Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 415e420

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Advanced brake state model and aerodynamic post-stall model for horizontal axis
wind turbines
R. Lanzafame, M. Messina*
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria, 6, 95125 Catania, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 20 December 2011
Accepted 30 June 2012
Available online 4 August 2012

In scientic literature, when the aerodynamic design of a horizontal axis wind turbine is discussed,
different brake state models are presented. The brake state models are implemented within a BEM code
which is a 1-D numerical code, based on Glauert propeller theory, and able to predict HAWT performance. This code provides reliable results only if a proper brake state model and aerodynamic post-stall
model are implemented.
In this research, the authors have produced a numerical code based on BEM theory in conjunction with
an aerodynamic post-stall model, indispensable for taking into account radial ow along the wind
turbine blades (Himmelskamp Effect), and the brake state models by Buhl, combined with the calculation
of Jonkmans tangential induction factor.
In scientic literature, Shens brake state model is commonly implemented within 1-D numerical
codes, based on BEM theory. Subsequently, a comparison with Shens brake state models was carried out.
With the numerical code presented in this work, the power for an NREL wind rotor was predicted. With
the numerical simulation, it was possible to notice when these different brake state model furnish results
close to experimental data.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
BEM theory
Centrifugal pumping
Brake state model
NREL wind rotor

1. Introduction
The numerical codes based on BEM theory are powerful tools for
the design and performance evaluation of HAWT. BEM theory is
based on Glauert propeller theory [1] modied for wind turbines.
Today, many researchers are developing numerical codes based on
BEM theory [2e11]. Industry also utilizes these numerical codes to
design HAWT. These numerical codes are 1-D codes and produce
reliable results provided certain criticalities are resolved. These
criticalities regard the correct representation of lift and drag coefcients at high values of angle of attack, the implementation of
a post-stall model (to take into account radial ow along the
blades) and the implementation of a brake state model (to correctly
determine axial and tangential induction factors) [12e17].
This paper compares two different (the most accredited) brake
state models to evaluate the performance of a HAWT. The two brake

Abbreviations: BEM, Blade Element Momentum; HAWT, horizontal axis wind

turbine; NREL, National Renewable Energy Laboratory; BSM, brake state model; 1D, One-dimensional; 2-D, Two-dimensional.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mmessina@diim.unict.it (M. Messina).
0960-1481/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.06.062

state models are Shens [18,19] and Buhls [20,21] (here Buhls
model is combined with Jonkmans equation to determine the
tangential induction factor).
First, a numerical code based on BEM theory [13] was developed, and a post-stall model [13,17] was implemented within the
numerical code. Next, the two brake state models were compared,
predicting the power curves for the NREL wind rotor [22]. In
scientic literature [29], experimental measurements are reported
for this wind turbine rotor. Finally, a comparison between the
simulated and experimental power curves is performed.

2. BEM theory, post-stall model and brake state model

The numerical code, developed in [13] is a 1-D code for the
design of a horizontal axis wind turbine. It has very fast computational times and provides great accuracy compared with experimental data. This code is based on Blade Element Momentum
(BEM) theory, and can be implemented to design a wind rotor, and/
or evaluate its performance.
BEM theory based numerical codes subdivide the wind turbine
rotor into annuli of dr thickness, the ow of each sector being
independent of adjacent circular sector ows [17,23]. Applying the
equations of momentum and angular momentum conservation, for

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R. Lanzafame, M. Messina / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 415e420

Nomenclature

dR
dN
dT
c

rotor area [m2]

Reynolds number [e]
angle of attack [ ]
incoming ow direction angle [ ]
angular velocity [s1]
axial induction factor [-]
tangential induction factor [e]
local blade radius [m]
wind velocity far upstream [m/s]
relative airfoil velocity [m/s]
lift [N]
drag [N]

A
Re

a
f
u
a
a0
r
V0
V1
dL
dD

r
CL
CD
CLmax
Nb
F
CN

lr

C
P

each innitesimal dr sector of the blade, the axial force and torque
can be dened (Eqs. (1) and (2)).
The axial force on the blade element of width dr is:

r V02 1  a2
Nb CL cos f CD sin f c dr
2 sin2 f

dN

(1)

The torque on the blade element of width dr is:

r V0 1  a u r 1 a0
,
Nb CL sin f  CD cos f c rdr
cos f
2 sin f

dC

(2)
Fig. 1 shows the axial and tangential forces (dN and dT) for an
annulus of width dr.
From Eq. (2) wind rotor power can be evaluated, as reported in
Eq. (3).

