Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Sanchidrin (ed)

2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-48296-7

Greenhouse gas implications of explosives and blasting

G.F. Brent
Orica Technical Centre, Kurri Kurri, Australia

ABSTRACT: Global warming concerns due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases (GHGs) are driving many industries to investigate and implement emissions reductions.
This paper examines the GHG emissions associated with the life cycle of industrial explosives. Upstream
raw material supply and ammonium nitrate manufacture are considered, together with the end-use of
explosives on mine sites. It is shown that the largest impacts in the explosive life cycle occur in the processes of manufacture of ammonium nitrate. Opportunities for reductions are highlighted. Though of
lesser magnitude, the actual mine site emissions from detonation may be problematic as they could vary
according to detonation conditions and are difficult to quantify precisely. In this regard, recommendations are made to adopt an initial standard approach based on total carbon content, avoiding limitations
and artifacts of ideal detonation codes. Typical emission profiles from blasting and related downstream
mining operations are also examined. It is demonstrated that the impacts from downstream mining and
mineral utilization processes dominate over the explosive impacts. However, opportunities exist for reductions in mine impacts through better blasting. Examples are given of improved blast outcomes that lead
to overall reductions in emissions intensity. Electricity consumption on large coal mines may be reduced
through improved throw blasting, requiring less overburden movement by the draglines. Improved comminution is another major target area. However, it is shown that increased recoveries of coal or ore through
improved blasting practices have the largest impact in reducing overall mine emission intensities.
1

INTRODUCTION

The enormous threat posed by climate change is

now widely recognized by mainstream science and
is increasingly gaining public acceptance. Climate
scientists predict dire consequences including
extensive melting of ice sheets, changed regional
weather patterns causing more intense heat waves,
droughts and floods, the spread of tropical diseases and eventual rises in sea level (Solomon et al.
2007). Several of these effects, such as increased ice
cap and glacial melting and the rate of increase in
sea level and temperature have been unequivocally
detected and measured in recent years (for example Science 2006, Barnett et al. 2001). Increased
atmospheric concentrations of so-called greenhouse gases (GHGs) are known to increase global
temperatures by absorption of reflected infra-red
radiation and are believed to be contributing to the
recently measured global warming. Climate models
predict such warming from increased atmospheric
GHG concentrations (Solomon et al. 2007).
Total global emissions of GHG exceed
25 000 Mt pa. These gases comprise carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Each of these gases has

a global warming potential (GWP) that has been

normalized on a unit mass basis relative to CO2,
which has been assigned a GWP of unity. The other
GHGs have higher GWPs. For example, CH4 and
N2O have GWPs of 21 and 310 respectively on a
100 year time horizon (Solomon et al. 2007). N2O
must be distinguished from the relatively short-lived
NOx gases, which are not classified as GHGs and
commonly arise in small quantities from explosive
detonation. Emissions of all GHGs may thus be
expressed in terms of tonnes of carbon dioxide
equivalents (t CO2-e). Carbon dioxide is the major
GHG, making up the largest proportion of emissions. The measured atmospheric concentrations
of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Lao Observatory
in Hawaii, started by Keeling in 1958 (Keeling &
Whorf 2005) show an inexorable and accelerating
year-on-year increase arising from anthropogenic
emissions.
Calls for drastic action within the current decade in order to achieve stabilization of CO2 levels
at around 550 ppm (twice the pre-industrial era
levels) are being made (for example Stern 2006).
Given that the extent of warming is apparently
already increasing at current levels of around
385 ppm, it is reasonable to assume that the need
for urgent action will only intensify. The dire economic consequences of climate change have been

