Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
I. INTRODUCTION
It is reported that Berzelius had the idea of polishing a fragment of metallic mineral for
the examination of its texture during the earlier part of the nineteenth century. But, it was
due to Sorby and particularly to Osmond and Henri Le Chatelier, that the technique for
the study of opaque minerals had the opportunity of being recognised everywhere among
the mineral technologists engaged in efficient working of the metalliferous deposits and
also among the mineralogists interested in academic study of the ore texture and ore
genesis. The first important microscopic study of metallic minerals was carried out by
W.Campbell in 1906, who studied ore samples from Sudbury (Canada). For this, he
merely applied the existing microscopic method used for metals, to ore minerals. This
method was developed by Osmond in 1890 and is known as reflected light microscopy.
Unlike translucent minerals in transmitted light, many of the optical properties of opaque
minerals in reflected light are perceived to change as the viewing conditions are altered.
In well polished, untarnished sections the perceived surface colour and reflectance of
opaque minerals will depend upon the presence of coloured filters in the light path, the
strength of the illumination, the magnification of the lenses and whether air or oil
immersion techniques are used. Even when these are standardized the apparent optical
properties of a mineral will be partially dependent on those of adjacent minerals. A
mineral, therefore, can appear quite 'different' in different associations and so the most
Optical phenomena in reflected light are nevertheless much more complex than in
transmitted light. For example, extinction phenomena under crossed nicols or
pleochroism do not have the same meaning in reflected light as in transmitted light. For
opaque minerals, it is extremely difficult to obtain optical constants such as indices of
refraction, rather reflectance measurements are made in air and in oil immersion. Visual
estimation of reflectance can also be used but this subjective determination is a function
of the quality of polishing, and the influence of surrounding minerals must be taken into
account.
Uses of Reflected light microscopy
Mineralisation is seldom the result of a single process, but involves several processes
whose succession needs to be defined and should eventually be linked to geological
events. Ore microscopic studies not only help in the identification of various ore
minerals, but also in the study of relationships between mineral phases and determination
of their order of crystallisation. Presence of different textures and structures which
provide implicit information on the conditions of their formation can also be observed by
metallographic studies. The importance of study of ore textures is discussed in later
section.
Techniques of Ore Mineragraphic Studies
Most ore specimen is assemblages of several intimately intergrown minerals.
Identification of minerals in is difficult or often impossible in hand specimens and
requires to be studied under microscope for correct identification. The study of textures
and structures of ores is equally important because these features record the conditions
under which the ores have formed, the processes by which the minerals were deposited,
and the order in which they developed. The most important aspect in ore microscopy is
the preparation of polished surface of the specimen. Basically the process of preparation
of polished surface involves trimming, grinding and polishing of the ore specimen. The
first step in ore microscopy is the identification of ore minerals as seen on polished
surfaces under reflected polarised light.
Colour: Colour and brightness are functions of transparency. The transparent minerals
appear dark in polished surfaces because they reflect little light. Opaque minerals reflect
greater percentage and therefore appear brighter. The colour of ore mineral under
reflected plane polarised light is an important characteristic and useful property. Only a
few ore minerals are strongly and distinctively coloured (e.g. covellite, bornite, gold
etc.). However, the colours of majority of ore minerals range from pure white to grey,
with intermediate tints. The eye is poor at 'remembering' a particular colour after even a
very short time lag, and hence consecutive comparisons of colour can be made only for
large differences. Colour cannot be distinguished by a name, except in a crude way. For
example pyrrhotite has a characteristic color ('pyrrhotite color') which the observer soon
learns to recognize, but which has been described in the literature as cream, pale
brownish-cream, clear-bronze, pale yellowish-red, and so on. As color is a function of the
character of the human eye, each observer must make his own descriptions of the colors
of minerals and must not be disconcerted if the pale cream mineral he has just observed
is described as light yellow by someone else. Also with some practice, many of the subtle
colour differences become apparent.
Colour should be observed under a low power objective when Polarizer is
inserted and Analyzer is withdrawn under good illumination condition. The incident field
stop (IFS) and incident aperture diaphragm (IAD) should be wide open. The colour of a
mineral is strongly influenced by the colour of neighbouring crystals ('mutual color
interference'). For example, chalcopyrite by itself has a characteristic and easily
recognizable yellow colour. Inside sphalerite, it appears a very clear yellow, but in
contrast with native gold, it appears a dull greenish yellow. In these circumstances, it
may help to close down the IFS, so that the field of view is essentially monomineralic.
