Canadian Electrical Association Approved Quality Indices

Presented by Roger Bergeron, Hydro Qubec, Canada (bergeron.roger@ireq.ca)

at the panel session on "Application of Power Quality Indices"
of IEEE summer meeting held on July 16, 1998, in San Diego
Summary
This paper describes an existing PQ protocol and
a global Canadian survey to be realized in 199899.
It identifies 106 PQ factors that are
contained in 25 PQ indices of which the most
significant 11 indices are described for the
coming Canadian survey. Of these 106 PQ
factors, 37 are related to transient disturbances
and 69 to steady state disturbances.

introduced a new concept of electromagnetic

compatibility according to which electrical
equipment should be compatible with the lowest
quality levels on the power system to permit the
user to improve safety, efficiency, compatibility
and interchangeability. On the other hand, each
electricity supply company has to design its
power system in such a way that the voltage at
the point of delivery maintains an appropriate
quality so that no damage or problem upsets the
user.

Introduction
To prolong the service life of their products and
to reduce the possibilities of interference with
any of their products' functions, manufacturers of
electrical equipment recommend that disturbance
levels on the power distribution system be
limited. Many of these recommendations, which
address mainly the users of such equipment,
concern the quality of the power delivered by the
electrical utility.

Recognizing the 1987 European EMC directive

to establish EMC standards and the growing
Canadian need to ensure compatibility between
the use of equipment and the power system, the
Canadian Electrical Association (CEA) and
Hydro-Qubec have taken a proactive role in
standardization and initiated a research project to
establish a measurement protocol for power
quality factors assessment and to define power
quality indices1. Since 1989, CEA and HydroQubec have invested more than CAM$5 in such
efforts which have included the development of
necessary instrumentation to apply the
measurement protocol. The CEA Guide to
Performing Power Quality Surveys comprises
measurement procedures covering 25 adverse
quality indices that encompass 106 adverse
quality factors. This guide includes parameters
from both IEC and IEEE standards.

In the past, users had no help in the determination of the appropriate voltage quality of the
supply for each equipment. Manufacturers'
recommendations were not so well defined and
were mostly limited to long duration variations
(overvoltage and undervoltage). Furthermore,
most users were unaware of these recommendations until problems occurred. Many problems
were solved with patches on the local power
system but several problems remained expensive
and difficult to resolve (capacitor failure,
reduction of useful life of equipment, etc...).
Today, with the globalization of trade, the
appropriate quality of the supply for each
equipment increases in complexity.

) Roger Bergeron, "CEA 220 D 711 Power

Quality Measurement Protocol; CEA Guide to
Performing Power Quality Surveys," Canadian
Electrical Association, Sun Life, 1155 Metcalfe
Building, Suite 1120, Montral, Qubec H3A
2V6, (514) 866 6121 First edition, 1996
1

In light of the globalization of trade, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has
1

A comprehensive cross-Canada survey program

is now foreseen for 1998/99 to gather a precise
picture of Baseline Power Quality in Canada.
This will lead the way towards a Power Quality
Standard to be included in CSA certification.

disturbance takes the form of transients while

other factors are continuously measured and
assessed on each contiguous intervals when the
disturbance type is related to a steady state.
Transients

Benchmark for the Power System

Transient disturbances include short duration

transients, voltage dips (sags) and swells. They
are caused mainly by power system faults,
reclosing, large load variations, etc.
They
originate from random phenomena lasting less
than 60 s which occur during a very small
proportion of the total available time of power
delievery. For transient voltages, the Canadian
Power
Quality
Measurement
Protocol
characterizes 9 quality indices by 37 factors
which are grouped in 6 subsets as follows:

The benchmark procedures allow the assessment

of the performance level of power distribution
system in controlling disturbance levels so as to
deliver an adequate voltage quality to the user.
These procedures measure indirectly the
annoyance level that the voltage disturbances can
produce to the user.
The process for
benchmarking a power system can be composed
in two stages: power quality factor assessments
and power quality index assessments.
The first stage calls for experimental measurements on the distribution system to assess power
quality factors. The quality factor assessments
provide the level of deformation of the voltage
supply that has an active role in upsetting or
damaging the customer's electronic or electrical
equipment. The measurement of these factors
should follow a very rigorous protocol designed
to ensure that all power quality monitors report
the same actual severity level of recorded disturbances.

