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ORE MICROSCOPY

I. INTRODUCTION

PRINCIPLES OF METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY

Metallographic study is to metallogeny as petrography is to geology. The two


most important aspects of petrography are (i) the identification of the minerals, and (ii)
the interpretation of textures. Similarly, the goal of metallographic (or ore microscopic)
study is to identify the different metallic mineral species, to examine their mutual
relationships and to study their evolution in time and space. Reflected light microscopy is
the standard method for the characterization of ore minerals and hence its role in
economic mineral studies is well established. The recognition and identification of
opaque minerals using their optical properties in reflected light is a skill that takes time to
master. Much mineral identification has now become routine with the ready access to Xray diffraction, scanning electron microscopes, electron microprobes, etc. However,
although these commonly make identification relatively simple, their routine use has
reduced some of the careful optical examination, which included the subtle
characteristics and textures that were used to identify minerals in the past. So, electron
microscopy and microprobe techniques should not be used as a substitute for, rather than
alongside, the polarizing microscope. The study of opaque minerals or synthetic solids in
polished section using the polarizing reflected-light microscope is the most important
technique for the identification and characterization of the opaque phases in a sample and
the textural relationships between them. Since most metalliferous ores are comprised of
opaque minerals, this study has been traditionally known as ore microscopy and has
found its greatest applications in the study of mineral deposits.

It is reported that Berzelius had the idea of polishing a fragment of metallic mineral for
the examination of its texture during the earlier part of the nineteenth century. But, it was
due to Sorby and particularly to Osmond and Henri Le Chatelier, that the technique for
the study of opaque minerals had the opportunity of being recognised everywhere among

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the mineral technologists engaged in efficient working of the metalliferous deposits and
also among the mineralogists interested in academic study of the ore texture and ore
genesis. The first important microscopic study of metallic minerals was carried out by
W.Campbell in 1906, who studied ore samples from Sudbury (Canada). For this, he
merely applied the existing microscopic method used for metals, to ore minerals. This
method was developed by Osmond in 1890 and is known as reflected light microscopy.

II. THE ORE MICROSCOPE

Metallic minerals are generally opaque or strong absorbents in thin section.


Consequently, these are not suitable for study under transmitted light. Therefore, the
polished sections of metallic minerals / opaque minerals must be examined in reflected
light using metallographic microscope. The basic instrument for petrographic
examination of ore minerals or opaque minerals is the ore microscope, which is
similar to a conventional petrographic microscope in the system of lenses, polarizer,
analyzer and various diaphragms. This is also equipped with two nicols permitting
observations in plane polarized light or under crossed nicols. An ore microscope
however, differs from a petrographic one in that it has an incident light source rather than
a substage transmitting one, which allows examination of polished surfaces of opaque
minerals under reflected light. The incident light beam is partly absorbed, partly reflected
by the mineral and passes back through the objective, the prism and ocular, to the
observers eye.

Unlike translucent minerals in transmitted light, many of the optical properties of opaque
minerals in reflected light are perceived to change as the viewing conditions are altered.
In well polished, untarnished sections the perceived surface colour and reflectance of
opaque minerals will depend upon the presence of coloured filters in the light path, the
strength of the illumination, the magnification of the lenses and whether air or oil
immersion techniques are used. Even when these are standardized the apparent optical
properties of a mineral will be partially dependent on those of adjacent minerals. A
mineral, therefore, can appear quite 'different' in different associations and so the most

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effective method of teaching opaque mineral identification is to use mineral associations


rather than mono-mineralic material.

Optical phenomena in reflected light are nevertheless much more complex than in
transmitted light. For example, extinction phenomena under crossed nicols or
pleochroism do not have the same meaning in reflected light as in transmitted light. For
opaque minerals, it is extremely difficult to obtain optical constants such as indices of
refraction, rather reflectance measurements are made in air and in oil immersion. Visual
estimation of reflectance can also be used but this subjective determination is a function
of the quality of polishing, and the influence of surrounding minerals must be taken into
account.
Uses of Reflected light microscopy
Mineralisation is seldom the result of a single process, but involves several processes
whose succession needs to be defined and should eventually be linked to geological
events. Ore microscopic studies not only help in the identification of various ore
minerals, but also in the study of relationships between mineral phases and determination
of their order of crystallisation. Presence of different textures and structures which
provide implicit information on the conditions of their formation can also be observed by
metallographic studies. The importance of study of ore textures is discussed in later
section.
Techniques of Ore Mineragraphic Studies
Most ore specimen is assemblages of several intimately intergrown minerals.
Identification of minerals in is difficult or often impossible in hand specimens and
requires to be studied under microscope for correct identification. The study of textures
and structures of ores is equally important because these features record the conditions
under which the ores have formed, the processes by which the minerals were deposited,
and the order in which they developed. The most important aspect in ore microscopy is
the preparation of polished surface of the specimen. Basically the process of preparation
of polished surface involves trimming, grinding and polishing of the ore specimen. The
first step in ore microscopy is the identification of ore minerals as seen on polished
surfaces under reflected polarised light.

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III. OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF ORE MINERALS


The optical properties of ore minerals determinable in polarized reflected light fall
naturally into two groups:
A. Properties observed without the analyzer:
1. Colour 3. Bireflectance and pleochroism
2. Reflectivity 4. Hardness.
B. Properties observed between crossed nicols:
1. Anisotropism vs. Isotropism 4. Dispersion colours
2. Polarization colours 5. Internal reflections
3. Rotation properties
C. Morphological properties of ore minerals under microscope:
1. Crystal form and habit 4. Twinning
2. Zoning 5. Inclusions
3. Cleavage and parting 6. Intergrowth

A. Properties observed without the analyzer:

Colour: Colour and brightness are functions of transparency. The transparent minerals
appear dark in polished surfaces because they reflect little light. Opaque minerals reflect
greater percentage and therefore appear brighter. The colour of ore mineral under
reflected plane polarised light is an important characteristic and useful property. Only a
few ore minerals are strongly and distinctively coloured (e.g. covellite, bornite, gold
etc.). However, the colours of majority of ore minerals range from pure white to grey,
with intermediate tints. The eye is poor at 'remembering' a particular colour after even a
very short time lag, and hence consecutive comparisons of colour can be made only for
large differences. Colour cannot be distinguished by a name, except in a crude way. For
example pyrrhotite has a characteristic color ('pyrrhotite color') which the observer soon
learns to recognize, but which has been described in the literature as cream, pale
brownish-cream, clear-bronze, pale yellowish-red, and so on. As color is a function of the
character of the human eye, each observer must make his own descriptions of the colors

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of minerals and must not be disconcerted if the pale cream mineral he has just observed
is described as light yellow by someone else. Also with some practice, many of the subtle
colour differences become apparent.
Colour should be observed under a low power objective when Polarizer is
inserted and Analyzer is withdrawn under good illumination condition. The incident field
stop (IFS) and incident aperture diaphragm (IAD) should be wide open. The colour of a
mineral is strongly influenced by the colour of neighbouring crystals ('mutual color
interference'). For example, chalcopyrite by itself has a characteristic and easily
recognizable yellow colour. Inside sphalerite, it appears a very clear yellow, but in
contrast with native gold, it appears a dull greenish yellow. In these circumstances, it
may help to close down the IFS, so that the field of view is essentially monomineralic.
A difference in reflectivity can affect the eye, and where two minerals have a
similar colour but different reflectivity, the one of higher reflectivity appears the clearer
because of its greater brightness. Colour of ore minerals is a function of the index of
refraction (RI) of the immersion medium (the medium comprising the space between the
objective and the surface of the mineral). In general, colour differs when viewed in
different media like air, water, oil etc. Sometimes the colour difference is very striking. It
may be noted that many ore minerals which occupy solid solution fields (for example
ilmenite, sphalerite, pentlandite) will exhibit color variations, even in identically oriented
sections. Occasionally, this leads to an overlapping of the colours of minerals, which
could have been normally distinguished readily. In such cases, the change of colour
produced by immersion in cedar oil is an aid to identification.

