully,
might be to work like a medical doctor who
diagnoses already-occurring illnesses and Pasi Sahlberg
set about to cure them. Education reformer
123
AFTERWORD
Peter Greenwood
This book closes a cycle of reflection and vocational education and training to
development on the concept of policy developments in the general and higher
learning which began in 2003 and which education as well.
has been a consistent focus for our work
since then. The conclusions and lessons in The new mandate is also likely to confirm
this book and the commentary from the that the ETF should support its partner
international experts in Part 2 are countries principally by:
particularly timely as they coincide with the
initiative taken by the European Union 1. providing information, policy analysis
institutions to amend the ETF’s mandate. and advice on human capital
Through this process, our remit is expected development issues and their links with
to evolve from the current exclusive focus sector policy objectives in partner
on vocational education and training (VET) countries;
to the more encompassing concept of 2. supporting relevant stakeholders in
human capital development in a lifelong partner countries to build capacity in
learning context. human capital development;
3. facilitating the exchange of information
In practice, the broader mandate and experience among donors engaged
recognises that VET should not be in human capital development reform in
considered in isolation from other partner countries;
sub-sectors of education and the labour 4. supporting the delivery of Community
market. This change in perspective is assistance to partner countries in the
expected to have a significant impact on field of human capital development;
the policy dialogue which the ETF holds 5. disseminating information and
with its partner countries. From an encourage networking and exchanges
exclusive focus on the specificities of the of experience and good practice
VET sub-system, over the next three to between the EU and partner countries
four years, the ETF’s support to partner and amongst partner countries on
countries will increasingly link reform in human capital development issues;
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ETF YEARBOOK 2008 POLICY LEARNING IN ACTION
This book contains lessons for the ETF’s A number of practical steps in the
primary function of policy analysis and preceding chapters are suggested: one
support. Although the chapters in this proposal calls for measures to enhance the
book do not provide a common definition impact of peer learning on the national
of the term ‘policy learning’, the reform process – appealing for
contributors are unanimous in advocating consideration not only of policy design, but
that the fundamental approach to policy also of policy implementation. Similarly, it is
support which gives the partner country important to avoid normative approaches to
policy community the lead role goes in policy learning that would lead to identical
the right direction. While frustratingly policy development procedures in different
hard to measure and evaluate, a policy countries. These lessons provide a
learning approach is essential for the stronger framework for our future work.
ownership of the process and the
relevance of the final product, as This book is both a timely and useful
emphasised by many authors in this source of learning for us and our partner
book. Alternative approaches based on countries and together we will apply its
short term policy borrowing – even of lessons in the years to come.
recognised EU policy frameworks – are
seen as counter-productive with a high Peter Greenwood
risk of failure. Head of Operations, ETF
126
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