THE AUDIO-LINGUAL HABIT THEORY VERSUS THE

COGNITIVE CODE-LEARNING THEORY1):

SOME THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS*)
Kenneth Chastain
Les professeurs de lang u es ont
convaincus, depuis le debut des annees
cinquante, que les precedes audio-linguaux etaient bases sr des principes
d'apprentissage sains. L'experience n'a pourtant pas toujours confirme ces vues.
La psychologic cognitive moderne e$t basee sjir des faits neuro-psycholpgiques
recemment decouverts. Beaucoup de chercheurs modernes ont nie l'importance
fondamentale de Timitation et de la repetition.
L'auteur termine en soulignant I'importance d'un exam en approfondi, a la
lumiere des formules theoriques actuelles, des resultats obtenus. Nos connaiss an ces ne sont pas completes. Le professeur de langues doit suivre avec attention
les recherches en marche dans ce domaine.
\
Seit 1950 etwa sind vide Fremdsprachenlehrer berzeugt, da die Methoden des
audio-lingualen Unterrichts auf einer wissenschaftlich fundierten Lerntheorie basieren. Vergleichende Unterricht s expefimente haben diese Ansicht jedoch nicht
immer besttigt.
Die moderne Erkenntnispsychologie grndet ihre Theorie des Spracherwerbs
auf neuro-psychologische Vorgnge, die erst krzlich entdeckt wurden. Viele
moderne Forscher bestreiten die fundamentale Bedeutung der Imitation und
Wiederholung beim Erlernen von Fremdsprachen.
Der Artikel unterstreicht die Bedeutung einer grndlichen berprfung der
bisherigen Forschungsergebnisse im Lichte des heutigen Wissensstandes. Unsere
Kenntnisse vom Lernproze sind lckenhaft. Der Fremdsprachenlehrer sollte daher die gegenwrtig auf diesem Gebiet durchgefhrten Forschungen und Experimente aufmerksam verfolgen.

INTRODUCTION
Since the early fifties the language teacher has been urged to adopt
audio-lingual procedures which, he was assured, were based on
sound (no pun intended) psychological principles of learning. However, experience has not, in many cases, confirmed the expectations
*) The author gratefully acknowledges the contribution of Professor John F.
Feldhusen of Purdue University.
!) John B. Carroll, "The Contributions of Psychological Theory and Educational Research to the Teaching of Foreign Languages," Modern Language Journal, 49
(1965), p. 278.

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of the converts, and many problems have arisen concerning early

claims of the audio-lingual advocates. Presently, the new science of
psycholinguistics is searching for solutions to still unanswered
questions. Such ideas as those proposed by Chomsky and such books
as The Genesis of Language by Smith and Miller, although having had
no great influence on language teaching up to the present time, have
caused language teachers to pause and to reconsider ideas previously
accepted as confirmed principles of language learning. For example,
in Genesis of Language Fodor states, "... imitation and reinforcement,
the two concepts with which American psychologists have traditionally approached problems about language-learning, are simply
useless here."2) If he is right, then profound changes in recommended teaching procedures can'be expected.
Even though the language teacher's role lies at the opposite end
of the spectrum from the speculative realm of language learning
theory, an examination of the theory behind current teaching methods
and procedures is beneficial toward gaining an increased understanding of the basic concepts involved in his work. The purpose of
this paper is to discuss the development of the audio-lingual habit
theory and to review some of the comments now being made which
support a more cognitive approach to language teaching.
THE AUDIO-LINGUAL HABIT THEORY
The roots of the audio-lingual method are to be found in the twenties
among those doing work in descriptive linguistics. The dominant
influence in the early beginnings of the movement was that of Bloomfield. The methods applied in the Armed Forces language schools
were actually those which had been developed by 'Bloomfieldian
linguists' in establishing various centers for intensive language
courses prior to the war. Some time after the war these same basic
tenets were adapted to the language programs in the nation's
schools.3)
However, in order to understand more fully the direction language teaching has taken one must be aware that Bloomfield was a
2

) Frank Smith and George A. Miller, The Genesis of Language (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1966), p. 112.
3
) Jacob Ornstein and William W. Gage, The ABC's of Languages and Linguistics
(Philadelphia, 1964), pp. 59-61.