Reflectivity: In reflected light, light do not pass through the ore minerals. Thus, there is
no optical path in the specimen and also there is no interference. The properties observed
under reflected light are due to surface reflection, and the most striking of them is the
reflectivity. Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of the intensity of the light reflected by a
mineral to the intensity of the light incident upon it, expressed in percent (R%). This
varies from below 10 to nearly 100% in opaque substances. Reflectance measurements
are performed using photo-electric devices which consist chiefly of a photomultiplier

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tube mounted on the ore microscope with which estimations are made by comparison
with known standards.
The relative reflectivity is judged in comparison with a known mineral. It must be
considered that the visual impression of the reflectivity is influenced markedly by the
effect of contrast to neighbouring crystals with higher or lower reflectivity. In an
environment of highly reflecting crystals, a moderately reflecting crystal appears
oppressed and pale or, conversely, will seem brighter than would correspond to its real
reflectivity. For example, consider a polished specimen of quartzose gangue with
molybdenite (R% - 20.9 - 40.0) and arsenopyrite (R% - 52.0). The molybdenite appears
bright against the gangue, but when there is arsenopyrite in the field, the molybdenite is
so dull that it hardly appears to be the same mineral as before. In such cases, use of the
incident field stop (IFS) may be of assistance in ascertaining relative reflectivity of ore
minerals.
Assuming equally good polish, isometric minerals exhibit constant reflectivity
within a given species - all galena, regardless of the orientation of the crystal with respect
to the plane of the polish, has the same silvery-white appearance in vertically reflected
light. Non-isometric minerals theoretically have different absorption coefficients, hence
different reflectivities, in different optical directions. In a few minerals, such as covellite
and molybdenite, such differences are readily recognizable to the unaided eye, in some
species (e.g. chalcopyrite) difference in reflectivity may not be recognizable regardless of
orientation. The reflectivity of a mineral in air (n-1) is higher than its reflectivity in water
(n-1.333) or immersion oil (n-1.515). It is easy to arrange the minerals in a specimen in
order of increase in reflectance by visual inspection. It is possible with little experience to
estimate the reflectance of unknown phases by comparing with known standards (e.g.
magnetite R% - ~20; galena R% - ~43; pyrite R% - ~55).

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Minerals Distinctly Colored in Reflected Light


Colour

Mineral Phases

Other Observations
Intense pleochroism

Covellite
Blue

Chalcocite, Digenite

Weakly anisotropic

Gold

Very high reflectance

Chalcopyrite

Very weak anisotropy

Millerite, Cubanite

Strong anisotropy

Mackinawite, Valleriite

Strong pleochroism

Bornite

Weak anisotropy

Copper

Very soft, high reflectance

Nickeloan Pyrite, Violarite

Isotropic

Breithauptite

Anisotropic

Yellow

Red-brown to brown

Bireflectance and reflection Pleochroism: The brightness (reflectance) and colour of


ore minerals crystallizing in isometric system remain unchanged in as the stage of the
microscope is rotated through 360. However, most minerals crystallizing in other crystal
systems show changes in reflectance or colour (or both) with rotation of stage. Grains of
differing orientation, when present side by side in a section differ in colour or brightness.
The effects are analogous in appearance to absorption; dichroism and pleochroism shown
by transparent minerals in thin section, and in the literature of ore microscopy are
commonly referred to as reflection pleochroism. Bireflectance is the change in intensity
of the light reflected from a mineral as it is rotated on the microscope stage.

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Reflection pleochroism is the variation in colour of a mineral as the stage is rotated. A


pleochroic mineral by necessity is also bireflectant. These two phenomena are
manifestations of anisotropy in the mineral section. The bireflectance depends on the
difference between the two reflectivities (O and E) whereas the pleochroism depends on
the differences between the dispersions of the two reflectivities. It must be remembered
that for a given mineral, the intensity of the bireflectance varies with the orientation of
the section. The vertical section of a uniaxial mineral (//C) will show the maximum
bireflectance for the mineral in question. For all practical purposes, four degrees of
intensity can be distinguished:
1. Bireflectance strong: graphite, molybdenite, pyrolusite, covellite, marcasite, stibnite
2. Bireflectance medium: ilmenite, pyrrhotite, niccolite, cubanite
3. Bireflectance weak: arsenopyrite, enargite, hematite, loellingite (Best observed by
contrast against neighbouring isotropic crystals)
4. Bireflectance weak to absent: chalcocite, argentite, chalcopyrite
Examples of Reflection Pleochroism

Mineral

Mean Color

Color of R1 (darker)

Color of R2
(lighter)

Covellite

Blue

deep violet blue

bluish-white

Molybdenite

whitish to gray

whitish-gray

white

pyrrhotite

clear brownish

pinkish-brown

brownish-yellow

clear pinkish-brown

bluish-white

pink-brown

clear yellow

yellow
Niccolite

pinkish to brownish
white

Cubanite

bronze-yellow

Bireflectance, like colour, is a function of the index of refraction of the immersion


medium. Generally, the higher the RI of the immersion medium, the higher is the
bireflectance of an ore mineral. Bireflectance is also a function of crystallographic
orientation, and for all anisotropic minerals, there is at least one crystallographic plane,

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sections parallel to which there will be no bireflectance. For example, sections of


hexagonal or tetragonal crystals perpendicular to the c-axis will exhibit no bireflectance.
Thus, observations of bireflectance should be made on several grains of any anisotropic
mineral. When studying a section, it is always desirable to record the strength of the
bireflectance, and also any colour changes for several grains of each bireflectant mineral,
and note the relationships between the positions of maximum and minimum reflectance
with crystal outline, cleavage traces, etc.

Hardness : The term hardness, as used in ore microscopy, refers to a number of


phenomenon. Three types of hardness are particularly important.

1. Polishing hardness
2. Scratch hardness
3. Micro-indentation hardness
It is important to note that these three forms are not entirely equivalent, being the
response to different kinds of deformation or abrasion. The first two can be determined
under microscope by comparing the relative hardness of adjacent phases and can be very
helpful in mineral identification. The third one forms the basis of quantitative hardness
determination and is described under quantitative methods.

Polishing Hardness: This is the resistance of a particular mineral to abrasion during the
polishing process. While polishing, the soft minerals are worn away more easily than the
hard minerals. Thus the harder minerals stand slightly above the surface of softer grains
in the section giving rise to an effect called "polishing relief". In such cases, it is possible
to judge the relative polishing hardness by mere observation of relief.
Polishing hardness can be examined under a standard ore microscope by comparing the
relative hardness (i.e. relief) of adjacent phases and can be very helpful in mineral
identification. The determination involves a simple test using the Kalb light line, a
phenomenon analogous to the Becke line used in transmitted light. The junctions of a
hard and soft grain tend to exhibit slight departure from flatness.

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The procedure is as follows:


1. Focus on a clear boundary between two mineral grains.
2. Close the aperture diaphragm partly.
3. Increase the distance between the objective and the polished section so that the
sample begins to go out of focus as the stage is gradually lowered.
4. Observe the "line" of light which will move from the boundary towards the softer
mineral, provided there is appreciable relief.

Scratch Hardness: Although perfectly polished samples are completely scratch free, in
practice the surface of a polished specimen always has some scratches. The relative
amount of surface scratches and the depth of scratches that cross the grain boundaries
may be used in favourable circumstances to estimate their relative hardness. A scratch
extending across the boundary between two minerals may indicate relative hardness by
being more deeply incised in the softer mineral.

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B. Properties observed under crossed nicols:


Isotropism / Anisotropism and Polarization Colours: Under reflected light with both
the analyzer and polarizer inserted, certain ore grains remain dark in all positions when
the stage is rotated. These are referred to as mono-reflecting or uniradial sections. This is
the characteristic property of all minerals crystallising in isometric minerals irrespective
of their orientation. This property is also shown by the basal sections of uniaxial
minerals. The basal sections of uniaxial minerals can be recognized as because different
grains of the same mineral are bireflecting. Some high reflectivity grains, although
isotropic, may not become completely dark. But, such sections can be recognized as
mono-reflecting because the slight luminosity remains constant on rotation of the stage;
this can be more easily observed if the polarizer is uncrossed very slightly (2 or 30).
Thus, under crossed polars, an isotropic mineral will show one of two kinds of behaviour:

Isotropic minerals with good extinction (i.e. minerals with low to medium reflectivity)
These will remain completely dark through 3600 of rotation. Examples are sphalerite,
magnetic and chromite.
2. Isotropic minerals with poor extinction (i.e. minerals of high reflectivity): These will
be very faintly illuminated, but will not show change in colour or intensity of
illumination through 3600 of rotation. Examples are pyrite and native silver. Precaution
must be kept in mind that all isometric minerals are not fully isotropic.

Under crossed polars, some minerals (i.e. minerals crystallising in systems other
than Isometric system and basal sections of uniaxial minerals) will show a change in
intensity of illumination or colour of illumination, or both, as the stage is rotated. These
are called anisotropic minerals and the observed colours are referred to as polarization
colours and are often highly characteristic and useful in mineral identification. If the
nicols are exactly crossed, then there will be four positions of maximum darkness
('extinction positions'), in a complete 3600 rotation of the stage, exactly at 900 apart
alternating with four positions of maximum illumination lying at about 450 to the
positions of extinctions.

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Examples:
Distinctly anisotropic minerals: pyrrhotite, wolframite and arsenopyrite (These
minerals have distinct positions of extinction on rotation of the stage)
Strongly anisotropic minerals: graphite, covellite, sylvanite and chalcophenite (These
have bright reflection in between the positions of extinction)
Weakly anisotropic minerals: chalcopyrite (These should be viewed very carefully in
strong light). Care must be taken while observing anisotropism, as because reflection
from scratches and rough surfaces in a poorly polished sample may show apparent
anisotropy. For example, a poorly polished pyrite often shows apparent anisotropy which
will disappear if the polish is improved.