Z
P

u dT

(3)

while the power coefcient is given by Eq. (4)

cp

P
1
rAV03
2

resultant force from lift and drag [N]

normal rotor force [N]
tangential rotor force [N]
airfoil chord [m]
air density [kg/m3]
airfoil lift coefcient [e]
airfoil drag coefcient [e]
CL at a 45 .
number of blades [e]
tip loss factor [e]
normal force coefcient [e]
local tip speed ratio [e]
torque [Nm]
mechanical power [W]

The curve t can be applied to any airfoil in the same aerodynamic region (the fully stalled one), because in this region the
benets due to radial ow are greater [33].
To increase CL distribution in the fully stalled region, a new
approach was implemented. As shown in Fig. 2, a fth-order logP
i
arithmic polynomial CL
i fcosti *lna g was adopted for the


attached ow region (2  a  18 ), while for the dynamic stall
region (18  a  90 ) the function CL 2CLmax*sin(a)*cos(a) was
adopted. This last function intersects the logarithmic polynomial
curve at about 1/2e1/3 of its descendent part. This method
furnishes the correct amount of increase in CL in the fully stalled
region, and permits the 1-D numerical code, to take into account
radial ow along the blades.
Analogously to lift coefcient, two different mathematical
functions have been implemented to describe the drag coefcient.
P
i
A fth-order logarithmic polynomial CD
i fcosti *lna g

was adopted for the attached ow region (2  a  18 ), while for
the dynamic stall region (18  a  90 ) the function CD CDmax
*sin2(a) was adopted. The cos ti, in the CD logarithmic polynomial,
have been evaluated through the least squares method, starting
from the CD experimental data [21]. Also the CDmax has been obtained from CD experimental data.

(4)

2.1. Post-stall model

Knowing the lift and drag coefcients (CL and CD) is crucially
important for assessing the forces and torques according to Eqs. (1)
and (2).
A problem which might cause numerical instability is linked to
the mathematical description of the airfoil lift coefcient. The
airfoils experimental data is 2-D and taken from wind tunnel
measurements. Furthermore, due to rotation, the boundary layer is
subjected to Coriolis and centrifugal forces which alter the 2-D
airfoil characteristics. This is especially pronounced in stall. It is
thus often necessary to extrapolate existing airfoil data into deep
stall and include the effect of rotation [24e28].
Owing to radial ow along the turbine blades, mathematical
equations describing lift coefcient have to overestimate experimental CL values within a precise range of the angle of attack.
Centrifugal pumping is a phenomenon which describes radial air
ow along blades [29,30]. This ow slows the ow detaching from
the airfoil, causing an increase in airfoil lift.
To take into account radial ow along a rotating blade in
scientic literature, many authors modify the CL distribution
[29,31,32].

Fig. 1. Forces acting on the airfoil.

R. Lanzafame, M. Messina / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 415e420

417

Fig. 2. Graphic visualization of the post-stall model.

!
s
4
1 2 a1  a  1

2.2. Brake state model

1
a
2
0

1
4Fsin2 f
cNb
C cosf CD sinf
2pr L

(5)
1

while for a  0.4 [20]:

18F  20  3

p
CN 50  36F 12F3F  4
36F  50

(7)

lr

where F is the Prandtl tip loss factor, as reported in [29,31].

The proposed post-stall model, in conjunction with the brake
state model, has been validate through the comparison between
the simulated and experimental data on the mechanical power for
the NREL wind turbine (see Fig. 3). The results of the numerical
code proposed in this work (including the post-stall model
described in Subsection 2.1, and the brake state model described in
Subsection 2.2), are very close to experimental data.
3. Comparison between experimental and simulated data
The numerical code produced by the authors, is implemented to
predict the power curve of the NREL wind rotor [22]. The radius of

NREL wind rotor

14
12

Mechanical Power [kW]

A brake state model is a set of mathematical equations implemented within a 1-D numerical code, based on the Blade Element
Momentum theory, to design and evaluate the performance of
horizontal axis wind turbines.
The brake state model implements different mathematical
expressions to evaluate the tangential (a0 ) and axial (a) induction
factors. In the numerical code presented in this paper, Eqs. (5)e(7)
were implemented [13].
The numerical stability of the mathematical code depends on
tangential (a0 ) and axial (a) induction factors. Before selecting these
mathematical expressions, many simulations have been carried
out, implementing different mathematical expressions for the
tangential and axial induction factors. In all the simulations the
results were not good as those presented in this paper (see Fig. 3),
and in some cases, the numerical code does not converge to the
solution, but diverges to an innite loop of calculations.
In Eqs. (5) and (6) the two mathematical expressions implemented in this code for the evaluation of the axial induction factor
are reported:
for a < 0.4:

10
8
6
Experimental data

Simulated data

(6)

In Eq. (7) the mathematical expression implemented in this

code for the evaluation of the tangential induction factor is reported [21]:

0
0

10

15

20

25

Wind Speed [m/s]

Fig. 3. Experimental mechanical power for the NREL wind turbine.