The appropriate adverse quality factors are then

selected for benchmarking purposes so as to link
the severity assessed with the level of annoyance
sustained by the user. Finally, all disturbing
events are compiled to obtain the quality index.

4 for the EDV index (energy delivered to

varistors)
1 for the VRI index (voltage rise index)
7 for the ITV index (impulsive transient
index)
7 for the MFOT index (medium-frequency
transient index)
7 for the LFOT index (low-frequency
transient index)
11 for the SWELL, DIP, LEDIP (Loss of
energy due to dips IEEE 37.96), EOCB
(Energy-related overvoltage applied to capacitor banks CSA CAN3-C155) with duration
ranging from half cycle to 60 s

Steady state
The steady-state disturbances (rms values) which
are continuously monitored every 0.2-s
(12 cycles), 3-s, 10-min and 2-h synchronized
intervals throughout the entire survey, exclude
transient events and permanent interruptions.
They are characterized by 16 indices covered by
69 quality factors which are grouped in 5 subsets
as follow:

Quality indices in Canada

All 106 adverse "factors" defined in the CEA
Power Quality Measurement Protocol are related
to disturbances expected to affect the electrical or
electronic equipment used by customers. The
combination of these "factors" leads to 25 power
quality "indices" of which 11 were selected for
the next survey in Canada.

The measurement of some factors can be controlled with threshold values when the type of
2

12 for the RMSO and RMSU index (steadystate rms overvoltage and undervoltage)
2 for the voltage crest factor (CF) (most electronic equipment coordination)

than the absolute, confidence interval has been

chosen, since experiments have shown that, in
most cases, the variance increases with the mean
so that absolute confidence is irrelevant for this
application. The relative half-confidence interval
allows the precision requirement to be adjusted
to the mean level. The mathematical expression
used for calculating the half-confidence interval
i of the mean y i of the quality index i is:

2 for flicker P (coordination with human sensitivity to light fluctuations)

48 for 11 indices related to harmonic and
interharmonic distortion
5 for VUI, voltage unbalance index

The above transient and steady state quality indices, obtained by processing all their related factors, recorded at many sites continuously during
a period of one week, can represent the average
number of events per year per customer, that
these adverse quality factors have exceeded the
planning levels at the service entrances.

The general formula can be given as follow:

Indexi

52 Eventi
NT

2 , n 1

n si2

N n

yi

where:
N:

Total number of PCCs of one

group of the population
n:
Number of PCCs measured
Mean of the quality index
i
n
y
i
yi :
assessed at n PCCs i1
n
Variance of the quality index
y nassessed at n PCCs
2
si2 :
yi y

i 1
n 1
t ,n 1 Critical value of level
:
2
(1-) for a distribution t
with n-1 degrees of freedom.
Confidence
level normally
(1-)
chosen at 95% where =0.05
Half of the confidence interval
i:
which represents the percentage of maximum deviation from y i.

Where:
Indexi = Index number "i" or acronym as listed
in Annex 1
Eventi = Number of transient events or measured
intervals related to the index "i" that
exceed the adverse quality planning
level. These events are recorded over
one week at NT sites.
NT =

Total number of site surveyed

The planning levels are the adverse quality-factor

levels used for power system design. They are a
reference for the power quality indices. These
planning level values can, occasionally, be
exceeded. They are intended for coordinating the
compatibility between power systems at different
rated voltages. They are not intended for
compatibility coordination of the end-user's
equipment.