A difference in reflectivity can affect the eye, and where two minerals have a
similar colour but different reflectivity, the one of higher reflectivity appears the clearer
because of its greater brightness. Colour of ore minerals is a function of the index of
refraction (RI) of the immersion medium (the medium comprising the space between the
objective and the surface of the mineral). In general, colour differs when viewed in
different media like air, water, oil etc. Sometimes the colour difference is very striking. It
may be noted that many ore minerals which occupy solid solution fields (for example
ilmenite, sphalerite, pentlandite) will exhibit color variations, even in identically oriented
sections. Occasionally, this leads to an overlapping of the colours of minerals, which
could have been normally distinguished readily. In such cases, the change of colour
produced by immersion in cedar oil is an aid to identification.
Reflectivity: In reflected light, light do not pass through the ore minerals. Thus, there is
no optical path in the specimen and also there is no interference. The properties observed
under reflected light are due to surface reflection, and the most striking of them is the
reflectivity. Reflectivity is defined as the ratio of the intensity of the light reflected by a
mineral to the intensity of the light incident upon it, expressed in percent (R%). This
varies from below 10 to nearly 100% in opaque substances. Reflectance measurements
are performed using photo-electric devices which consist chiefly of a photomultiplier
tube mounted on the ore microscope with which estimations are made by comparison
with known standards.
The relative reflectivity is judged in comparison with a known mineral. It must be
considered that the visual impression of the reflectivity is influenced markedly by the
effect of contrast to neighbouring crystals with higher or lower reflectivity. In an
environment of highly reflecting crystals, a moderately reflecting crystal appears
oppressed and pale or, conversely, will seem brighter than would correspond to its real
reflectivity. For example, consider a polished specimen of quartzose gangue with
molybdenite (R% - 20.9 - 40.0) and arsenopyrite (R% - 52.0). The molybdenite appears
bright against the gangue, but when there is arsenopyrite in the field, the molybdenite is
so dull that it hardly appears to be the same mineral as before. In such cases, use of the
incident field stop (IFS) may be of assistance in ascertaining relative reflectivity of ore
minerals.
Assuming equally good polish, isometric minerals exhibit constant reflectivity
within a given species - all galena, regardless of the orientation of the crystal with respect
to the plane of the polish, has the same silvery-white appearance in vertically reflected
light. Non-isometric minerals theoretically have different absorption coefficients, hence
different reflectivities, in different optical directions. In a few minerals, such as covellite
and molybdenite, such differences are readily recognizable to the unaided eye, in some
species (e.g. chalcopyrite) difference in reflectivity may not be recognizable regardless of
orientation. The reflectivity of a mineral in air (n-1) is higher than its reflectivity in water
(n-1.333) or immersion oil (n-1.515). It is easy to arrange the minerals in a specimen in
order of increase in reflectance by visual inspection. It is possible with little experience to
estimate the reflectance of unknown phases by comparing with known standards (e.g.
magnetite R% - ~20; galena R% - ~43; pyrite R% - ~55).
Mineral Phases
Other Observations
Intense pleochroism
Covellite
Blue
Chalcocite, Digenite
Weakly anisotropic
Gold
Chalcopyrite
Millerite, Cubanite
Strong anisotropy
Mackinawite, Valleriite
Strong pleochroism
Bornite
Weak anisotropy
Copper
Isotropic
Breithauptite
Anisotropic
Yellow
Red-brown to brown
Mineral
Mean Color
Color of R1 (darker)
Color of R2
(lighter)
Covellite
Blue
bluish-white
Molybdenite
whitish to gray
whitish-gray
white
pyrrhotite
clear brownish
pinkish-brown
brownish-yellow
clear pinkish-brown
bluish-white
pink-brown
clear yellow
yellow
Niccolite
pinkish to brownish
white
Cubanite
bronze-yellow
1. Polishing hardness
2. Scratch hardness
3. Micro-indentation hardness
It is important to note that these three forms are not entirely equivalent, being the
response to different kinds of deformation or abrasion. The first two can be determined
under microscope by comparing the relative hardness of adjacent phases and can be very
helpful in mineral identification. The third one forms the basis of quantitative hardness
determination and is described under quantitative methods.