30

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R. Lanzafame, M. Messina / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 415e420

the rotor is 5.03 m and rotates at 72 r/min. The blade section is the
S809 airfoil. The experiments were carried out in the worlds
biggest wind tunnel at NASA Ames.
The rotor blades are twisted and tapered. Power control is
passive and occurs by deep stalling a section of the wind turbine
blades. One method to maintain almost constant the wind turbine
power, while the wind speed varies, is that to design the blades so
that they work in the deep stall region, and power production is
limited by these aerodynamic conditions (see Fig. 3, for the wind
speed varying from 10 m/s to 20 m/s).
Experimental measurements of power as wind speed varies
were taken from scientic literature [29].
In Fig. 3 the comparison between the experimental and simulated data is shown. It is possible to notice how the 1-D numerical
code proposed in this work (with the post-stall model, and the
brake state model described in Subsections 2.1 and 2.2) furnishes
reliable results.
4. Numerical simulation and comparison of brake state
models

Fig. 4. Buhls brake state model.

The combined JonkmaneBuhl [20,21] brake state model is

implemented within the numerical code developed by the authors
(see Eqs. (5)e(7)), and is compared with Shens brake state model
[18,19].
Shens brake state model is represented by Eqs. (8)e(14).
For a  1/3

1

p
1  CN
2F

(8)

while for a  1/3

2 Y1 

a0

q
4Y1 1  F Y12

21 FY1
1
1  aFY2
1
1a

(9)

(10)

with

Y1

4Fsin2 f
sF1 CN

(11)

Y2

4Fsinfcosf
sF1 CT

(12)

F1




N R  r
cos1 exp  g b
p
2rsinf

(13)

g exp  0:125Nb lr  21 0:1

(14)

Figs. (4) and (5) show the brake state models.

In [34], Glauert reported the experimental results showing that
the trust coefcient equation CN 4a(1  a) is not valid if the axial
induction factor exceeds 0.4. Glauert [34] gave a correction for
determining the axial induction factor, when a > 0.4, valid only for
F 1. If the losses at the tip of the blade are taken into account
(F < 1), the correction proposed by Buhl [20] must be considered
and implemented. Fig. 4 shows Buhls brake state model in
conjunction with experimental data taken from [23].
This correction is needed to eliminate the numerical instability
which occurs when the Glauert correction is implemented in
conjunction with tip losses.

In 2005, Shen et al. [18] proposed a new tip loss correction

model to predict physical behavior close to the tip. The local thrust
coefcient is replaced by a linear relation when the axial induction
value is greater than a critical value (a  1/3). Fig. 5 shows Shens
brake state model in conjunction with experimental data taken
from [23].
Implementing the numerical code, the BEM computation is
carried out using 20 blade elements distributed uniformly along the
blade. Comparative axial induction factors are rst computed. In
Fig. 6, the axial induction factor is plotted as a function of radius.
The axial induction values are almost identical for the inner part
of the blade but diverge when approaching the tip. This value is
lower than the value obtained with the Glauert model (reported
also in [18]), but greater than the value obtained with Shens brake
state model. A greater a value implies less predicted power.
Fig. 7 shows the predicted power curves for the NREL wind rotor.
It shows the predicted power curve of the simplied Glauert model
[18], the predicted power curve of Shens model [18], and the

Fig. 5. Shens brake state model.

R. Lanzafame, M. Messina / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 415e420

and the brake state models by Buhl combined with Jonkmans

tangential induction factor.
This brake state model was compared with that of Shen et al. to
predict the power curve for an NREL wind rotor for which experimental mechanical power measurements are reported in scientic
literature.
The comparison highlighted two different behaviors for the two
brake state models which in this work better predict the power
curves at low and middle wind speeds, whereas Shens works
better at high wind velocities.
The advantages of the developed method are those of a 1-D
numerical code: very little computational weight, the possibility
to effect many simulations in a very little time, the possibility to
evaluate different geometrical congurations of the wind turbine in
order to obtain high power coefcient, maximize the Annual
Energy Production.
The disadvantage of this numerical code is its precision. These
disadvantages can be overcome with a nal 3-D CFD simulation.

1
0.9
Shen et al. [18]
This work

0.8

Glauert [18]

0.7
a [axial induction factor]

419

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.25

0.5

0.75

r/R

References

Fig. 6. Axial induction factor at wind speed 7 m/s.

Shen el al. [18]

18

Experimental [22]

16

Glauert Tip Correction [18]

This work

14

Power [kW]

12
10
8
6

4
2
0

10

15

20

25

30

Wind Speed [m/s]

Fig. 7. Predicted power curves.

predicted power curve obtained with the code developed in this

work. All the predicted power curves are compared with experimental data.
Notice how in Fig. 7, the power predicted in this work is very
close to the experimental data for wind speeds varying from 5 to
20 m/s. For wind speeds greater than 20 m/s, Shens BSM predicts
a better curve.
In future research, a new strategy to implement both the BSMs
presented here, will be taken into account. Each BSM will be
implemented for different wind speed ranges to maximize the
correlation between experimental and simulated data.

5. Conclusions
The authors produced a numerical code based on BEM theory in
conjunction with an aerodynamic post-stall model, indispensable
for taking into account radial ow along the wind turbine blades,

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