Internal Reflections:
Many ore minerals (for example, sphalerite) are sufficiently translucent or transparent so
that incident light can penetrate inside to substantial depths below the surface of the
specimen. If this light is reflected back to the observer through the tube of the microscope
by a cleavage crack, grain boundary, or some other subsurface feature, it will assume the
colour of the mineral in transmitted light. Such light appearing from diffused areas or
patches is known as internal reflections. Both the occurrence of internal reflections and
their colours are of diagnostic value. Thus, malachite has green internal reflections, but
the true surface reflection colour is dark-gray. Cuprite has scarlet red internal reflections,
but the true surface colour is bluish-white. Internal reflections are best seen under crossed
polars, they may also be visible in plane polarized light. After focusing the specimen in
reflected light, turn off the vertically incident light and view the surface in a strong beam
of obliquely incident light. Scratches on the polished surface will appear bright, but if the
focus is lowered slightly, internal reflections may be observed. Non-opaque minerals, for
example, quartz and the feldspars, will also show internal reflections - usually white or
perhaps yellow in the case of biotite.

Most internal reflections are in the range from red to brown to yellow.
Some examples of minerals that exhibit internal reflections are:

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IV

Azurite

Blue

Often visible in air

Cassiterite

Yellow to brown to yellow

Often visible in air

Chromite

Brownish red

Cuprite

Strong red

Often visible in air

Haematite

Blood red

Sometimes visible in air and often in oil

Ilmenite

Very deep brown

Sometimes visible in air and often in oil

Malachite

Green

Often visible in air

Rutile

Yellow to deep red-brown

Often visible in air

Scheelite

White

Often visible in air

Sphalerite

Yellow to reddish-brown

Often visible in air

Wolframite

Deep brown

MORPHOLOGICAL

PROPERTIES

Sometimes visible in air and often in oil

Sometimes visible in air and often in oil

OF

ORE

MINERALS

UNDER

MICROSCOPE
The physical properties of ore minerals observed in polished sections are also of great
assistance in mineral identification, and hence their study is routine in ore microscopy.
The most useful and easily observable physical properties are crystal form and habit,
cleavage and parting, twinning, zoning, inclusions and intergrowths and hardness.
Twinning, deformation structures and zonal growth, which are invisible without analyzer
in many minerals, are often strikingly revealed between crossed nicols as a consequence
of anisotropism.
Crystal Form and Habit: Some ore minerals, particularly the harder ones viz., pyrite,
hematite, wolframite, arsenopyrite, cobaltite and magnetite have a remarkable power of
crystallization and develop well formed crystals even under adverse conditions. The
softer minerals, e.g. chalcopyrite, galena, tetrahedrite and pyrargyrite have somewhat
lower powers of crystallization and form crystals only in open spaces. Since a polished
surface shows two dimensional sections rather than whole crystals, the shape as seen in a
polished section depends upon the manner the crystal is intersected by the polished
surface. Thus cubes appear rectangular or triangular of various shapes; hexagonal prisms

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appear hexagonal or rectangular, etc., so that the crystal form must be mentally
reconstructed from observations of a number of crystals of a particular mineral.
Terms used in mineralogy e.g. cubic, octahedral, acicular, radiating, columnar, bladed,
tabular, foliate, micaceous, concentric, colloform, prismatic, fibrous, etc. are appropriate
for describing crystal form and habit as seen in polished sections.

Zoning : Many ore minerals exhibit zonal growth in the form of concentrically shelled
structure indicating deposition in successive layers around a nucleus. The shells may be
few or many and thin or thick. Zoning is sometimes visible in ordinary light due to color
contrasts, physical discontinuities or zonally arranged inclusions. In other cases, zoning is
visible only in crossed nicols or after etching with an appropriate chemical.
Zoning in minerals is due to either of the following reasons:
1. Pauses in deposition
2. Changes in the rate of growth
3. Variation in the composition of successively deposited layers.
Galena, sphalerite, pyrite, stibnite, cobaltite and arsenopyrite are some of the many
minerals that show zonal structure.

Cleavage and Parting: Although cleavage or parting is a mineral property often readily
seen in hand specimen or in a thin section of a translucent mineral, it is not as commonly
observed in a polished section. Cleavage or parting is evident in the form of one or more
sets of parallel, distinct or indistinct cracks. Cleavage of a mineral may not be evident in
a well polished surface, or in minerals occurring in fine grained aggregates. It is likely to
be more evident in slightly weathered ores, during the earlier stages of polishing, at the
margins of grains, or after etching. Minerals may exhibit one to three sets of cleavages
depending upon the number of sets present and the orientation of the polished surface
with respect to these. The presence of three or more sets of cleavages may give rise to
triangular pits usually arranged in rows parallel to one set. Such pits are characteristic of
galena, and may also be present in magnetite, pentlandite etc. A prismatic cleavage gives
rise to diamond-shaped, triangular or rectangular patterns; a pinnacoidal cleavage gives
rise to a set of parallel cracks.

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Twinning: In polished sections, three major types of twinning may be observed in ore
minerals seen - (i) growth, (ii) inversion and (iii) deformation. Twinning is best seen in
anisotropic minerals under crossed polars. In isotropic minerals, it is generally not visible
unless the surface is etched. It is sometimes evident from abrupt changes in the
orientation of cleavages or of rows of inclusions. The crystallographic planes involved in
twinning are usually not determinable in polished sections. Nevertheless, the twin
patterns in some minerals are quite characteristic e.g. "arrowhead" twins (growth) in
marcasite, lamellar twins (deformation) in hematite and chalcopyrite and "oleander leaf"
twins (inversion) in chalcopyrite, stannite and acanthite. Growth twinning in ore minerals
may be simple or complex and may show one or several laws. Twinning due to
mechanical deformation, particularly in soft minerals, often leads to curving and bending.

Inclusions: Inclusions of one or more minerals in another are very common feature of
ores. The characteristics of inclusions depend to some extent on the mode of formation of
the guest and the host. They may have either of the following modes of formation:
1. Grains of a mineral accidentally included during growth of the host
2. Remnants of a pre-existing mineral that was replaced by the host
3. Result from simultaneous deposition of a mineral with the host having different rate
of growth
4. Products of breakdown (exsolution) of a solid solution into two components

In so far as the mode of occurrence is concerned, inclusions may:


1. Occur singly or in groups
2. Be regular (signifying a control of crystallographic planes of the host over the guest)
or highly irregular in shape.
3. Be large of very minute (sub microscopic).
4. Be evenly (signifying control of crystallographic planes of guest on the growth of
host) or unevenly distributed through the host.
5. Being abundant in certain bands, signifying a zonal growth structure of the host.

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Intergrowths: Intergrowths refer to simultaneous deposition of one mineral with


another. The term also covers graphic and subgraphic arrangements of two minerals, or
exsolutions in which the two minerals are intimately associated and neither can be said to
be the host. Knowledge of inclusions is useful in deciphering the paragenetic sequence
while that of intergrowths in identification since the number of mineral combinations is
limited. This is particularly true of exsolution intergrowths.

QUANTITATIVE METHODS:

Reflectivity: Reflectance measurements are performed using photoelectric devices which


consist chiefly of a photomultiplier tube mounted on the ore microscope with which
estimations are made by comparison with known standards.
Micro-indentation Hardness: Hardness can be measured in terms of resistance of a
material to indentation. Indentation is made in some by brining the diamond in contact
with the mineral grain, and then applying a known amount of load. The most common
indenters for the measurement of hardness of the microscopic scale are the Vickers (a
square based pyramid) and the knopp (an elongated pyramid).

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V. ORE MINERAL TEXTURES


Ore microscopy involves not only the identification of individual mineral grains but also
the interpretation of ore mineral textures, that is, the relationship between grains. Study of
textures and interpretation for ore deposits and associated gangue minerals may provide
information on:
a. Process of initial ore deposition
b. Timing of formation of the ore minerals relative to the host rocks and their structures
c. Sequence of events or depositional history within an ore body
d. Post-depositional re-equilibration or metamorphism
e. Deformation
f. Annealing
g. Meteoric weathering
The recognition and interpretation of textures is thus an important step in understanding
the origin and post-depositional history of an ore. With careful observation, common
sense, and a little imaginative interpretation, much can be learned about these aspects.
The textures observed in many polymetallic ores reflect the stages of their development
(sometimes numerous) and post-depositional history. Rarely does a single texture provide
unequivocal evidence regarding the origin or history of an ore deposit. Commonly, a
variety of textures representing different episodes in the development and subsequent
history of a deposit are observed. Textures resulting from unmixing (i.e. breakdown of
solid solution), resulting in the formation of two or more immiscible phases, is an
example of this. As this phenomenon is closely related to temperature (and sometimes
also to pressure), the presence of such textures may reveal the minimum temperature of
deposition. The same may hold true for textures resulting from simultaneous
crystallisation of two phases. Similarly, the plastic distortion of minerals may be
attributed either to syntectonic crystallisation or subsequent deformation.