At the present time, it is still difficult to standardize an accuracy level, since accuracy is a
direct function of the survey cost and the utility's
objective. The cost obviously increases with the
accuracy requirements but it may be worthwhile
to pay more in order to avoid a high level of
errors, which could prevent the utility from
achieving its objectives. Considering the cost
involved in a large power quality survey and the
utility's objective in conducting it, a confidence
level of 50% maybe reasonable for an initial

The number of sites, NT , to be surveyed depends

upon the required accuracy of the power quality
indices. The accuracy is calculated in terms of
the relative width, of the half-confidence interval
, of the mean of each quality index related to the
quality factors produced per phenomenon within
the utility's control. Note that the relative, rather
3

assessment of the overall performance which will

require almost 800 sites to be surveyed.

experiments on motors and transformers at

Hydro-Qubec). Canadian utilities have retained
2-min heating time constant to assess the factor
related to overvoltages and undervoltages. This
factor is measured over 10-min intervals
(52 min). CSA CAN3-C235 and ANSI C84.1
are used for defining the planning level.

Rationale for the Quality Indices Selected

A bibliographic review of equipment susceptibility characteristics has led to the development
of a rationale for assessing the quality indices.
This paper aims at explaining these eleven
indices selected in Canada for benchmarking
power systems (see Annex 1).

4 - Short-duration overvoltage (SWELL)

Swells are usually associated with load shedding
or even single line-to-ground fault conditions on
the power system, they result in a temporary
voltage rise on unfaulted phases. The effect of
swells on equipment is related to their duration
and to the extent (%) to which the voltage
exceeds the declared voltage.

1 - Low-frequency oscillatory transient

(LFOT)
The most common oscillatory transient, which
introduces a brief short circuit in the mains, is
driven by switching capacitive loads. This type
of transient is not only the most common one
found on power systems but is also propagated to
all customers so that, in fact, it becomes the most
frequent transient to record and analyze. The
oscillation frequency is typically around 500 Hz
but oscillation can occur at frequencies up to
9 kHz i. The planning level for the low-frequency oscillatory transient voltage ranging from
1 to 10,000 s is based upon the 5-kHz ring
wave defined in IEEE 62.41.

5 - Short-duration undervoltage (DIP)

The undervoltage envelope includes dips (sags,
as they are called in North America) liable to disrupt equipment connected to the power system in
various ways such as:

2&3 - Rms Overvoltage and Undervoltage

(two indices: RMSO and RMSU)

The indices on rms overvoltage and undervoltage

are assessed over intervals equal to the time
needed for equipment to reach its steady-state
temperature, which in practice, is equal to five
times the heating time constant of that
equipment2. The heating time constant, which
varies with the size and nature of the equipment,
has been divided into three classes; 1- highly
sensitive electronic systems with a heating time
constant of less than 600 ms [ii] (usually related
to components on the DC side of power
supplies); 2- varistors and power electronics with
a 2-min heating time constant [iii]; and,
3- electrical apparatus with a heating time
constant
exceeding
24 min
(laboratory

6 - Duration of Short Interruption (DSI)

IEEE 493 reports upon a survey which gives the
maximum time during which a service interruption is considered critical [iv]. Even though only
20% of industrial and commercial customers are
affected by short interruptions lasting less than
1 s, these interruptions are most troublesome to
these users.
Some customers view short
interruptions of only a few cycles as critical
(interruptions of only 4 to 5 cycles affect PCs, for
example) while others are not concerned about
interruptions lasting up to 12 h. Start-up of a
production line takes an average of 17.4 h, this
explains why many countries attach so much

Key points on
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/1159/1/
2

extinction of discharge lamps malfunction of

regulating devices
speed variation or interruption of motors
failures and computation errors in computers
and measuring instruments
loss of synchronism in synchronous motors
and generators
commutation failures in thyristor bridges
operating in inverter mode.

(see Formation

importance to voltage dip and short interruption

assessment.

