Sedimentary cycles: these cycles involve the transportation of

matter through the ground to water; that is to say from the lithosphere to the
hydrosphere. Common examples of cycles under the sedimentary category
are:

Phosphorus cycle: Phosphorus is commonly found in water, soil and

sediments. Phosphorus cannot be found in air in the gaseous state. This is
because phosphorus is usually a liquid at standard temperatures and
pressures. Phosphorus is mainly cycled trough water, soil and sediments.
However, very small particles in the atmosphere may contain phosphorus or
its compounds. Phosphorus moves slowly from deposits on land and in
sediments, to living organisms, and much more slowly back into the soil and
water sediment. The phosphorus cycle is the slowest one of the sedimentary
cycles.

Sulphur cycle: Sulphur in its natural form is a solid, and restricted to

the sedimentary cycle in this form. It is transported by physical processes
like wind, erosion by water, and geological events like volcanic eruptions.
However, in its compounds such as sulphur dioxide, sulphuric acid, salts of
sulphate or organic sulphur, sulphur can be moved from the ocean to the
atmosphere, to land and then to the ocean through rainfall and rivers.

Gaseous cycles: these involve the transportation of matter through

the atmosphere. Common example of gaseous cycles are:

Carbon cycle: Carbon is one of the most important elements that

sustain life on earth. Carbon dioxideand methane gases (compounds of
carbon) in the earth's atmosphere has a substantial effect on earth's heat
balance. It absorbs infrared radiation and hence may contribute to global
warming and climate change.

Nitrogen cycle: Nitrogen gas is the most abundant element in the

atmosphere and all the nitrogen found in terrestrial ecosystems originate
from the atmosphere. The nitrogen cycle is by far the most important
nutrient cycle for plant life.

Oxygen cycle: The oxygen cycle describes the movement of oxygen

within and between its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere, the biosphere,
and the lithosphere. The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle
is photosynthesis and because of this, oxygen and carbon cycles are usually
linked and the two cycles are collectively called oxygen-carbon cycle.

Hydrological cycle: This is some times called the water cycle. Water
is the most important chemical of life for all living organisms on earth. Water
in the atmosphere is usually in form of vapor but condenses to liquid water
and can solidify when temperatures are 00C to form ice. Ninety three percent
of water on earth is in solid state mainly comprising the ice caps
and glaciers of Polar Regions.

Table of Electrical Symbols

Symbol

Component name

Meaning

Wire Symbols
Electrical Wire

Conductor of electrical current

Connected Wires

Connected crossing

Not Connected Wires

Wires are not connected

Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols

SPST Toggle Switch

Disconnects current when open

SPDT Toggle Switch

Selects between two connections

Pushbutton Switch (N.O)

Momentary switch - normally open

Pushbutton Switch (N.C)

Momentary switch - normally closed

DIP Switch

DIP switch is used for onboard configuration

SPST Relay
Relay open / close connection by an electromagnet
SPDT Relay

Jumper

Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.

Solder Bridge

Solder to close connection

Ground Symbols
Earth Ground

Used for zero potential reference and electrical shock

protection.

Chassis Ground

Connected to the chassis of the circuit

Digital / Common Ground

Resistor Symbols
Resistor (IEEE)
Resistor reduces the current flow.
Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.
Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.
Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEC)

Trimmer Resistor

Preset resistor

Thermistor

Thermal resistor - change resistance when temperature

changes

Photoresistor / Light dependent

resistor (LDR)

Photo-resistor - change resistance with light intensity

change

Capacitor Symbols
Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as
short circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.
Capacitor

Polarized Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor

Polarized Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor

Variable Capacitor

Adjustable capacitance

Inductor / Coil Symbols

Inductor

Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field

Iron Core Inductor

Includes iron

Variable Inductor

Power Supply Symbols

Voltage Source

Generates constant voltage

Current Source

Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source

AC voltage source

Generator

Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical rotation of

the generator

Battery Cell

Generates constant voltage

Battery

Generates constant voltage

Controlled Voltage Source

Generates voltage as a function of voltage or current of

other circuit element.

Controlled Current Source

Generates current as a function of voltage or current of

other circuit element.

Meter Symbols
Voltmeter

Measures voltage. Has very high resistance. Connected

in parallel.

Ammeter

Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance.

Connected serially.

Ohmmeter

Measures resistance

Wattmeter

Measures electric power

Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols

Lamp / light bulb

Lamp / light bulb

Generates light when current flows through

Lamp / light bulb

Diode / LED Symbols

Diode

Diode allows current flow in one direction only - left

(anode) to right (cathode).

Zener Diode

Allows current flow in one direction, but also can flow in

the reverse direction when above breakdown voltage

Schottky Diode

Schottky diode is a diode with low voltage drop

Varactor / Varicap Diode

Variable capacitance diode

Tunnel Diode

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED emits light when current flows through

Photodiode

Photodiode allows current flow when exposed to light

Transistor Symbols
NPN Bipolar Transistor

Allows current flow when high potential at base (middle)

PNP Bipolar Transistor

Allows current flow when low potential at base (middle)

Darlington Transistor

Made from 2 bipolar transistors. Has total gain of the

product of each gain.