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behaviorist. He rejected mentalistic interpretations of learning in

favor of a mechanistic approach. 4>5) Such statements as, "The command of a language is not a matter of knowledge: the speakers are
quite unable to describe the habits which make up their language.
The command of a language is a matter of practice," and "LANGUAGE LEARNING IS OVERLEARNING: ANYTHING ELSE
IS OF NO USE"6) prepared the way for a new methodology based
on language acquisition through a process of habit formation consistent with behavioristic principles of learning. Given Bloomfield's
linguistic background stressing speech as behavior and his acceptance of behavioristic theories of learning, one can more easily comprehend the directions which language teaching has taken. Politzer
states that 'behaviorism' was one of the basic contributions of linguistics to the teaching of modern foreign languages in the 1940's.7)
Modern linguistic science maintains that language is behavior. The
audio-linguists maintain that only classroom procedures which induce
behavior in the classroom will develop the terminal behaviors desired.
These methodological tenets of the audio-lingual habit theorists
are closely related to the Skinnerian model of learning.8) Skinner feels
that verbal behavior like any other behavior is composed of stimulusresponse bonds. In his opinion language is a mechanical, not an
intellectual, process. In order for behavior to be conditioned the student must be led through a series of stimulus-response situations in
which his active response is followed by immediate reinforcement.
Many of the current practices in language teaching such as pattern
drills and mimicry-memorization drills are the practical outgrowth
of Skinnerian principles of successive approximation to desired
behavior. These theoretical considerations have promoted a method
in which, in the early stages of the learning process, meaning has been
postponed in order to stress development of automatic responses.
The plan is to practice the pattern to a saturation point of an "auto4

) S. Hattori, "The Sound and the Meaning of Language/' Foundations of Language,

1 (1965), pp. 98-99.
5) Ornstein and Gage, p. 57.
6
) L. Bloomfield, Outline Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages (Baltimore,
1942), p. 12.
7
) Robert L. Politzer, "The Impact of Linguistics on Language Teaching: Past,
Present and Future/' Modern Language Journal, 48 (1964), p. 149.
8
) Bernard Spolsky, "A Psycholinguistic Critique of Programmed Foreign Language Instruction", IRAL, 4 (1966), . 12.

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matic, n on thoughtful" response.9) Valette states that new curriculum

materials have been devised on the assumption that foreign-language
learning is basically a mechanical process of habit formation.10) Morton and Lane have applied Skinner's concepts of "operant conditioning" to second language learning and have found that the tasks involved in developing second language skills are "indistinguishable
from those undertaken in the operant conditioning laboratory."11)
THE COGNITIVE CODE^LEARNING THEORY
The audio-lingual habit theory is now being seriously challenged for
the first time on theoretical as well as practical grounds. The cognitive
code-learning theory, although in agreement with some of the prevailing opinions held by foreign language teachers prior to the 'New
Key', is nevertheless of more recent theoretical formulation. There is
a correspondence between its basic theories and the counter-movement against the behaviorist psychologists which has developed in
the last fifteen years.12) These theories rest upon neuro-psychological
bases of thought and language now being proposed by cognitive
psychologists. The advent of computer simulation of problem solving
has stimulated attempts at developing theoretical frameworks within
the 'black box' avoided so carefully by the behaviorist psychologists.
Such theories are beginning to challenge Skinner's theories and to
move beyond the realm of animal type learning.
Audio-lingual practices are based on the theory that language is
behavior. However, Chomsky questions this viewpoint saying, "... it
seems to me impossible to accept the view that linguistic behavior is
a matter of habit, that it is slowly acquired by reinforcement, association, and generalization..."13) In fact, the almost infinite variety of
9

) Wilga M. Rivers, The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher (Chicago,
1964), pp. 26-38.
) Rebecca M. Valette, " Evaluation of the Objectives in Foreign-Language Teaching", IRAL, 4 (1966), p. 132^.
11
) F. R. Morton and H. L. Lane, "Techniques of Operant Conditioning Applied
to Second Language Learning", (An address to the International Congress of Applied Psychology), Copenhagen, 1961.
12
) W. E. Lambert, "Psychological Approaches to the Study of Language Part I:
On Learning, Thinking and Human Abilities", Modern Language Journal, 47 (1963),
p. 56.
13
) Noam Chomsky, "Linguistic Theory", Northeast Conference Reports on Language
Teaching: Broader Contexts (Menasha, Wisconsin, 1966), p. 43.