Metallographic study also gives information on the relative stability or instability of the
phases. Presence of zoning in certain minerals indicates that chemical variation has
occurred during crystallisation.

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The extent to which the ore minerals retain their composition and textures formed during
initial crystallization varies widely:
a) Oxides, disulfides, arsenides and sphalerite are the most refractory ore minerals and
hence are more likely to preserve evidence of their original conditions of formations.
b) Cu-Fe sulphides and pyrrhotite are less readily re-equilibrated.
c) Native metals, sulfosalte and argentite are among the most readily re-equilibrated ore
minerals, and are thus least likely to reflect initial formation conditions.

The variability in terms of equilibration rates in terms of time for various minerals is
shown below. Equilibration times for various sulphides involved in solid-state reactions.
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The field widths represent differing rates in different reactions as well as changes in rates
due to compositional differences, and experimental uncertainty.
Furthermore, the location of precious elements or undesirable elements can only be seen
under a microscope. It is desirable, for example, to know the nature of silver in a lead
deposit - whether it is present in the galena structure or expressed as secondary argentite
resulting from alteration enrichment, or as primary silver mineralisation, etc. These have
a bearing on mineral dressing and sometimes the economic value of the ore.
Textural studies also has considerable practical interest for ore processing, such
as milling and beneficiation processes, since ore mineral textures provide insights as to
the effective means of extracting the metals. The study of grain size of minerals and the
way they are intergrown permits the evaluation of Separation mesh; that is, the grain
size necessary to obtain optimum separation of the different constituents. The textures of
ore minerals can provide valuable information about futures of the metals insofar as their
dispersal in the environment is concerned. Metals, particularly the heavy ones, have the
potential to becoming major pollutants, if released into the environment by weathering.

I. Textures of Magmatic ores:

1. Cumulus textures: It result from the settling of an ore deposit from a crystallizing
magma (Early magmatic). The most common example is chromite which occurs as a
cumulus phase relative to olivine and pyroxene.

2. Intergranular or intercumulus textures: The ore mineral occurs as an


intergranular anhedral phase relative to the other gangue minerals. In such cases, this
ore mineral crystallizes late in the magmatic sequence (relative to the other gangue
minerals) so takes up the shape of the intergranular spaces left behind (Late

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

magmatic). Examples include numerous sulfides, in many cases crystallizing from


liquids immiscible with, and of lower melting point than the silicate magma.

3. Exsolution textures: Where one phase separates from another as a result of


unmixing or break down of solid solution during cooling, and has a tendency to
concentrate along certain crystallographic directions (e.g. cleavage planes).
Examples include the occurrence of ferroan ilmenite in titanohematite or ilmenite in
ulvospinel. Exsolution textures usually indicate a slow or intermediate cooling rate.
In some cases, exsolution textures are difficult to identify from some textures that
form by replacement.

II. Textures of hydrothermal ore deposits and skarns:

A. Replacement textures: Replacement is the process of almost simultaneous solution


and deposition by which a new mineral of partly or totally different chemical
composition may grow in the body of an old mineral or mineral aggregate. According to
this definition, replacement is accompanied by very little or no change in the volume of
the rock. However, in practice, this process is accompanied by expansion or contraction
(and it has proven quite challenging to write balanced chemical reactions representing
replacement textures in which the volume of the products and reactants is the same!).
Replacement is more common at high T and P where open spaces are very limited or
unavailable, and fluid flow is rather difficult. It also depends largely on the chemical
composition and reactivity of both the host rock and the hydrothermal solution.
In general, it has been observed that certain minerals replace others preferentially.

Accordingly, a set of "rules" has been proposed:

Sulfides replace gangue or ore minerals


Gangue minerals replace host rock, but not the ore minerals
Oxides replace host rock and gangue, but rarely replace sulfides.

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

Photomicrographs depicting important ore minerals and textures

Ilm

Magnetite FeO Fe2O3 (martitised) and ilmenite


FeO TiO2 in Xed

Chalcocite Cu2S (bluish) and bornite Cu5FeS5

Covellite (CuS) showing pleochroism in


shades of blue PPL

Bornite Cu5FeS5 in PPL

Euhedral grain of Sperrylite in chrome-spinel

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

Gold in (PPL) within quartz vein (gaunge)

Photomicrographs depicting important ore minerals and textures

Pyrite

Pyrr
Arsenopyrite
Pyrite (pitted), pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite.
Notice the infilling nature of chalcopytite

Arsenopyrite showing anisotropism in Xed

Chalcopyrite
Exsolution texture: Sphalerite stars in
Chalcopyrite (Sakoli, Maharashtra)

Chromite cumulated in ultramafic

Molybdenite in Xed showing lamellar


twinning, Sakoli, Maharashtra

Linnaeite (CoS) with exsolved millerite (NiS) traversed by


veinlets of bornite- chalcopyrite. (CuFeS2 ),
Nallakonda,,Agnigundala basemetal belt,A.P.

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

Criteria for identifying replacement textures:


1) Presence of pseudomorphs.
2) Widening of fractures
3) Vermicular unoriented intergrowths
4) Presence of Islands (of the host or replaced mineral) having the same optical
orientation and surrounded by the new mineral
5) Presence of relict phases
6) Cusp and caries texture: (host or replaced mineral). Cusps are relict protuberances of
the replaced mineral or host rock between caries. The caries are embayed surfaces
concave towards the replacing mineral into the replaced one
7) Non-matching walls of a fracture. This is a feature common when replacement works
outward from a central fissure (compare with open space filling textures)
8) The occurrence of one mineral crosscutting older structure
9) Topotactic and epitactic replacement: Topotaxy is a process where the replacing
mineral overgrows the replaced one along certain crystallographic directions
controlled by the structure of the replaced mineral. Epitaxy is the same process
except that the structure of the replacing (new) mineral is not controlled by the
replaced mineral, but instead by other "matrix" minerals.
10) Selective association: Since replacement is a chemical process, specific selective
associations of pairs or combinations of minerals can be expected. For example,
chalcopyrite is more likely to replace bornite by a change in the Cu/Fe ratio or in
f S2 than it is to replace quartz. Therefore, the occurrence of minerals with some
chemical similarity in some textural relationship is often a good indication of
replacement.
11) The presence of a depositional or paragenetic sequence in which minerals become
progressively richer in one or more elements.
12) Gradational boundaries: In contrast to open space deposition which produces abrupt
textures and structures between the hydrothermally deposited minerals and their
host rocks, replacement is often accompanied by gradational boundaries between
both minerals. Accordingly, gradational boundaries are a good indication of
replacement.

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

13) Deposition of one or more hydrothermal minerals along a clear alteration front.
14) Doubly terminating crystals: If a crystal grows within an open cavity, it is normally
attached to one of the walls of the fracture, and can develop crystal faces only on the
other end (i.e. the one away from this wall). In contrast, the process of replacement
may result in the growth of euhedral crystals with well developed faces on more
than one end.
15) The lack of offset on a fracture intersected by the replacing mineral: In contrast to
open space filling which may be associated with displacement of a pre-existing
structure by the fracture being filled by hydrothermal fluids, replacement across a
pre-existing structure will not be accompanied by such offset. The same holds true
for two intersecting fractures.

B. Open space filling textures: Open space filling is common at shallow depths where
brittle rocks deform by fracturing rather than by plastic flow. At these shallow depths, ore
bearing fluids may circulate freely within fractures, depositing ore and gangue minerals
when sudden or abrupt changes in P and/or T take place. As such, open space filling
textures will be different from those resulting from replacement, and a set of criteria may
be used to identify this process. Nevertheless, many hydrothermal ore deposits form by
the combined effects of replacement and open space filling, which requires a lot of
caution in textural interpretation.

Criteria for identifying open space filling processes:

1. Presence of many vugs and cavities


2. Coarsening of minerals from the walls of a vein to its centre
3. Comb structure: Euhedral prismatic crystals growing from opposite sides of a fissure
symmetrically towards its centre develop an interdigitated vuggy zone similar in
appearance to that of the teeth of a comb.
4. Crustification: Crustification results from a change in composition and/or
physicochemical

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

conditions of the hydrothermal solution, and is represented by layers of different


mineralogies one on top of the other.

5. Symmetrical banding
6. Matching walls: If an open fissure has been filled without replacement, the outlines of
opposite walls should match.
7. Cockade structure: Mineralization within the open spaces of a breccia or any other
fragmental rock will commonly produce a special pattern of symmetrical banding and
crustification where each opening acts as a centre for sequential deposition.
8. Offset oblique structures
In addition to replacement and open space filing textures, very low temperature
hydrothermal deposits (epithermal and telethermal deposits) are often characterized by
colloform habits and banding described in the following section.