Harmonics have been associated with equipment

overheating, failures, malfunctions or downgraded performance of devices as a result of the
moving of the zero crossing of the voltage wave.
IEC 1000-2-1 recognizes that regulating devices,
electronic equipment and computers are all susceptible to harmonics. Fuchs [v] reports that the
presence of harmonics and interharmonics in the
terminal voltage can impair the functioning of
TV sets in two ways: distortion of the image and
overheating of the DC power supply system.
According to the same author [vi], up to 50% of
harmonics should not affect TV sets, but only
overheat the transformers, inductors and capacitors used in the DC power supply. Discussions
with manufacturers reveal that testimonies of
harmonic effects found in many papers and standards are confusing and potentially misleading.
The square wave is considered to be the ideal
voltage supply, particularly for the switching
type of DC supply found in most electronic
equipment today. A square wave exceeds 111%
harmonic distortion factor, which is not expected
to upset electronic equipment as long as the
adequate voltage level supplies the rectifiers. An
aura of mystery surrounds the subject of
harmonic distortion, in part because of the lack
of information on the disruption mechanisms and
robustness of equipment. In 1993, therefore, an
IEEE task force reported on the effects of
harmonics on equipment.
This can be
summarized as follows [vii]:

7 - Flicker (P)
Flicker is the physiological discomfort associated
with the fluctuating luminosity of a lighting system. The light variation is caused by changes in
the voltage level supplied to the lamp. The sensitivity of human visual perception to light
changes varies with the frequency of the
fluctuations of the luminous intensity and
exhibits a band-pass response with a maximum
between 8 and 10 Hz. IEC defines two factors
related to flicker severity; Pst and Plt for the
short term and long term. Flicker severity levels
Pst of 1.0 and Plt of 0.8 are used for the planning
level.
8 -Individual voltage harmonic (IVH)
IEC defines harmonics as sinusoidal voltages or
currents having frequencies that are whole multiples of the frequency at which the supply system
is designed to operate (e.g. 60 Hz).

Long-term effects: In most cases, the longterm effects of harmonics influence circuitbreaker and fuse settings as well as
watthourmeters, and cause conductors (particularly neutral conductors) and power apparatus to overheat.
Zero crossings: Voltage notches or highfrequency harmonics may cross zero and
affect equipment with high sensitivity to zero
crossing such as some electronic relays and
household digital clocks.
Voltage rise: The large U/t of notches
may also falsely trigger thyristors into conducting in power circuits at unsuitable times,
thereby damaging equipment.

Telephone interference: The juxtaposition of

telephone and power lines on utility poles
allows electromagnetic coupling to exist
between the two and causes interference with
telephone communication.

one manufacturer, the AC variable-speed drive is

synchronized with a phase-locked loop designed
for a rate of change of no more than 2/s in the
timing of the zero crossing of the waveform at
the fundamental frequency. Both short circuits
and load transfers on power systems produce
such fast variations in the zero crossing.
IEEE 446-1987 classifies this type of disturbance
as a fast frequency variation. Despite the high
sensitivity of 0.05 Hz/s cited by one
manufacturer, IEEE considers that 1.5 Hz/s
should be used as the reasonable limit. The formula to use over a 12-cycle moving interval is,

Planning levels are defined in IEEE 519 and

IEC 61000-3-6.
Note: Additional zero crossings in the voltage
supply related to harmonics have caused many
problems that have been discussed in different
standards but no limit has ever been standardized. Further research would be needed to
develop an accurate measurement technique that
takes account of equipment susceptibility.

j 12

9 - Distortion factor (DF)

RFF

Standards specify values for the distortion factor,

since this provides an indication of the presence
of harmonics without requiring costly measurement instrumentation. This factor is useful for
quickly identifying the cause of a problem associated with malfunctioning equipment and for
justifying further harmonic analysis. No specific
equipment susceptibility has been associated
with this factor, although IEC 1000-4-7 declares
that the distortion factor, DF, is related to the
thermal stress and additional losses in conductors
such as overhead lines, cables and transformer
windings. Frequency components and phase
angles related to the fundamental are important
factors which are neglected in the assessment of
DF. Additional thermal losses in conductors by
harmonics are caused by the skin effect and the
proximity effect, both of which vary as functions
of frequency. Since the distortion factor has
become a common term used with respect to
power quality, although without justification, it
has nevertheless been considered in the CEA
Guide.