Polishing Hardness: This is the resistance of a particular mineral to abrasion during the
polishing process. While polishing, the soft minerals are worn away more easily than the
hard minerals. Thus the harder minerals stand slightly above the surface of softer grains
in the section giving rise to an effect called "polishing relief". In such cases, it is possible
to judge the relative polishing hardness by mere observation of relief.
Polishing hardness can be examined under a standard ore microscope by comparing the
relative hardness (i.e. relief) of adjacent phases and can be very helpful in mineral
identification. The determination involves a simple test using the Kalb light line, a
phenomenon analogous to the Becke line used in transmitted light. The junctions of a
hard and soft grain tend to exhibit slight departure from flatness.
Scratch Hardness: Although perfectly polished samples are completely scratch free, in
practice the surface of a polished specimen always has some scratches. The relative
amount of surface scratches and the depth of scratches that cross the grain boundaries
may be used in favourable circumstances to estimate their relative hardness. A scratch
extending across the boundary between two minerals may indicate relative hardness by
being more deeply incised in the softer mineral.
Isotropic minerals with good extinction (i.e. minerals with low to medium reflectivity)
These will remain completely dark through 3600 of rotation. Examples are sphalerite,
magnetic and chromite.
2. Isotropic minerals with poor extinction (i.e. minerals of high reflectivity): These will
be very faintly illuminated, but will not show change in colour or intensity of
illumination through 3600 of rotation. Examples are pyrite and native silver. Precaution
must be kept in mind that all isometric minerals are not fully isotropic.
Under crossed polars, some minerals (i.e. minerals crystallising in systems other
than Isometric system and basal sections of uniaxial minerals) will show a change in
intensity of illumination or colour of illumination, or both, as the stage is rotated. These
are called anisotropic minerals and the observed colours are referred to as polarization
colours and are often highly characteristic and useful in mineral identification. If the
nicols are exactly crossed, then there will be four positions of maximum darkness
('extinction positions'), in a complete 3600 rotation of the stage, exactly at 900 apart
alternating with four positions of maximum illumination lying at about 450 to the
positions of extinctions.
Examples:
Distinctly anisotropic minerals: pyrrhotite, wolframite and arsenopyrite (These
minerals have distinct positions of extinction on rotation of the stage)
Strongly anisotropic minerals: graphite, covellite, sylvanite and chalcophenite (These
have bright reflection in between the positions of extinction)
Weakly anisotropic minerals: chalcopyrite (These should be viewed very carefully in
strong light). Care must be taken while observing anisotropism, as because reflection
from scratches and rough surfaces in a poorly polished sample may show apparent
anisotropy. For example, a poorly polished pyrite often shows apparent anisotropy which
will disappear if the polish is improved.
Internal Reflections:
Many ore minerals (for example, sphalerite) are sufficiently translucent or transparent so
that incident light can penetrate inside to substantial depths below the surface of the
specimen. If this light is reflected back to the observer through the tube of the microscope
by a cleavage crack, grain boundary, or some other subsurface feature, it will assume the
colour of the mineral in transmitted light. Such light appearing from diffused areas or
patches is known as internal reflections. Both the occurrence of internal reflections and
their colours are of diagnostic value. Thus, malachite has green internal reflections, but
the true surface reflection colour is dark-gray. Cuprite has scarlet red internal reflections,
but the true surface colour is bluish-white. Internal reflections are best seen under crossed
polars, they may also be visible in plane polarized light. After focusing the specimen in
reflected light, turn off the vertically incident light and view the surface in a strong beam
of obliquely incident light. Scratches on the polished surface will appear bright, but if the
focus is lowered slightly, internal reflections may be observed. Non-opaque minerals, for
example, quartz and the feldspars, will also show internal reflections - usually white or
perhaps yellow in the case of biotite.
Most internal reflections are in the range from red to brown to yellow.
Some examples of minerals that exhibit internal reflections are:
IV
Azurite
Blue
Cassiterite
Chromite
Brownish red
Cuprite
Strong red
Haematite
Blood red
Ilmenite
Malachite
Green
Rutile
Scheelite
White
Sphalerite
Yellow to reddish-brown
Wolframite
Deep brown
MORPHOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES
OF
ORE
MINERALS
UNDER
MICROSCOPE
The physical properties of ore minerals observed in polished sections are also of great
assistance in mineral identification, and hence their study is routine in ore microscopy.