673

forecast in the Stern Review (Stern 2006), which

advocates early and large-scale action to mitigate
GHG emissions in order to avert large future economic consequences.
Global warming is increasingly becoming a
major environmental pressure on the mining industry, in particular the coal sector. The urgent need
to address GHG emissions has been recognized by
the coal industry, for example through the formation of the COAL21 Fund in early 2006 by many
of the major Australian coal producers (Coal21
2006). Large mining houses have publicly committed to GHG reductions. For example, in 2007
BHPBilliton announced a policy on climate change
which targeted a decrease in energy and greenhouse
gas (GHG) intensities of their products of 13% and
6% respectively by 2012 (BHPBilliton 2007). The
GHG intensity is expressed in terms of tonnes of
CO2-e per tonne of coal or ore produced. Beyond
voluntary programs a monetary cost or value on
GHG emissions is already in place in several countries with many set to follow. For example, a carbon
trading scheme is currently scheduled to be operational in Australia by 2011 and will encompass the
mining and explosives industries.
To date, the issue of GHGs from explosives and
blasting has not been given wide consideration in
the literature and has not been a subject of the Fragblast proceedings. This paper examines the GHG
emissions associated with the explosives life cycle.
2

THE EXPLOSIVES PRODUCT CHAIN

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been the standard methodology for quantifying all environmental impacts associated with the entire life cycle of
products and processes for over a decade (ISO
1998). Generally, for manufactured products a
so-called Cradle-to-Grave life cycle is considered.
All emissions with the potential to cause environmental impacts are quantified along the entire life
cycle from raw material extraction through to final
disposal. In addition, other sustainability metrics
such as energy, non-renewable resource and water
consumption, land use, ozone depletion potential,
acidification and release of any toxic pollutants
may be quantified. Orica has conducted such LCA
studies to understand and control the impacts of
its operations and products. This paper draws from
these studies but with the focus only on the GHG
emissions.
A simplified outline of the ammonium nitratebased explosives product life cycle is shown in
Figure 1. This process is typical of most global production facilities and reflects production by Orica
in Australia. It should be noted that some variations to this scheme exist or are planned in some

Figure 1. Simplified life cycle of explosives manufacture.

parts of the world where, for example, methane gas

or ammonia may be produced from coal gasification processes.
Essentially, explosive manufacture begins with
methane, usually in the form of natural gas, which
is used both as feedstock and fuel in ammonia
production. Approximately half the ammonia is
converted to nitric acid which is then neutralized
with the remaining ammonia to form ammonium
nitrate. Fuel, generally diesel, is blended with the
ammonium nitrate, either in emulsions for water
resistant explosives or absorbed into porous
ammonium nitrate prills. Finally, the explosive
is detonated at the minesite in performing its
intended function.
The major emissions of GHGs along this production chain occur in the following operations,
listed below in operational sequence:
Fugitive CH4 and CO2 emissions from the
extraction, storage and transport of natural gas
or from alternative sources of methane such as
coal gasification processes and their upstream
processes.
CO2 emissions from ammonia production (conventionally the Haber-Bosch process), both in
the combustion of a proportion of the gas to
provide process heat and from the reforming of
the feedstock gas to provide ammonia synthesis gas.
N2O emissions from nitric acid manufacture.
Emissions from electricity used to power the
plants and other parts of the total manufacturing and delivery systems.
CO2 emissions from the extraction, refining and
transport of diesel fuel
Emissions arising from the supply of other inputs,
such as materials and services required to run the
entire manufacturing and delivery systems.
Emissions from detonation of the explosive.
Some of these emissions arise directly on the site
of the explosives manufacturer while some occur
indirectly; either at an upstream supplier or a
downstream consumer. The magnitude of each of
these emissions is dependent on the specific process at each stage, with large variations possible. In
general however, the relative magnitude of the total
GWP of each of these emission sources would be
expected to follow the order listed here, in descending order:

674

 N2O emissions from the manufacture of nitric

acid, depending however on whether modern
abatement processes have been installed. (Direct)
CO2 emissions from ammonia production.
(Direct)
Emissions from reforming feedstock gas are
unavoidable and will be similar for most plants,
being largely stoichiometry-driven. Some plants
will combust a portion of the gas supply to provide process heat leading to further onsite CO2
emissions, while others may employ electricity
or other sources of energy as an alternative.
Each case will have a different emissions profile. Emissions from the extraction, storage and
transport of natural gas or alternative gas supply. (Indirect to the explosives manufacturer)
Emissions from electricity used to power the
plants and other parts of the total manufacturing and delivery systems. (Indirect to the explosives manufacturer)
Emissions arising from the supply of other
inputs, such as materials and services. (Indirect
to the explosives manufacturer)
Detonation emissions. (Indirect to the explosives manufacturer, direct to the minesite) While
these are the most obvious emissions to explosive users, they represent one of the smallest
emissions in the life cycle.

Figure 2 shows the relative magnitude of the

emissions for standard ANFO derived from a
typical ammonium nitrate manufacturing facility in Australia. Also shown are the approximate
production levels of each product at each production stage. On a complete life cycle basis, the total
GHG emissions for this case are around 4 tonnes
CO2-e per tonne of ANFO. It must be emphasized
that emissions are process-specific and these figures cannot be universally applied for any ANFO.
Emissions were obtained from a number of sources.
Ammonia and nitric acid emissions were obtained
from direct measurements at manufacturing plants.
Emissions from natural gas, diesel and electricity
production were based on standard factors supplied by the Australian Greenhouse Office (2006).
Upstream emissions from third party suppliers of
other goods and services were estimated from an
Economic Input-Output LCA model based on the
work of Lenzen (2001).
As N2O is the largest GHG source in the chain
it represents the primary target for emission
reductions. New abatement technologies based
on various catalyst systems have been developed
to drastically reduce this emission. Retrofits of
these technologies are underway at several Orica
sites around the world and will achieve massive
reductions in overall GHG emissions of explosive

Figure 2. Typical GHG emissions from the explosives life cycle. Production levels of each product are shown in boxes
and GHG emissions arising from each process are shown as arrows.

675

manufacture. Modern tertiary abatement

technologies are capable of reducing the N2O
emissions by more than 99%, to levels as low as
0.015 t CO2-e/t ANFO.
Addressing the next largest emissions, those
arising from ammonia production and gas supply,
would be more technically challenging. Approaches
may include alternative renewable feedstocks and/
or energy sources, such as biomass. In this regard,
gasification or pyrolysis of biomass could supply
gas feedstock that provides lower net CO2 emissions. Alternatively, carbon capture and storage
(CCS) technologies may be required to avoid these
emissions to atmosphere. A comprehensive review
of CCS can be found in Metz et al. (2005).
The same challenges pertain to emissions from
electricity production and the third party provision of other materials and services, since these are
currently largely linked to conventional fossil fuel
power production and transportation.
The final emission source, usually of most direct
interest to blasting, is that arising from detonation.
This constitutes only about 5% of the total life cycle
emissions of the explosive. Essentially this comprises the combustion gases produced by the reactions of the fuel component with the ammonium
nitrate oxidizer. Since this fundamental reaction
drives the detonation process it cannot be avoided.
However, the use of biofuels instead of fossil fuels
in explosives would result in lower overall CO2
emissions, as the biofuel growth phase removes an
equivalent amount of CO2 from the atmosphere. It
must be noted however, that the extent of so-called
carbon neutrality of any biofuel varies according to the crop, cultivation, fertilization, harvesting, transport and processing methods and energy
input requirements.
3