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AUDIO-LINGUAL HABIT THEORY

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speech patterns in the native speaker's repertoire can not be accounted

for on the basis of stimulus-response learning. If language acquisition
occurred as a result of stimulus-response learning, Miller, etal. say
that a childhood 100 years long with no interruptions for sleeping,
eating, etc., and perfect retention of every string of twenty words
after one presentation would be necessary to account for the language
skill.l4) A native speaker is continually creating new utterances, not
merely repeating identical responses to previously met stimuli. McNeill
agrees, saying, "The use of language resembles more writing a play
than performing in one".15) Spolsky points out, "Knowing a language involves not just the performance of language-like behaviors,
but an underlying competence that makes such performance possible.
By ignoring this, it has been easy to make exaggerated claims for the
effectiveness of operant conditioning in second-language teaching." 16)
Osgood has separated the ability to use language into three levels:
(1) a "representational level", (2) an " integrational level", and (3) a
"skill level". Actual oral response is an internally coordinated reaction
involving all three of these levels.17) Miller etal., in Plans and the structure
of Behavior have proposed that our behavior, including language, is
controlled by cognitive processes which develop plans which the
organism then proceeds to carry out. Hebb says that sentence construction can not be explained as a series of conditioned responses.
He feels that there is a strong indication that thoughts run well ahead
of speech.18)
Various writers have expressed objection to a behavioristic model
of learning in general and of language learning in particular. Taba
questions the value of practice without understanding underlying
principles.19) Briggs and Hamilton comment, "There is increasing
evidence that, for meaningful learning, the roles of overt responding,
practice, and reinforcement can be overemphasized, to the neglect ...
of subsumption and - other cognitive processes..." 20 ) Gagne de14

) G. A. Miller, etal., Plans and the Structure of Behavior (New York, I960), p. 146.

*5) David McNeill, "Some Thoughts on First and Second Language Acquisition", (mimeographed) (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1965), p. 3.
) Spolsky, p. 123.
17
) Psycholinguistik. A Survey* of Theory and Research Problems, editors, Charles E.
Osgood and Thomas A. Sebeok (Bloomington, Indiana, 1965), p. 95.
) Lambert, p. 58.
l

) Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development Theory and Practice (New York, 1962), p. 82.

20

) Leslie J. Briggs and Nancy R. Hamilton, "Meaningful Learning and Retention: Practice and Feedback Variables", Review of Educational Research, 34(1964),
p. 546.

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scribes the learning process as having several levels. His description

proceeds from the simplest to most complex types of learning. In his
model stimulus-response learning, as promoted by the behaviorists,
is a foundation for, but a small part of, higher intellectual processes.21) Others feel that there may be more than one level of language
learning22) and perhaps various levels of language itself. Valdman
states that the new methodology has a very thin psycho-pedagogical
base in the normal classroom situation.23) McKinnon notes that
pattern practice used in audio4ingual classes is adequate to teach the
sound system of language, but not to teach meaning.24) Miller etaL
suggest that skills are actions which were originally voluntary but
which have become automatic through overlearning.25) Gesell states
that early speech in a young child i part of a" complete physical
response, but that by age three the cognitive processes begin to separate from the total overt response of the child.26) McNeill doubts the
applicability of a stimulus-response model to language learning due
to the fact that the early grammar of a child is not like that of adults
and therefore could not be the result of mere imitation. In his opinion
children are born with an innate cognitive ability to develop their own
grammatical system.27) Penfield in discussing a child's ability to learn
language explains:
After the age of 12 or 13, however, nature withdraws that
gift and replaces it by the power to reason. At that age, he
prefers to reason rather than to memorize; he seeks general
principles that will enable him to increase his stock of knowledge by a process of reason. In other words, he wants rules
of grammar as a lielp to learning. This law of bilingualism
explains why an intelligent adult is never successful in mastering a foreign language without learning in a function away
certain fundamental principles that govern the structure of the
21

) Robert M. Gagne, The Conditions of Learning (New York, 1965)* pp. 3161.
) Rivers, pp. 43-46.
23) Trends in Language Teaching, ed. Albert Valdman (New York, 1966) pp. IXX.
24
) Kenneth McKinnon, An Experimental Study of the Learning of Syntax in Second
Language (unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University, 1965).
) Miller, et'al., p. 82.
26) Arnold Gesell, etal., The First Five Years of Life (New York, 1940), p. 43.
27) McNeill, p. 32.
22