III. Textures characteristic of surfacial or near surface environments and processes:

Under surfacial conditions, ore minerals may be deposited from colloidal solutions. A
colloid is defined as a system consisting of two phases, one diffused in the other.
Colloidal particles range in size between ions in a true solution and particles that are <
10-3 cm in a coarse suspension. The colloidal material may be solid, liquid or gas
dispersed in another solid, liquid or gas. Colloidal solutions believed to be responsible for
the formation of ore deposits usually consist of solids dispersed in liquids and are called
"sols". In such sols, colloidal particles commonly adsorb either cations or anions, and
thus acquire similar charges which cause them to repel each other, preventing them from
coagulation. If an electrolyte is added to such a sol, the colloidal particles are neutralized
and flocculate giving rise to a variety of textures which include:
a) Botryoidal or reniform aggregates
b) Banding or very fine layering
c) Leisegang rings

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

These textures are broadly termed as "colloform" textures. Because some colloform
textures were observed in some hydrothermal deposits, it was believed that some
hydrothermal solutions were colloids. However, fluid inclusion analysis showed that
hydrothermal solutions are too saline to have been in the colloidal state, and the term
"colloform" should be considered descriptive and non-genetic.
Criteria to identify a colloform texture as a product of deposition from colloidal solution:
1) Shrinkage cracks: which develop due to dehydration of a gel
2) Liesegang rings: Are coloured bands that form when an electrolyte is allowed to
diffuse into a gel. Liesegang rings are common in amorphous, cryptocrystalline and
microcrystalline "minerals" or mineraloids as agate and opal.
3) Variable composition of bands and/or deposits: This phenomenon is due to the ability
of colloids to adsorb different ions from their surroundings.
4) Non-crystalline structure: The occurrence of amorphous "minerals" or mineraloids
(e.g. opal) is an indication of formation from a colloidal solution. However, such
mineraloids will tend to crystallize with time.
5) Spheroidal texture: Are rounded objects similar to pisolites, which result from the low
surface tension of a colloid.
Mineral Assemblages & Paragenesis of Ores
Ore minerals generally occur in association that is characteristic in their mineralogy,
textures and relationships to specific rock types. The existence of these characteristic
associations, each containing its own typical suite of ore minerals has been recognised.
These associations largely result from the formation of the ores under characteristically
limited physico-chemical conditions, the nature of which may be inferred from detailed
study of ores.
The term 'paragenesis' refers to the time-successive order of formation of a group of
associated minerals within a particular deposit. Since the great majority of ore mineral
occurrences have been formed by several distinct periods of mineralization, the complete
description of the paragenesis of a deposit involves establishing the order in which the
constituent minerals have been formed and the sequence of resorptions and replacements
that have occurred. In order to establish the paragenetic sequence in a deposit, two broad
approaches are useful:

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

1. the study of open-space fillings


2. the study of alteration reactions - replacement relations among the ore minerals
In near-surface regimes, rocks yield by fracturing rather than by flowage; open channel
ways develop and layers or crusts of minerals may be deposited from successive pulses of
fluid that pass through the fractures. By searching for variations in mineral grain size,
symmetrical banding, and certain diagnostic structures (comb, cockade), one can
recognize open-space filling and by studying the composition of sequential crusts along
the walls of the vein, one can determine the paragenetic sequence. Three kinds of ore
mineral deposition may be considered:
a) simultaneous deposition (in which two or more minerals are formed from the
beginning to the end of the process) e.g., galena-sphalerite, tetrahedrite-tennantite-pyrite
b) overlapping deposition (in which two or more minerals have formation periods that
overlap in part) e.g., sphalerite-pyrite
c) successive deposition (in which the formation periods of two or more minerals succeed
each other with practically no overlap) e.g., sulfide-carbonates
A full understanding of the sequence of deposition or PARAGENESIS can be obtained
from a study of ore mineral textures as seen in polished sections under the microscope.

To determine the paragenesis of an ore, it is necessary to determine for each pair


of minerals present, whether they were deposited simultaneously or one after
another.

Sometimes, when two minerals do not show any relationship, it becomes


necessary to establish their sequence of deposition indirectly.

Frequently the minerals in an ore occur in groups, so that age relationships can be
established between members of an individual group, and between groups as a
whole.

The repetition of deposition of a group or groups of minerals does not necessarily


imply an interruption or pulsation of the process. In most cases it implies a
changing character of the mineralizing solutions.

This change in the character of the mineralizing fluids is also revealed in the changing
composition of the gangue minerals.

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

IMPORTANT CHARACTERSTICS OF SOME COMMON ORE FORMING


MINERALS UNDER REFLECTED POLARISED LIGHT

Abbreviations

Colour

Bireflectance

Reflective pleochroism

Anisotropism

IR

Internal reflection

M.O.C.P.

Mode of occurrence and characteristic properties

1. ARGENTITE : Ag2S : Isometric/Monoclinic


C - Dark grey to greenish grey; darker than galena; greener than silver
R - Moderate reflectivity; 28
A - Isotropic to weakly anisotropic from slightly bluish grey to dark brown
M.O.C.P. - Commonly occurs in low temperature hydrothermal veins in
association with galena and native silver as subhedral grains.

2. ARSENOPYRITE: FeAsS: Monoclinic


C - White or cream with faint yellow tint to pink; whiter than pyrite; greyer than
antimony; yellow relative to sphalerite and galena
R - High reflectivity; 50 - 54
B - Weak
P - Weakly pleochroic, white with bluish tint to faint reddish yellow
A - Strong, red to violet
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Commonly occurs as euhedral to subhedral grains, also as anhedral
granular masses when in abundance, mostly in high temperature veins, pegmatites
and contact metamorphic rocks. Occurs in association with pyrite, loellingite,

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

pyrrhotite, galena, sphalerite, gold, molybdenite. Takes good polish, white colour,
anisotropic.

3. BISMUTH (native) : Bi : Hexagonal


C - White, brilliant creamy; tarnishing to pink and brown;
brighter than antimony; whiter than niccolite
R - Very high reflectivity; 65.35 - 66.65
P - Feebly pleochroic
A - Distinct to strongly anisotropic
M.O.C.P - Occurs in hydrothermal Co-Ni-Ag-Sn ores, pegmatites, topaz-Sn-W
veins.

4. BISMUTHINITE : Bi2S3 : Orthorhombic


C - White with grey tint; galena is lighter creamy white;
Bismuth is darker bluish grey
R - 37 - 49
B - Weak to distinct
P - Bluish grey white, grey white to creamy white.
A - Very strong, especially in oil; grey yellow, violet, straight extinction,
large crystals often undulose.
IR- not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as subhedral lath-like crystals; less commonly as granular
masses; cleavage parallel to (010) common. Stress induced twinning and
undulose extinction often seen. Occurs with bismuth, pyrite, pyrrhotite,
arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, stannite, cassisterite, wolframite and
molybdenite in low- to high-temperature hydrothermal veins, tourmaline-bearing
Cu deposits in granite, some high temperature Au veins, volcanic exhalations etc.

5. BIXBYITE : (Mn,Fe)2O3 : Cubic


C - medium grey with cream to yellow tint; lighter and yellowish than braunite,
jacobsite, hausmanite

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

R - 23
B - usually absent, sometimes very weak in oi.
A - isotropic; sometimes weakly anomalous
IR - not present.
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as euhedral crystals and as granular aggregates in
pneumatolytic, hydrothermal, metamorphic rocks. Cleavage (111), lamellar
twinning and zonal growth may be visible. Occurs with hematite, braunite,
pyrolusite, hausmanite.

6. BORNITE : Cu5FeS4 : Tetragonal


C - Pinkish brown to orange; tarnishes to purplish, violet or iridescent
R - 25
B - absent or slight bireflectance visible on grain boundaries
A - very weak, not always noticeable
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as irregular polycrystalline aggregates in igneous intrusions,
hydrothermal Cu ore veins, alteration product of Cu minerals. Also as lamellae
inter-grown with chalcopyrite. Cleavage may be visible. Occurs with pyrite,
chalcopyrite, enargite, covellite, sphalerite, galena, magnetite, tetrahedrite and
hematite.

7. BOULANGERITE : Pb5Sb4S11 : Monoclinic


C - medium grey, sometimes greenish tints, bluish tint;
galena is darker greenish grey; stibnite, slightly lighter
R - 37 - 40
B - distinct
P - grey white to green grey
A - Distinct, tan brown, bluish grey
IR - rare, red

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

M.O.C.P. - Usually occurs as granular or fibrous aggregates with galena,


sphalerite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, or other Pb-Sb sulfosalts in low- to
moderate-temperature hydrothermal veins.