The most useful and easily observable physical properties are crystal form and habit,
cleavage and parting, twinning, zoning, inclusions and intergrowths and hardness.
Twinning, deformation structures and zonal growth, which are invisible without analyzer
in many minerals, are often strikingly revealed between crossed nicols as a consequence
of anisotropism.
Crystal Form and Habit: Some ore minerals, particularly the harder ones viz., pyrite,
hematite, wolframite, arsenopyrite, cobaltite and magnetite have a remarkable power of
crystallization and develop well formed crystals even under adverse conditions. The
softer minerals, e.g. chalcopyrite, galena, tetrahedrite and pyrargyrite have somewhat
lower powers of crystallization and form crystals only in open spaces. Since a polished
surface shows two dimensional sections rather than whole crystals, the shape as seen in a
polished section depends upon the manner the crystal is intersected by the polished
surface. Thus cubes appear rectangular or triangular of various shapes; hexagonal prisms
appear hexagonal or rectangular, etc., so that the crystal form must be mentally
reconstructed from observations of a number of crystals of a particular mineral.
Terms used in mineralogy e.g. cubic, octahedral, acicular, radiating, columnar, bladed,
tabular, foliate, micaceous, concentric, colloform, prismatic, fibrous, etc. are appropriate
for describing crystal form and habit as seen in polished sections.
Zoning : Many ore minerals exhibit zonal growth in the form of concentrically shelled
structure indicating deposition in successive layers around a nucleus. The shells may be
few or many and thin or thick. Zoning is sometimes visible in ordinary light due to color
contrasts, physical discontinuities or zonally arranged inclusions. In other cases, zoning is
visible only in crossed nicols or after etching with an appropriate chemical.
Zoning in minerals is due to either of the following reasons:
1. Pauses in deposition
2. Changes in the rate of growth
3. Variation in the composition of successively deposited layers.
Galena, sphalerite, pyrite, stibnite, cobaltite and arsenopyrite are some of the many
minerals that show zonal structure.
Cleavage and Parting: Although cleavage or parting is a mineral property often readily
seen in hand specimen or in a thin section of a translucent mineral, it is not as commonly
observed in a polished section. Cleavage or parting is evident in the form of one or more
sets of parallel, distinct or indistinct cracks. Cleavage of a mineral may not be evident in
a well polished surface, or in minerals occurring in fine grained aggregates. It is likely to
be more evident in slightly weathered ores, during the earlier stages of polishing, at the
margins of grains, or after etching. Minerals may exhibit one to three sets of cleavages
depending upon the number of sets present and the orientation of the polished surface
with respect to these. The presence of three or more sets of cleavages may give rise to
triangular pits usually arranged in rows parallel to one set. Such pits are characteristic of
galena, and may also be present in magnetite, pentlandite etc. A prismatic cleavage gives
rise to diamond-shaped, triangular or rectangular patterns; a pinnacoidal cleavage gives
rise to a set of parallel cracks.
Twinning: In polished sections, three major types of twinning may be observed in ore
minerals seen - (i) growth, (ii) inversion and (iii) deformation. Twinning is best seen in
anisotropic minerals under crossed polars. In isotropic minerals, it is generally not visible
unless the surface is etched. It is sometimes evident from abrupt changes in the
orientation of cleavages or of rows of inclusions. The crystallographic planes involved in
twinning are usually not determinable in polished sections. Nevertheless, the twin
patterns in some minerals are quite characteristic e.g. "arrowhead" twins (growth) in
marcasite, lamellar twins (deformation) in hematite and chalcopyrite and "oleander leaf"
twins (inversion) in chalcopyrite, stannite and acanthite. Growth twinning in ore minerals
may be simple or complex and may show one or several laws. Twinning due to
mechanical deformation, particularly in soft minerals, often leads to curving and bending.
Inclusions: Inclusions of one or more minerals in another are very common feature of
ores. The characteristics of inclusions depend to some extent on the mode of formation of
the guest and the host. They may have either of the following modes of formation:
1. Grains of a mineral accidentally included during growth of the host
2. Remnants of a pre-existing mineral that was replaced by the host
3. Result from simultaneous deposition of a mineral with the host having different rate
of growth
4. Products of breakdown (exsolution) of a solid solution into two components
QUANTITATIVE METHODS:
Metallographic study also gives information on the relative stability or instability of the
phases. Presence of zoning in certain minerals indicates that chemical variation has
occurred during crystallisation.