j 1

1 1
p j p j 1
j 12

p
j 1

where: pj = j-th period (s)

The slow frequency variation is also measured
for this index using the frequency assessed with
the average value over each 10-s interval. If
IEEE 446-1987 is used as reference, the planning
level becomes 60 Hz 0,5 Hz with not more than
1.5-Hz/s RFF level during phase shift events.
11 - Voltage Unbalance
One of the distribution system characteristics of
greatest concern to utilities is voltage unbalance,
which is related not only to various practices
commonly employed in the design and operation
of transmission and distribution systems but also
to the customer's facilities. Meanwhile, research
is under way to optimize industrial processes
using electrotechnologies such as fluidized-bed
reactors, induction reboilers, etc. possibly resulting in cyclic single-phase loads of up to
500 kW, thus further emphasizing voltage
unbalance on the power system. The most troublesome effect of long-duration voltage unbalance is the overheating of three-phase motors.
With today's accent on energy efficiency,
designers of industrial plants are therefore

10 - Rate of Change of Fundamental

Frequency Occurring in a 12 cycle (RFF)
IEEE 446-1987 reports that some peripherals are
sensitive to the rate of change of the fundamental
frequency caused by phase shift. According to
6

making extra efforts to calculate accurately

motor loads and to match them as closely as possible to the motor nameplate ratings. The result
is that motors are less able to handle the higher
operating temperatures caused by long-duration
voltage unbalance. IEC 61000-2-2 can be used
as reference for a planning level of 2% voltage
unbalance.
Conclusion
The 1996 CEA 220 D 711 Power quality
Measurement Protocol document will be
employed for the 1998/99 measurement program.
Because the 25 indices of this CEA protocol are
not uniformly significant, a benchmark selection
of the 11 most significant indices (Annex 1) will
be monitored at each of at least 768 test sites on
which data will be compiled for at least one continuous week as specified in the protocol. CEA
has already developed the Benchmarking
Protocol and the Reporting Format for the
purposes of the scheduled survey.

Annex 1
CANADIAN BENCHMARKING PROTOCOL OF ELEVEN INDICES
(THESE 11 INDICES WERE SELECTED AMONGST 25 POSSIBLE INDICES IDENTIFIED BY THE CEA POWER
QUALITY MEASUREMENT PROTOCOL TO BE THE ONES THAT WILL BE MEASURED IN A FIRST GLOBAL
CANADIAN 1998-99 POWER QUALITY SURVEY)
(This document is to be used along with the CEA 220D 711 Power Quality Measurement Protocol)
For more information regarding the Canadian survey, please contact
Guy St-Jean, CEA Power Quality Interest Group Technology Coordinator, 514 990 0470 or quantech@total.net
The CEA Power Quality Measurement Protocol document CEA 220 D 711 dated March 1996 describes the following 25 Power
Quality Indices that are defined by 106 Power Quality Factors. Among the 25 Power Quality Indices 11 were selected for the
global Canadian Survey and are shaded in this Table
indices

1
2
3
4
5
hq
6
hq
7
hq
8
hq
9
hq
10

Description
EDV Energy to Varistors (130 to300V) (4 Factors)

indices

VRT Voltage rise index

V (0,5s 5s) (<(2pu+0.5pu/s)
(1 Factor)
ITV Impulse transient voltage index
V (1,0s,-,- 5ms)
(7 Factors)
MFOT Medium-freq overvoltage transient indx
Med. Freq. V (1,0s,-,- 5ms)
(7 Factors)
LFOT Low freq overvoltage transient
Low Freq. V(1,0s,-,- 5ms)
(7 Factors)
RMSU RMS undervoltage envelope
RMS V (3s,2min,24min,2h) (6 Factors)
RMSO RMS overvoltage envelope
RMS V (3s,2min,24min,2h) (6 Factors)
SWELL Momentary of rms V. above norm.
RMS V (20%,40%,80%)
(4 Factors)
DIP Momentary of rms V. above norm.
RMS V (15%,30%,60%,99%)
(5 Factors)
LEDIP Loss of energy during dip to motors
EMotors
(1 Factors)
EOCB Energy related OV applied to capacitor
E ref. V Cap
(1 Factor)
CF Crest factor
^V/V
(2 Factor)
Flicker (10min,2h)
(2Factors)