8. BRAUNITE : Mn7SiO12 / (Mn,Fe,Si)2O3 : Tetrangonal


C - medium grey with brownish tint;
less brown than magnetite; darker than pyrolusite, psilomelane;
more grey than jacobsite; similar to manganite, hausmanite but weaker
bireflectance
B - weak but distinct
P - grey
A - weak but distinct, olive to brownish grey to blue, often undulose
IR - rare, dark brown to deep red
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as anhedral granular masses and as subhedral to euhedral
crystals. Zonal textures reported. Associated with jacobsite, bixbyite, pyrolusite,
magnetite in metamorphic, supergene Mn-oxide deposits.

9. CASSITERITE : SnO2 : Tetragonal


C - brownish grey; darker than sphalerite and wolframite;
more brownish than stannite, wolfromite, ilmenite, rutile, magnetite
R - low reflectivity; 11 - 12
B - distinct
P - weakly pleochroic; grey to brownish grey
A - distinct, grey; masked by internal reflections in oil
IR - rare, dark brown to deep red
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as compact anhedral masses and as subhedral to euhedral
crystals which are often well zoned. Commonly twinned, cleavage may be
visible. Occurs in granites, pegmatites, alluvial placers and may be associated
with pyrite, arsenopyrite, stannite, wolframite. magnetite, bismuth, bismuthnite,
pyrrhotite etc. Resembles sphalerite but is anisotropic and usually exhibits lighter
internal reflections.

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

10. CHALCOCITE : Cu2S : Monoclinic


C - bluish grey or bluish white; bluish relative to galena; bluish-grey relative to
pyrite;
white relative to covellite; covellite looks pink; bluish relative to tetrahedrite
R - moderate reflectivity; 30
B - very weak
P - very weak
A - weak to distinct, emerald green to light pinkish
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as anhedral polycrystalline aggregates and vein fillings with
iron and copper-iron sulfides such as pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, digenite. Also
associated with energite, tetrahedrite, sphalerite, galena, stannite. Often in
exsolution intergrowth with bornite or low temperature copper sulfides. Often
appears isotropic, especially in supergene fine-grained aggregates.

11. CHALCOPYRITE : CuFeS2 : Tetragonal


C - yellow to brassy yellow, tarnishes after sometime; more yellow than pyrite;
lighter than pyrrhotite; gold is distinctly more yellow with greenish tint
R - very high in air nearly same as for galena; 39 - 40
B - weak
P - weakly pleochroic
A - weakly anisotropic, but distinct gray-blue to yellowish green
IR - not present
M.O.C.P - Occurs as medium to coarse grained anhedral aggregates, rarely as
well defined tetrahedra in hydrothermal sulfides, disseminations in igneous rocks.
Commonly twinned, often contains laths of cubanite, stars of sphalerite, or
worms of pyrrhotite. Basket-weave exsolution with bornite common.
Associated with pyrite, pyrrhotite, bornite, digonite, cubanite, sphalerite, galena,
magnetite, pentlandite, tetrahedrite, many other minerals. Often alters along
cracks and grain boundaries to covellite.

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

12. CHROMITE : (Fe,Mg)(Cr,Al)2O4 : Cubic


C - dark grey to brownish grey; darker than magnetite, sphalerite;
darker and red brown relative to ilmenite
R - low reflectivity
P - not present
A - isotropic, but may show weak anisotropism
IR - common, red brown, absent in Fe rich samples
M.O.C.P. - Usually occurs as subhedral (rounded) to euhedral crystals or
coarsely crystalline aggregates in cumulate mineral in ultramafics, meteorites.
Cataclastic effects common. Zonal textures with lighter (Fe rich) rims are very
common. Exsolution of hematite, ilmenite magnetite, rutile, ulvospinel
uncommon but observed. Associated with magnetite, ilmenite, platinum,
pentlandite, pyrrhotite, and millerite.

13. COVELLITE : CuS : Hexagonal


C - indigo blue with violet tint to bluish white in air
R - 3.44 19.17
B - strong, purple to violet red, to blue-grey oil
P - pleochroic, purple to violet red, to blue-grey in oil
A - extremely anisotropic, red-orange to brownish
R - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as subhedral to anhedral masses, as laths and as plate-like
crystals in oxidation zone of Cu sulphide deposits and high temperature
hydrothermal deposits. The brilliant blue colour, and strong pleochroism and
anisotropism are unmistakable, even when present as tiny alteration laths
commonly seen on copper and iron sulfides as pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite; also
with enargite, digenite, tennantite, sphalerite.

14. CUBANITE : CuFe2S3 : Orthorhombic


C - creamy grey to yellowish brown; more yellow, less pink than pyrrhotite,

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

more grey brown compared to chalcopyrite


R - 38.62 - 42.18
B - slight in shades of cream
P - greyish to brownish
A - strong, brownish to blue
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs most commonly as sharply bounded laths within coarse
grained chalcopyrite; also as irregular granular aggregates in high temperature
hydrothermal veins. Recognised by its distinct bireflectance and anisotropism.
Also occurs with pyrrhotite, sphalerite, galena, pentlandite, magnetite and
arsenopyrite.

15. DIGENITE : Cu9S5 : Cubic


C - grayish blue; bornite is blue, chalcocite is darker blue
R - 23.1 ; 21.0
B - not present
P - not present
A - isotropic; sometimes with weak anomalous anisotropism
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as irregular aggregates of anhedral grains that contain lamellar
intergrowths with other copper sulfides or bornite. Also with chalcopyrite,
tetrahedrite, enargite, alters to covellite.

16. ENARGITE : Cu3AsS4 : Orthorhombic


C - greyish pink to greyish violet in air; darker in oil; pinkish white relative to
bornite;
pinkish brown to greyish brown relative to chalcocite; grey relative to galena
R - Moderate reflectivity; 24.3 - 25.2 : 23.3 - 25.7
B - distinct in oil
P - distinct in oil; greyish pink; pinkish grey; greyish violet
A - strong, blue to red to orange

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

IR - deep red may occur


M.O.C.P. - Occurs as anhedral to subhedral grains. Cleavage (110) often seen
and usually untwinned. Occurs with pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, sphalerite,
tennantite, galena, chalcocite, covellite, arsenopyrite.

17. GALENA : PbS : Cubic


C - white, sometimes with pink tint; whiter compared to sphalerite & stibnite
R - high reflectivity; 43.1 : 41 .9
B - not present
A - isotropic but weak anomalous anisotropism may be present
IR - not present
Prominent triangular pits
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as anhedral masses to euhedral cubes. The perfect (100)
cleavage usually visible and seen as triangular pits. Very common and occurs
with wide variety of common minerals. Often contains inclusions of tetrahedrite,
Pb-Bi or Pb-Sb sulfosalts, silver, chalcopyrite. sphalerite. May occur as inclusions
in chalcopyrite and sphalerite.

18. GOETHITE : FeO. OH : Orthorhombic


C - grey, with a bluish tint; more bluish compared with sphalerite
darker compared to hematite
R - 17.5. - 15.5; 16.6 - 15.0
B - weak in air; distinct in oil but often masked by internal reflections
P - weak in air; distinct in oil but often masked by internal reflections
A - distinct, grey-blue, grey-yellow, brownish
IR - brownish yellow to reddish brown.
M.O.C.P. - Common in porous colloform bands with radiating fibrous texture, or
as porous pseudomorphs after pyrite. Nearly always secondary, as veins, fracture
fillings, or botryoidal coatings. Occurs with hematite, pyrite, lepidocrocite, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, manganese oxides, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite. Brownish to
yellowish internal reflections help to distinguish from lepidocrocite.

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

19. GOLD (Native) : Au : Cubic


C - bright golden yellow; more yellow than chalcopyrite but no greenish tint
R - very high; 71.5 : 83.4
B - not present
P - not present
A - isotropic but incomplete extinction
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as isolated grains and veinlets in many sulfides, especially
pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite. Recognized by its golden colour and very
high reflectance; addition of silver to form electrum changes colour to whitish and
increases R%.

20. GRAPHITE : C : Hexagonal


C - brownish black; darker compared to molybdenite
R - 17.4 - 6.8 : 18.1 - 7.0
B - very strong, bireflectance from brownish grey to greyish black
P - very strong, from brownish grey, to greyish black
A - very strong, straw yellow to brown or violet grey
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as small plates, laths, and bundles of blades, Basal cleavage
visible and undulose extinction common. Present as isolated laths in many
igneous and metamorphic rocks; also as inclusions in sphalerite, pyrite, magnetite,
pyrrhotite. Much more common than molybdenite.