GHG EMISSIONS FROM EXPLOSIVE

DETONATION

The exact final composition of detonation gases

emitted to atmosphere is actually difficult to determine with certainty. Theoretical gas concentrations
under idealized conditions may be calculated with
ideal detonation codes such as IDeX (Braithwaite
et al. 1996). However, these codes assume chemical
equilibrium and a constrained product spectrum
limited to common species. Also, different gas
concentrations result at different states of expansion, for example at the detonation state, 100 MPa
or atmospheric pressure. Table 1 shows example
results from IDeX for three different states for
a standard ANFO. Choosing a final expansion
state at which it may be assumed the gases vent
to atmosphere is arbitrary. Furthermore, another
gross assumption would be required in specifying

that the gas composition remained frozen at this

state.
In reality the gas product spectrum does not
follow ideal isentropic expansion as calculated
by these codes. The gas composition is strongly
dependent on many factors such as actual field
detonation conditions, rock type, hole diameter,
water presence, product homogeneity in the hole,
etc. All these factors would influence the chemical species and physical conditions dictating the
relative gas compositions. For example, it is well
known that NOx emissions arise from detonation
when certain conditions prevail, such as in very
soft ground or where water has degraded explosives. It is also known that the NOx formation varies with some of these variables (for example Sapko
et al. 2002). Furthermore, non-ideal detonation
involves incomplete reactions, non-equilibrium
and complex reactive flow and expansion within
and beyond the reaction zone. All these conditions
are entirely excluded from ideal code calculations.
Braithwaite et al. (1996) specifically exclude fume
calculations as a valid use of ideal codes. Thus, no
definitive quantification of GHGs can be done a
priori using ideal detonation codes.
The likely GHGs from detonation that require
consideration are CO2, CH4 and possibly N2O.
Currently, the IDeX code does not provide for any
formation of N2O from detonation. The status of
other ideal codes in this regard is not known to the
author. As Table 1 shows, CO2 is the major GHG
expected from detonation.
However, CH4 could theoretically arise from
oxygen-negative explosives. As a far more potent
GHG than CO2 with a GWP of 21, the prediction of even modest quantities of CH4 could significantly increase the overall predicted GHG
emissions and even exceed that of CO2. Table 2

Table 1. Ideal detonation product spectra from IDeX at

various expansion states for ANFO. GHG species are in
bold.

Gas species

Detonation
state 4.9 GPa
(% m/m)

Expansion
to 100 MPa
(% m/m)

Expansion
to 100 kPa
(% m/m)

H2O
N2
CO2
CO
CH4
H2
NH3
O2
NO
C(solid)

48.7
32.8
16.9
1.43
0.00
0.054
0.085
0.005
0.067
0.00

48.3
32.9
17.9
0.77
0.00
0.11
0.004
0.00
0.00
0.00

48.6
32.9
18.2
0.00
0.33
0.001
0.001
0.00
0.00
0.00

676

Table 2. Ideal detonation product spectra at one atmosphere from IDeX for ANFO with various fuel contents
each species shown as % m/m (or kg/100 kg ANFO). OB
refers to Oxygen Balance.
Gas species

ANFO 95/5
OB = +2.23

ANFO 94/6
OB = 1.32

ANFO 93/7
OB = 4.88

H2O
N2
CO2
CO
CH4
(as CO2-e)
H2
NH3
O2
NO
C(solid)