15
hq
16

14

17
18
19
hq
20
21
22
23

Description
PIHI Partial interharmonic index
Int. Harm Indx (3s,2min,10min)
(4 Factors)
IVHI Individual voltage harmonic index
V Harm Indx (3s,2min,10mn,24mn)(6 Factors)
DIind Weighted distort. Index for reactors
Distort.Idx XL(3s,2min,10mn,24mn)(6 Factrs)
Dicap Weighted distort. Index for capacitors
Distort.Idx Cap(3s,2min,10mn,24mn)(6 Factrs)
DItran Weighted distort. Index for transformr
Dist.Indx Tfo(3s,2min,10mn,24mn) (4 Factrs)
DI Distortion index
Dist.Indx (2min,10mn,24mn,cont)
(6 Factors)
VTHDI Total Harm Distortion Indx
(3s,2min,10mn,24mn,continuous)
(5 Factors)
NDI Notch depth index
Notch Indx (3s,2min,10mn)
(4 Factors)
NAI Notch Area Indx
(3s,2min,10mn)
(4 Factors)
ITI Tel. Interference. Index

(2 Factors)
RFFI Rate of change of fundamental freq.
Rate 60Hz Index
(1 Factors)
12
VUI Voltage unbalance index. UIE guide
(3s,2min,10mn,24mn,2h)
(5 Factors)
13
DSI Duration of short interruptions. This index was
hq
included in the votlage DIP index in the the original
CEA measurement protocol but has been separated
for the benchmark purpose
The 11 shaded Power Quality Indices used for the Major Canadian Survey also correspond to indices that Hydro
Qubec (hq) is foreseeing to suggest as Quality levels to its customers.
11

24
hq
25
hq
9
hq

DEFINITIONS:
Quality Factor:- Level of deformation of the voltage supply that has an active role in upsetting or damaging the customers
electronic or electrical equipment.
Quality index:- Ratio of total number of transient events or measured intervals per year, per customer in the survey, that the
related Quality Factors exceeded the established planning levels.
Service entrance:- Point of common coupling where the utilitys distribution system is connected to the end-users building
or the plants electrical distribution system.
Low Frequency Transients: - Transients with a primary frequency component below 9 kHz; having durations of milliseconds
Medium Frequency transients:- Transients with a primary frequency component above 9 kHz; having durations of
microseconds (n s).

References

IEC, "Environment Section 3: Description of the environment-radiated and non-networkfrequency-related conducted phenomena," IEC1000-2-3 1992-09.

ii

SSDI Solid State Devices Inc., Power News, June/July 1993.

iii

Franois D. Martzloff, Thomas S. Key, Raymond C. Hill, "Characterization of Transient Voltage

Surge Suppressors from a System Compatibility Perspective," PQA92 session C-12, Atlanta,
1992.

iv

IEEE Std, "IEEE Recommended Practice for the Design of Reliable Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems," IEEE Std 493-1990.

E.F. Fuchs, Sensitivity of Home Appliances to Harmonics, and Fractional Harmonics of the
Power System's Voltage Part II: Television Sets, Induction Watthour Meters and Universal
Machines," IEEE Winter Power Meeting, 1986, New York.

vi

E.F. Fuchs, Roesler, "Impact of Harmonics and Fractional Harmonics on the operation of Home
Appliances," Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on Electrotechnics, June 14-18,
1982, Copenhagen, pp.591-599.

vii

Wagner, Balda, Griffith and McEachern, "Effects of Harmonics on Equipment," IEEE

Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 8, No. 2, April 1993.