21. HAUSMANITE : Mn3O4 : Tetragonal


C - bluish to brownish grey; grey compared to jacobsite; less brown compared to
bixbyite, braunite
R - 19.6 - 17.6 : 18.9 - 17.5
B - very distinct in oil, bluish grey to brownish grey
P - very distinct in oil, bluish grey to brownish grey

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

IR - blood red, especially in oil


M.O.C.P - Occurs as coarse-grained equigranular anhedral crystals, often in
veinlets. Irregular twinning common. Occurs with other Mn-oxides and alters to
pyrolusite and psilomelane.

22. HEMATITE : Fe2O3 : Hexagonal


C - grey white with bluish tint; more white compared to Ilmenite, magnetite
goethite
bluish grey relative to Pyrite; slightly brown relative to chalcocite
R - Moderate reflectivity; 30.2 - 26.1 : 29.15 - 25.1
B - weak
P - weak
A - distinct, grey blue, grey yellow
M.O.C.P. - Usually occurs as bladed or need like subparallel or radiating
aggregates. Lamellar twinning common. Also common as exsolution lenses or
lamellae in ilmenite or magnetite, or as a host to lamellae of the same. Occurs
with magnetite, ilmenite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, rutile, cassiterite,
sphalerite.

23. ILMENITE : FeTiO3 : Trigonal


C - brownish with a pink or violet tint; darker brownish relative to Magnetite
much darker than hematite; brighter and brown relative to sphalerite
lighter and red brown relative to chromite
R - Low reflectivity; 20.1 - 17.0 : 20.2 - 17.4
P - Pleochroic - light to dark brown + pink or violet tints
B - distinct, pinkish brown dark brown
A - Strong, greenish grey to brownish grey
IR - rare, dark brown
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as subhedral to anhedral grains and as exsolution lamellae or
lenses in hematite or magnetite. Lamellar twinning common. Common accessory

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in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Occurs with magnetite, hematite, rutile, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, chromite, pentlandite, tantalite.

24. JACOBSITE : (Mn,Fe,Mg) (Fe,Mn)2O4 : Cubic


C - rose brown to brownish grey
R - 19.4
B - not present
P - not present.
A - Isotropic, sometimes slight anomalous anisotropism
IR - deep red, especially when Mn-rich
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as anhedral grains and rounded subhedral crystals. Occurs
with and alters to other Fe-Mn minerals such as goethite, pyrolusite, hematite,
psilomelane.

25. LEPIDOCROCITE : FeO.OH : Orthorhombic


C - greyish white; lighter and whiter relative to Goethite,
R - 18.4 - 11.6 : 17.4 11.1
B - weak to distinct
P - weak to distinct
A - strong, grey
IR - Reddish, common
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as weathering product of iron oxides and sulfides with (but
less commonly than goethite). Present as crusts, veinlets, and even as porous
pseudomorphs.

26. LOELLINGITE : FeAs2 : Orthorhombic


C - White, with yellowish tint; less yellow relative to arsenopyrite R - 52.4 - 54.1
: 51.2-55.2
B - weak but distinct
P - bluish white to yellowish white
A - very strong, orange-yellow, red-brown blue, green

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IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Commonly occurs as interlocking to radiating aggregates of euhedral
crystals; sometimes as skeletal crystals, commonly twinned. Usually associated
with other arsenides, arsenopyrite, uraninite, antimony, chalcopyrite, galena.

27. MAGHEMITE : Fe2O3 (Fe2+ deficient magnetite) : Cubic


C - bluish grey; lighter grey relative to goethite; bluish grey relative to hematite
bluish relative to magnetite
R - 24.4 28.8
B - not present
P - not present A - isotropic
IR - rare, brownish red
M.O.C.P - Forms as a rare oxidation product of magnetite. Irregularly present in
oxidizing magnetite as lamellae and porous patches.

28. MAGNETITE : Fe3O4 : Cubic


C - grey, with brownish tint; much darker and browner than hematite
lighter and less pink than ilmenite; lighter than sphalerite
R - Low reflectivity; 20.0 20.3
B - not present
P - not present
A - isotopic, slight anomalous anisotropism
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as euhedral, subhedral, and even skeletal crystals and as
anhedral polycrystalline aggregates. Often contains exsolution or oxidation
lamellae of hematite; lamellae of ilmenite and ulvospinel also common.
Associated with pyrrhotite, pyrite, pentlandite, chalcopyrite, bornite, sphalerite
and galena. Alters to hematite and goethite.

29. MANGANITE : MnO(OH) : Monoclinic


C - Grey to brownish grey; darker grey than pyrolusite

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R - 14.8 - 20.7 : 14.3 - 19.9


B - weak
P - brownish grey
A - Strong, yellow, bluish grey, violet grey
IR - common, blood red
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as prismatic to lamellar crystal aggregates often intergrown
with pyrolusite and psilomelane. Cleavage on (010) and (110) may be visible.
Commonly twinned. Occurs also with hausmanite, braunite, goethite.

30. MARCASITE : FeS2 : Orthorhombic


C - yellowish white with slight pinkish or greenish tint;
greenish yellow relative to arsenopyrite R - High reflectivity; 48.2 - 55-8 : 48.4 54.6
B - strong
P - white to yellow whiter than pyrite
A - strong, blue, green yellow, purple grey
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as subhedral to lamellar intergrowths with pyrite and as
euhedral crystals. Also occurs as radiating colloform bands. Commonly twinned.
Forms as hypogene crystals and as supergene veinlets in pyrrhotite and iron
oxides. Often with pyrite but also occurs with most other common sulfides. Blue
to yellowish anisotropism is diagnostic.

31. MILLERITE : NiS : Trigonal


C - Yellow; lighter and not greenish compared with chalcopyrite;
yellower than linnaeite, pentlandite R - 50.2 - 56.6 : 51.9 59.05
B - distinct in oil
P - yellow to blue or violet
A - strong, lemon yellow to blue to violet
IR - not present

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

M.O.C.P. - Occurs as radiating aggregates and an anhedral granular masses. Also


common as oriented intergrowths with linnaeite and pyrrhotite. Twinning and
cleavage (1011) after visible. Usually associated with ni-bearing sulfides, often as
a replacement or alteration phase.

32. MOLYBDENITE : MoS2 : Trigonal C - extreme bireflectance


R - 38.5 - 19.5 : 38.8 - 19.0
B - white to grey with blush tint; lighter than graphite
P - white to grey with bluish tint
A - very strong, white with pinkish tint;
dark blue when polars not completely crossed
IR - not present
M.O.C.P - Usually occurs as small, often deformed, plates and irregular
inclusions; more rarely as rosettes or colloform bands. Cleavage (0001), twinning
and undulatory extinction very common. Often in veins with pyrite, chalcopyrite,
bornite, cassiterite, wolframite, bismuth, bismuthinite, but may occur in many
sulfides. Softness, bireflectance, and anisotropism allow confusion only with
graphite

33. NICCOLITE : NiAs : Hexagonal


C - Strong bireflectance
R - Very high reflectivity; 51.6 - 47.2 : 56.0 - 53.3
B - yellowish pink to brownish pink
P - strongly pleochroic; yellowish pink to brownish pink; more pink relative to
bismuth, arsenic; lighter and pinker than pyrrhotite much lighter than bornite
A - very strong, yellow, greenish violet blue, blue grey
IR - not present
M.O.C.P - Occurs as isolated subhedral and euhedral crystals, as anhedral
aggregates, as concentric bands and as complex intergrowths (with pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, maucherite). Commonly intergrown with arsenides. Often twinned
and in radial aggregates.

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

34. PENTLANDITE : (Fe,Ni)9S8 : Cubic


C - light creamy to yellowish; much lighter than pyrrhotite which is brown;
darker, not pinkish relative than linnaeite
R - High reflectivity; 46.5 49.0
B - not visible
P - not visible
A - isotropic - but no complete extinction
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Generally occurs as granular veinlets or as flames or lamellae in
pyrrhotite; less commonly in chalcopyrite. Other associated minerals include
magnetite, pyrite, cubanite. Alters to violarite and millerite along cracks and grain
boundaries.

35. POLYBASITE : Ag16Sb2S11 : Monoclinic


C - grey; darker than galena, darker brownish than pyrargyrite
R - 32.5 30.7 : 31.4 - 30.0
B - weak in air; distinct in oil
P - green to gry with violet tint
A - moderate in air; strong in oil, blue grey, yellow-green, brown
IR - deep red, abundant
M.O.C.P - Forms complete solid solution with pearcite. (See remarks for
pearcite; polybasite occurrences are similar but are more likely in Sb-rich
environments).