The extent to which the ore minerals retain their composition and textures formed during
initial crystallization varies widely:
a) Oxides, disulfides, arsenides and sphalerite are the most refractory ore minerals and
hence are more likely to preserve evidence of their original conditions of formations.
b) Cu-Fe sulphides and pyrrhotite are less readily re-equilibrated.
c) Native metals, sulfosalte and argentite are among the most readily re-equilibrated ore
minerals, and are thus least likely to reflect initial formation conditions.
The variability in terms of equilibration rates in terms of time for various minerals is
shown below. Equilibration times for various sulphides involved in solid-state reactions.
PETROLOGY DIVISION, GSITI, HYDERABAD
The field widths represent differing rates in different reactions as well as changes in rates
due to compositional differences, and experimental uncertainty.
Furthermore, the location of precious elements or undesirable elements can only be seen
under a microscope. It is desirable, for example, to know the nature of silver in a lead
deposit - whether it is present in the galena structure or expressed as secondary argentite
resulting from alteration enrichment, or as primary silver mineralisation, etc. These have
a bearing on mineral dressing and sometimes the economic value of the ore.
Textural studies also has considerable practical interest for ore processing, such
as milling and beneficiation processes, since ore mineral textures provide insights as to
the effective means of extracting the metals. The study of grain size of minerals and the
way they are intergrown permits the evaluation of Separation mesh; that is, the grain
size necessary to obtain optimum separation of the different constituents. The textures of
ore minerals can provide valuable information about futures of the metals insofar as their
dispersal in the environment is concerned. Metals, particularly the heavy ones, have the
potential to becoming major pollutants, if released into the environment by weathering.
1. Cumulus textures: It result from the settling of an ore deposit from a crystallizing
magma (Early magmatic). The most common example is chromite which occurs as a
cumulus phase relative to olivine and pyroxene.
Ilm
Pyrite
Pyrr
Arsenopyrite
Pyrite (pitted), pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite.
Notice the infilling nature of chalcopytite
Chalcopyrite
Exsolution texture: Sphalerite stars in
Chalcopyrite (Sakoli, Maharashtra)
13) Deposition of one or more hydrothermal minerals along a clear alteration front.
14) Doubly terminating crystals: If a crystal grows within an open cavity, it is normally
attached to one of the walls of the fracture, and can develop crystal faces only on the
other end (i.e. the one away from this wall). In contrast, the process of replacement
may result in the growth of euhedral crystals with well developed faces on more
than one end.
15) The lack of offset on a fracture intersected by the replacing mineral: In contrast to
open space filling which may be associated with displacement of a pre-existing
structure by the fracture being filled by hydrothermal fluids, replacement across a
pre-existing structure will not be accompanied by such offset. The same holds true
for two intersecting fractures.
B. Open space filling textures: Open space filling is common at shallow depths where
brittle rocks deform by fracturing rather than by plastic flow. At these shallow depths, ore
bearing fluids may circulate freely within fractures, depositing ore and gangue minerals
when sudden or abrupt changes in P and/or T take place. As such, open space filling
textures will be different from those resulting from replacement, and a set of criteria may
be used to identify this process. Nevertheless, many hydrothermal ore deposits form by
the combined effects of replacement and open space filling, which requires a lot of
caution in textural interpretation.
5. Symmetrical banding
6. Matching walls: If an open fissure has been filled without replacement, the outlines of
opposite walls should match.
7. Cockade structure: Mineralization within the open spaces of a breccia or any other
fragmental rock will commonly produce a special pattern of symmetrical banding and
crustification where each opening acts as a centre for sequential deposition.
8. Offset oblique structures
In addition to replacement and open space filing textures, very low temperature
hydrothermal deposits (epithermal and telethermal deposits) are often characterized by
colloform habits and banding described in the following section.
Under surfacial conditions, ore minerals may be deposited from colloidal solutions. A
colloid is defined as a system consisting of two phases, one diffused in the other.