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language and that enable him to generalize, to multiply his

experience a thousand times .. .28)
RELATED THEORY
One of the principal characteristics of the audio-lingual approach is
the study and manipulation of structural patterns of the language.29)
However, many language teachers have voiced complaints about the
hypnotic effect of such drills. Audio-lingual habit theorists defend
them as being the proper method of developing automatic responses
to verbal or written dues given in the target language. Recent psychological studies concerning the role of repetition in learning are relevant to this current practice of repetition as a basic aspect of language
acquisition. Rock precipitated a great deal of research on the subject
when he concluded that "repetition plays no role in the formation
(as distinct from strengthening) of associations, other than that of
providing the occasion for new ones to be formed, each in a single
trial."30) Estes stated that Kimble and associates found that only the
first few trials were effective in strengthening stimulus-response
bonds.31) Murdock and Babick concluded that repetition had no
discernible effect on recall.32) Although unwilling to accept Rock's
conclusion, Clark, Lansford, and Dallenbach, after having obtained
similar results, called for further studies and stated, "If, therefore,
his results are confirmed, if they are not artifacts of his method, which
has still to be proved, then all of the modern day theories of learning
that are based on repetition, or some form of it, will have to be abandoned or very radically modified."33)
Associated with a great deal of repetition is the phenomenon of
verbal satiation. Constant repetition tends to weaken or actually cause
a total lapse of meaning of the repeated word on the part of the sub28

) Wilder Penfield, Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 5 (1953).
) Robert L. Politzer and Charles N. Staubach, Teaching Spanish. A Linguistic
Orientation (Boston, 1961), p. 7.
30
) Irvin Rock, "The Role of Repetition in Associative Learning", American Journal of Psychology, 7O (1957), p. 193.
^)W. K. Estes, "Learning Theory and the New -Mental Chemistry"', The
Psychological Review, 67 (I960), p. 2O8.
*2) Bennett B. Murdock, Jr. and Arthur J. Babick, "The Effect of Repetition on
the Retention of Individual Words", American Journal of Psychology, 74 (196l), p. 6O1.
33
) Lester L. Clark, etal., "Repetition and Associative Learning", American Journal
of Psychology, 73 (I960), p. 23.
29

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ject. One article reported a dissipation of meaning within three or

four seconds. The theoretical explanation of this loss through repetition is that after a period of continually activating the environmental
referent associated with the word an inhibiting factor develops causing
a loss of the mediators involved.34) Hull's reactive inhibition postulate
states, "As a word is repeated, the trace associated with it, and with
its meaning, as well as the connection between the two, are repeatedly
activated, and should lead to their own inhibition. Repeated activation
of the traces and bonds limits their further activation/'35)
Another problem in the field of methodology is that of inductive
versus deductive presentation of materials. Scherer and Wertheimer
consider this to be the basic difference between the older methodology
and that of the newer.36) Lado and Carroll have called for further
examination of the results of inductive versus deductive presentation
of grammar in learning a second language.37'38) Torrey found students taught inductively through pattern practice to be superior to
students in classes in which grammar had been introduced deductively.39) McKinnon conducted an experiment with two relevant factors : (1) method of practice, and (2) inductive versus a deductive
presentation. The results indicated that active practice before listening
to the master tape was superior to listening prior to practice, that
practice in which pictures indicated 'situational meaning' was superior
to no pictures, and both methods were superior to normal 'pattern
practice'. In addition 'discovery learning' was not as effective as deductive presentation of structure.40)
Related to inductive learning in languages is the problem of transfer of learning across sense modalities. Dunkel examined a large
number of studies and concluded that results of studies comparing
transfer as a result of visual versus auditory presentations did not
34) W. E. Lambert and L.A. Jakobovits, "Verbal Satiation and Changes in the
Intensity of Meaning9\ Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60 (I960), pp. 376378.
35) Michael Wertheimer and Willie Mae Gillis, "Satiation and the Rate of Lapse
of Verbal Meaning*', The Journal of General Psychology, 59 (1958), p. 79.
36) G. A. C. Scherer and M. Wertheimerj A Psycholinguistic Experiment in ForeignLanguage Teaching (New York, 1964), p. 8.
37) R. Lado, Language Testing (London, 1961), pp. 381 and 386.
38) John B. Carroll, "Research on Teaching Foreign Languages", Handbook of
Research on Teaching, ed. N. L. Gage (Chicago, 1963), p. 1072.
39) Jane W. Torrey, The Learning of Grammar: An Experimental Study (Washington,
1965).
40
) McKinnon, pp. xiixiv.