36. PROUSTITE : Ag3AsS3 : Trigonal


C - bluish grey; darker than pyrargyrite
R - 28.1 - 26.4 - 25.8
B - distinct
P - yellowish, bluish gray

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

A - strong, masked by internal reflection


IR - always, scarlet-red
M.O.C.P. - Forms complete solid solutions with pyrargyrite as late mineral in
hydrothermal Ag-rich deposits. Same characteristics as pyrargyrite except found
in more As-rich environments.
37. PSILOMELANE : General name for massive hard MnO2 Mn2O3 manganese oxides
C - medium bluish grey to brownish grey to greyish white; darker than pyrolusite;
lighter than braunite, manganite, jacobsite, hausmannite, bixbyite
R - 15 - 30
B - strong, white to bluish grey
P - strong, white to bluish grey
A - strong, cream to dark brown
IR - occasional brown
M.O.C.P. - Commonly occurs as botryoidal masses of very fine acicular crystals
in concentric layers; often intergrown with pyrolusite and cryptomelane.
Associated with other Mn-oxides.

38. PYRARGYRITE : Ag3SbS3 : Trigonal


C - bluish grey; slightly lighter than proustite; greyish blue than galena
R - 26.04 - 31.34
B - distinct to strong
P - distinct to strong
A - strong, gray to dark gray; in oil marked by internal reflections
IR - intense red
M.O.C.P. - Forms complete solution with proustite. Occurs as irregular grains
and aggregates in late-stage low-temperature hydrothermal deposits and as
secondary enrichment. May be twinned and zoned. Often with galena, Sbsulfosalts, pyrite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, arsenopyrite, Ni-Co-Fe
arsenides.

39. PYRITE: FeS2 : Cubic

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

C - yellowish white; yellower than marcasite, arsenopyrite and galena; less


yellow than chalcopyrite;
R - high reflectivity; 51.7 53.5
B - not present
P - not present
A - isotropic, occasionally weakly anisotropic with tints of violet, blue-green,
brown
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - The most abundant sulfide; occurs as euhedral cubes and pyritohedra,
anhedral crystalline masses, and colloform bands of very fine grains. Growth
zoning, twinning and anisotropy of hardness may be visible. Occurs in nearly all
ore types and with most common minerals. Hardness, yellowish white colour and
abundance usually disgnostic.

40. PYROLUSITE: MnO2 : Tetragonal


C - cream with yellow tint; whiter than manganite; lighter than psilomelane
slightly yellowish than magnetite, hematite,
R - 29.0 40.0 : 28.1 39.3
B - weak, yellow to yellow-grey; distinct in oil
P - yellowish white to grey white
A - strong, creame to blue-grey; yellowish, browinish
M.O.C.P - Occurs as coarse tabular crystals or as banded aggregates. Cleavage
(110) and twinning may occur. Very fine-grained material may be intergrown
with psilomelane, hematite, Fe-hydroxides. Also associated with manganite,
braunite, magnetite, bixbyite.

41. PYRRHOTITE : Fe1-xS : Hexagonal (Fe7S8); FeS is troilite


C - creamy pinkish brown; much darker than pentlandite and niccolite;
more pinkish than cubanite
R - 36.91 41.56
B - very distinct

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

P - creamy brown to reddish brown


A - very strong, yellow grey to green grey to blue green
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Usually occurs as anhedral granular masses. Not infrequently twinned,
especially where stressed. Lamellar exsolution inter-growths of hexagonal
pyrrhotite yields a rim of monoclinic pyrrhotite (usually slightly lighter in colour).
In Ni-ores exsolved lamellae and flames of pentlandite are common. Occurs
with most other common sulphides. Troilite occurs in meteorites usually as
anhedral, equigranular masses with iron.

42. RUTILE: TiO2 : Tetragonal


C - grey with bluish tint
R - 19.87 23.27
P - grey with bluish tint
A - strongly anisotropic greyish to dark
Twinning common

43. SILVER (native): Ag : Cubic


C - bright white with creamish tint; tarnishes rapidly to pink or brown
brighter and creamier than antimony, arsenic
R - the highest of all ore minerals; 94.2 - 95.0
B - not present
P - not present
A - Isotropic; fine scratches often look anisotropic
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as irregular masses, veinlets, and inclusions and as dendrites
within arsenides. Incomplete extinction, tarnishes rapidly. Lamellar intergrowths
with allargentum. Also with Ag-sulfosalts, Bi, argentite, galena, Cu-sulfides,
Co_Fe-Ni arsenides.

44. SPHALERITE : (Zn,Fe)S : Cubic

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C - medium grey, sometimes with brownish tint; darker than magnetite


R - 16.4 - 16.8
B - not present
P - not present
A - isotropic
IR - Common, yellow, orange, brown to reddish brown.
M.O.C.P. - Very common in hydrothermal sulfide veins, submarine exhalatives.
Occurs as irregular anhedral masses with pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite.
Polishes well and is often featureless except for internal reflections. Also
commonly contains rows of (or random dispersed) inclusions of chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite, galena, and less commonly stannite. Common growth zoning of light
and dark bands only visible in polished thin sections. Closely resembles magnetite
except for internal reflections and absence of cleavage.

45. STANNITE : (Cu2FeSnS4) : Isometric/Tetragonal


C - medium grey with brownish olive green tint; darker than tetrahedrite;
lighter than sphalerite; dark and green brown relative to chalcopyrite
R - moderate reflectivity; 28.69 - 29.45
P - indistinct
A - strongly anisotropic yellow brown to olive to bluish

46. STIBNITE : Sb2S3 : Orthorhombic


C - light to greyish white; darker than bismuthinite; more greyish than antimony
R - 30.6 - 45.2
B - strong
P - strong, light to brownish grey
A - very strong, often undulose, blue gray to brown, pinkish brown
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Occurs in hydrothermal veins, submarine hydrothermal as granular
aggregates and lath like crystals that often exhibit deformational textures, pressure

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

twinning and undulatory extinction. Associated with pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite,


chalcopyrite, and Sn, As, and Hg, minerals.

47. TETRAHEDRITE:(Cu,Fe)12Sb4S13(may contain Fe, Zn, Ag, As, Hg, etc); Cubic
C - medium grey with olive or brownish tint; brownish or greenish than galena
chalcocite is bluish gray, lighter than Sphalerite
R - 32.78
B - not present
P - not present
A - isotropic
IR - uncommon, increasingly commonly as As-content increases, reddish
M.O.C.P. - Occurs in hydrothermal veins, low- to moderate-temperature contact
metamorphic ore dposits. Forms complete solid solution with tennantite. Irregular
masses of anhedral grains interstitial to common Cu-Fe, Fe-sulfides, sphalerite,
galena, arsenopyrite and sulfosalta. Cleavages, twinning usually absent, but
growth-zoning may be visible in thin section, especially in more As-rich
members. Also occurs as rounded inclusions in galena and sphalerite.

48. URANINITE: UO2, Usually partly oxidized; Cubic


C - Medium grey with brownish tint; magnetite is medium grey with pinkish tint;
sphalerite is more grey brownish
R - 13.6 15.8
B - not present
P - not present
A - isotropic
IR - Rare, dark brown to reddish brown
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as growth-zoned crystals and as colloform, ooliitic, and
dendritic masses (111) twinning common and (100) and (111) cleavage may
occur. Often with pyrite, Cu-Fe sulfides, and other uranium minerals; may contain
inclusions of gold.

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

49. WOLFRAMITE: (Fe,Mn)WO4 : Monoclinic


C - medium grey, similar to sphalerite &magnetite R - low reflectivity; 14.7 - 16.4
B - weak
P - weak, grey shades
A - strongly anisotropic, greenish grey to brown
IR - relatively rare, brown
M.O.C.P. - Occurs in high-temperature hydrothermal veins, greisens, granite
pegmatites, alluvial deposits

50. ZINCITE : ZnO : Hexagonal


C - medium grey
R - low reflectivity; 11.4 - 11.8
B - masked by internal reflections
P - masked by internal reflections
A - masked by internal reflections
IR - abundant, red to yellowish
. M.O.C.P. - Occurs as rounded grains in high grade metamorphosed weathered ore
deposits. Cleavage (0001) may be visible. Forms oriented intergrowths with
hausmannite. Sometimes associated with franklinite.
BIBILIOGRAPHY
JAMES R. CRAIG AND DAVID J. VAUGHAN (1194) ORE MICROSCOPY AND ORE
PETROGRAPHY Second Edition pp.1-446
JAMES R. CRAIG ORE (2004) MINERAL TEXTURES AND THE TALES THEY TELL. THE
CANADIAN MINERALOGIST VOL. 39. Part.4. pp.937-956
MALHOTRA P. D. AND PRASADA RAO G. H. S. V.(1955) ON THE COMPOSITION OF SOME
INDIAN CHROMITES. INDIAN MINERALS, GSI
PAUL RAMDOHR (1969) ORE MINERALS AND THEIR GROWTH. ELSIEVER
PICOT, P. (1982). ATLAS OFORE MINERALS
YURY L. VOYTEKHOVSKY, YURY N. NERADOVSKY (2008) THE CU-NI-PGE AND CR
DEPOSITS OF THE MONCHEGORSK AREA, THE KOLA PENINSULA, RUSSIA 33 IGC
EXCURSION NO 48.

PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD

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