Colloidal particles range in size between ions in a true solution and particles that are <
10-3 cm in a coarse suspension. The colloidal material may be solid, liquid or gas
dispersed in another solid, liquid or gas. Colloidal solutions believed to be responsible for
the formation of ore deposits usually consist of solids dispersed in liquids and are called
"sols". In such sols, colloidal particles commonly adsorb either cations or anions, and
thus acquire similar charges which cause them to repel each other, preventing them from
coagulation. If an electrolyte is added to such a sol, the colloidal particles are neutralized
and flocculate giving rise to a variety of textures which include:
a) Botryoidal or reniform aggregates
b) Banding or very fine layering
c) Leisegang rings
These textures are broadly termed as "colloform" textures. Because some colloform
textures were observed in some hydrothermal deposits, it was believed that some
hydrothermal solutions were colloids. However, fluid inclusion analysis showed that
hydrothermal solutions are too saline to have been in the colloidal state, and the term
"colloform" should be considered descriptive and non-genetic.
Criteria to identify a colloform texture as a product of deposition from colloidal solution:
1) Shrinkage cracks: which develop due to dehydration of a gel
2) Liesegang rings: Are coloured bands that form when an electrolyte is allowed to
diffuse into a gel. Liesegang rings are common in amorphous, cryptocrystalline and
microcrystalline "minerals" or mineraloids as agate and opal.
3) Variable composition of bands and/or deposits: This phenomenon is due to the ability
of colloids to adsorb different ions from their surroundings.
4) Non-crystalline structure: The occurrence of amorphous "minerals" or mineraloids
(e.g. opal) is an indication of formation from a colloidal solution. However, such
mineraloids will tend to crystallize with time.
5) Spheroidal texture: Are rounded objects similar to pisolites, which result from the low
surface tension of a colloid.
Mineral Assemblages & Paragenesis of Ores
Ore minerals generally occur in association that is characteristic in their mineralogy,
textures and relationships to specific rock types. The existence of these characteristic
associations, each containing its own typical suite of ore minerals has been recognised.
These associations largely result from the formation of the ores under characteristically
limited physico-chemical conditions, the nature of which may be inferred from detailed
study of ores.
The term 'paragenesis' refers to the time-successive order of formation of a group of
associated minerals within a particular deposit. Since the great majority of ore mineral
occurrences have been formed by several distinct periods of mineralization, the complete
description of the paragenesis of a deposit involves establishing the order in which the
constituent minerals have been formed and the sequence of resorptions and replacements
that have occurred. In order to establish the paragenetic sequence in a deposit, two broad
approaches are useful:
Frequently the minerals in an ore occur in groups, so that age relationships can be
established between members of an individual group, and between groups as a
whole.
This change in the character of the mineralizing fluids is also revealed in the changing
composition of the gangue minerals.
Abbreviations
Colour
Bireflectance
Reflective pleochroism
Anisotropism
IR
Internal reflection
M.O.C.P.
pyrrhotite, galena, sphalerite, gold, molybdenite. Takes good polish, white colour,
anisotropic.
R - 23
B - usually absent, sometimes very weak in oi.
A - isotropic; sometimes weakly anomalous
IR - not present.
M.O.C.P. - Occurs as euhedral crystals and as granular aggregates in
pneumatolytic, hydrothermal, metamorphic rocks. Cleavage (111), lamellar
twinning and zonal growth may be visible. Occurs with hematite, braunite,
pyrolusite, hausmanite.
in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Occurs with magnetite, hematite, rutile, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, chromite, pentlandite, tantalite.
IR - not present
M.O.C.P. - Commonly occurs as interlocking to radiating aggregates of euhedral
crystals; sometimes as skeletal crystals, commonly twinned. Usually associated
with other arsenides, arsenopyrite, uraninite, antimony, chalcopyrite, galena.
47. TETRAHEDRITE:(Cu,Fe)12Sb4S13(may contain Fe, Zn, Ag, As, Hg, etc); Cubic
C - medium grey with olive or brownish tint; brownish or greenish than galena
chalcocite is bluish gray, lighter than Sphalerite
R - 32.78
B - not present
P - not present
A - isotropic
IR - uncommon, increasingly commonly as As-content increases, reddish
M.O.C.P. - Occurs in hydrothermal veins, low- to moderate-temperature contact
metamorphic ore dposits. Forms complete solid solution with tennantite. Irregular
masses of anhedral grains interstitial to common Cu-Fe, Fe-sulfides, sphalerite,
galena, arsenopyrite and sulfosalta. Cleavages, twinning usually absent, but
growth-zoning may be visible in thin section, especially in more As-rich
members. Also occurs as rounded inclusions in galena and sphalerite.