JFET-N Transistor

N-channel field effect transistor

JFET-P Transistor

P-channel field effect transistor

NMOS Transistor

N-channel MOSFET transistor

PMOS Transistor

P-channel MOSFET transistor

Misc. Symbols

Motor

Electric motor

Transformer

Change AC voltage from high to low or low to high.

Electric bell

Rings when activated

Buzzer

Produce buzzing sound

Fuse
The fuse disconnects when current above threshold.
Used to protect circuit from high currents.
Fuse

Bus

Bus

Contains several wires. Usually for data / address.

Bus

Optocoupler / Opto-isolator

Optocoupler isolates connection to other board

Loudspeaker

Converts electrical signal to sound waves

Microphone

Converts sound waves to electrical signal

Operational Amplifier

Amplify input signal

Schmitt Trigger

Operates with hysteresis to reduce noise.

Analog-to-digital converter
(ADC)

Converts analog signal to digital numbers

Digital-to-Analog converter
(DAC)

Converts digital numbers to analog signal

Crystal Oscillator

Used to generate precise frequency clock signal

Antenna Symbols
Antenna / aerial
Transmits & receives radio waves
Antenna / aerial

Dipole Antenna

Two wires simple antenna

Logic Gates Symbols

NOT Gate (Inverter)

Outputs 1 when input is 0

AND Gate

Outputs 1 when both inputs are 1.

NAND Gate

Outputs 0 when both inputs are 1. (NOT + AND)

OR Gate

Outputs 1 when any input is 1.

NOR Gate

Outputs 0 when any input is 1. (NOT + OR)

XOR Gate

Outputs 1 when inputs are different. (Exclusive OR)

D Flip-Flop

Stores one bit of data

Multiplexer / Mux 2 to 1
Connects the output to selected input line.
Multiplexer / Mux 4 to 1

Demultiplexer / Demux 1 to 4

Connects selected output to the input line.

Sample Problems
The answers to each problem follow it in parentheses. They also link to a
solution to
the problem. Try the problem, check your answer, and go to the solution if
you do not
understand.

1.
A radio is designed to take in 2 A when connected to a 10-V source. What is its net
resistance?
( 5 ohms)

2.
A spotlight has a resistance of 20 ohms and requires 32 A of current to function.
What amount of voltage does the light need to be plugged into?
(640-V)

3.
What charge has passed through a wire with 4 ohms of resistance if it is attached to a
3-V battery for 2 minutes?
(90 C)

4.
A blender draws 6 A at 90-V. What current would it receive if the voltage suddenly
dropped 25%?
(4.5 A)

5.
An electrical device is attached to a 200-V source and has a resistance of 16 ohms.
How many electrons are leaving the electrical device per hour?
(2.8125 * 10^23 electrons) Go back to: Table of Contents

6.4.0 * 10^12 electrons flow through a wire that has a resistance of 14 ohms and is
attached to a 35-V source. Hwo long has the wire bveen attached to the electrical
source?
(256 s)

Solutions to Sample Problems

1.
A radio is designed to take in 2 A when connected to a 10-V source. What is its net
resistance?
Solution:
V=IR
R= V/I= 10-V/ 2 A= 5 ohms
Go to: ProblemFormulas Table of Contents

2.
A spotlight has a resistance of 20 ohms and requires 32 A of current to function.
What amount of voltage does the light need to be plugged into?
Solution:
V=IR
V= 20 A * 30 ohms = 640-V Go to: ProblemFormulasTable of Contents

3.

What charge has passed through a wire with 4 ohms of resistance if it is attached to a
3-V battery for 2 minutes?
Solution:
I=V/R
I= 3-V / 4 ohms = .75 A
I= dQ/dt
.75 A = dQ / (2 minutes * 60 sec/min)
dQ = 90 C
Go to: Problem FormulasTable of Contents

4.
A blender draws 6 A at 90-V. What current would it receive if the voltage suddenly
dropped 25%?
Solution:
R=V/I
R= 90 / 6 = 15 ohms
75% * 90-V = 67.5-V
I= V/R
I= 67.5-V/ 15 ohms = 4.5 A
Go to: ProblemFormulas Table of Contents

5.
An electrical device is attached to a 200-V source and has a resistance of 16 ohms.
How many electrons are leaving the electrical device per hour?
Solution:
I=V/R
I= 200-V / 16 ohms = 12.5 A
I= dQ/dt
12.5 A = dQ / (60 min/hr * 60 sec/min)
dQ = 45000 C
charge on one electron is 1.6 * 10^-19 C
45000 C / (1.6 * 10^-19 C) = 2.8125 * 10^23 electrons Go
to: ProblemFormulas Table of Contents

6.
4.0 * 10^12 electrons flow through a wire that has a resistance of 14 ohms and is
attached to a 35-V source. Hwo long has the wire bveen attached to the electrical
source?
Solution:
I=V/R
I= 35-V / 14 ohms = 2.5 A
I = dQ/dt
dQ= 4.0 * 10^21 electrons * 1.6 * 10^-19 C/electron = 640 C
2.5 A = 640 C / dt
dt = 256 s