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seem to vary greatly, but he indicated that visual presentation was

superior in teaching grammar.41) Later studies on the subject have
seemed to divide fairly evenly. Much research has supported a visualauditory sequence. Apparently equal numbers of studies have found
the opposite sequence to be more beneficial in aiding the learning
process. Pimsleur et al. found, in contrast to an earlier study, that the
amount of transfer depended upon the language being learned, the
learner, and his stage of development in the process of learning the
language.42) Asher concluded that in general transfer was greater
from visual to auditory but that the difference tended to disappear as
students progressed.43)
CONCLUSION
Cognitive code-learning theories disagree with audio-lingual habit
theories on two fundamental points: (1) what language is, and (2)
how it is acquired. Mental processes are accorded primary positions
in seeking answers to both propositions. In this approach emphasis
is placed on the mentalistic processes involved in learning rather
than mechanistic ones. Although admitting that structural manipulation by the native speaker is an unconscious process, those who stress
the cognitive aspects of language learning question the methods and
procedures used by audio-lingual advocates to develop the speech
process into an automatic, non-thinking skill. They feel that the fact
that a habit is an action which can be performed without conscious
thought in no way negates a process of conscious, continued application in developing the skill. For example, the fact that a man ties a tie
or drives a car without conscious awareness of individual actions in
no way signifies that this skill was attained without thinking through
each step in the beginning stages of learning. Thus, these instructors
place primary emphasis on student comprehension of structure. With
further practice the student can perfect his ability to use these same
structures unconsciously, leaving his mind free to concentrate on the
content of the speech.
41

) H. B. Dunkel, Second Language Learning (Boston, 1948), p. 119) P. Pimsleur, et al.9 "Further Study of the Transfer of Verbal Materials Across
Sense Modalities ", Journal of Educational Psychology^ 5 5 (19 64).
4
*) John B. Carroll, "Research in Foreign Language Learning: The Last Five
Years'*, Northeast Conference Reports on Language Teaching: Broader Contexts (Menasha,
Wisconsin, 1966), pp. 2324.
42

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.f

There is little objective evidence to aid the teacher in determining

the more efficient methodology. Carroll summarizes the existing
situation with regard to language learning by saying that previous
studies "... fail on either or both of two counts: (a) the questions
put to the test have not been adequately thought through, with the
result that the methods being compared are not different in any
important way, and (b) the experiments do not meet the standards
of modern educational research, with adequate controls, valid pretest
and posttest measurements of ability and achievement, and rigorous
and searching statistical analysis of the data."44), In discussing evidence
to support audio-lingual practices Brooks admits, "Up to the present,
what is called the new approach is largely an act of faith; research to
prove the validity of its basic principles is scanty."45) From a theoretical standpoint, the cognitive point of view has as much support as$ '
if not more than, the habit position.
The various and varied opinions presented in this very brief review
should be examined in the light of adequately controlled research
studies and actual classroom experience. Careful consideration of
obtained results in relation to recent theoretical formulations should
provide new insights as to paths toward further progress in language teaching. Obviously, present knowledge about learning and
language teaching is not complete, and the language teacher should
remain receptive to continuing innovations in the field. The following
quote by Corder in IRAL of November, 1967, emphasizes this point
and provides a fitting conclusion to these comments:
Both linguistics and psychology are in a state at the present
time of what Chomsky has call eel 'flux and agitation'(Chomsky,
1966), What seemed to be well established doctrine a few years
ago is now the subject of extensive debate. The consequence
of this for language teaching is likely to be far reaching and we
are perhaps only now beginning to feel its effects.
Kenneth Chastain
Department of Modern Languages
Purdue University
Lafayette, Indiana 47907
44) John B. Carroll, The Study of language (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1959),
p. 179.
.
.
45
) Ndson Brooks, "Language Learning: The New Approach", Phi Delta
Kappan, 47 (1966), p. 359.

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