48.6
33.2
15.9
0.00
0.00
(0.00)
0.00
0.00
2.23
0.00
0.00

48.6
32.9
18.2
0.00
0.33
(6.93)
0.001
0.001
0.00
0.00
0.00

47.3
32.5
18.95
0.00
1.22
(25.6)
0.001
0.001
0.00
0.00
0.00

shows this theoretical trend under ideal detonation

conditions for various ANFO blends. It can be
seen that at 7% fuel content the overall GWP of
CH4 would exceed that of CO2, if ideal code predictions were to be used for GHG determination.
However, under actual detonation conditions
the hot CH4 is likely to combust on contact with
atmospheric oxygen provided it is above the lower
flammability limit. Thus it would not be ultimately
emitted to the atmosphere as CH4 but would instead
combust to form CO2 and water. This phenomenon
is commonly observed with highly oxygen-negative
explosives as post-detonation flaring. Similarly, the
fate of any CO would be expected to be ultimate
oxidation to CO2. A similar fate could be proposed
for any traces of solid elemental carbon in the detonation gases.
Based on these considerations and the known
limitations of ideal code predictions, a proposal is
offered here for a standard approach that would
avoid these problems and would not need to invoke
ideal detonation codes. It is proposed that the GHG
emissions be based on the assumption of complete
conversion of all carbon in the formulation to CO2.
Such an approach would simplify and rationalize
GHG determinations from explosive detonation.
It would avoid large variations between suppliers
that could arise as artifacts of ideal detonation
codes due to the prediction of minor species with
a high GWP. Thus, the total carbon content of the
explosive (essentially the fuel component) is all that
would be required for GHG reporting purposes.
For example, for ANFO comprising 6% diesel fuel
by mass, the carbon content is 52.1 kg/t ANFO
and thus the resulting GHG (CO2) emissions are
191 kg CO2-e/t ANFO.
In the absence of field data demonstrating significant emissions of other GHGs this approach

appears to be reasonable and defensible. At least

it would offer a practical first step for the industry.
It might be argued that measurements of gas concentrations arising from real field conditions could
provide an improved approach, however such programs would need to cover a wide range of conditions and explosives and could be prohibitively
expensive and time-consuming. Furthermore, field
measurement of detonation gases is subject to variability in all the factors mentioned before, and at
best could provide a (fairly wide) range of results.
For example, Attalla et al. (2008) reported order of
magnitude variations in a very comprehensive program of field measurements of NOx from blasting.
Such variability would not resolve the issues raised
here with respect to the minor (but high GWP)
GHGs and would be unsuitable for GHG reporting and accounting purposes.
4

BEYOND EXPLOSIVESTHE MINING

CHAIN

Some consideration is given here to the mining

operations and mineral processing and utilization,
in order to put the explosives emissions in a life
cycle context. Such consideration also highlights
the major targets for the blasting community to
reduce GHG emissions through improved blast
outcomes.
Figure 3 shows the main GHG emission sources
in open cut coal mining, along with typical magnitudes of each source for Australian mines (Brent
2008) Fugitive seam gases represent the largest
emission, followed by indirect emissions from electricity production, direct emissions from diesel fuel
used in mobile equipment and finally explosives.
Similarly, Figure 4 shows the major GHG emission sources in open cut (non-ferrous) metalliferous ore mining along with typical magnitudes of
each source for Australian mines (Brent 2008).
Here, the electricity supply for comminution constitutes the largest emission.
5

REDUCING GHG EMISSIONS

THROUGH IMPROVED BLASTING

Targets for energy and emissions reductions will

often be the same as those normally pursued in
blast improvement programs. Increased throw, (or
more accurately reduced overall muckpile volumes,
see Brent & Noy 2006) can lead to direct reductions
in equipment energy consumption and thus GHG
emissions. Reductions of 5% or more in muckpile
volumes have been demonstrated through the use
of electronic detonator delay sequences (for example Brent 2002, Brent & Noy 2005).

677

Figure 3. Emission sources on typical Australian open cut coal mine, per tonne of coal mined. Electricity emissions
are shown with broken lines indicating that they generally occur offsite.

Figure 4. Emission sources on typical Australian nonferrous mine, per tonne of ore mined. Electricity emissions are
shown with broken lines indicating that they may occur offsite.

These improvements were achieved without any

additional explosives energy input to the blasts. For
draglines with electricity consumption of the order
of 1.4 kWh/bcm (Humphrey 1990), a decrease of
5% translates to an annual decrease of 2600 t CO2-e
from electricity for a mine removing 35 Mbcm of
overburden per year. For the purposes of illustrating typical emissions reductions a full fuel cycle

GHG emission factor for conventional black

coal-fired power generation of 1.07 kg CO2-e/kWh
has been used here (Australian Greenhouse Office
2006). This represents a decrease of around 12%
in total mine emissions per unit of coal.
Improved milling throughputs due to improved
fragmentation from blasting have been variously
reported in the literature (for example Scott et al.

678

2002, Rantapaa et al. 2005, Bye 2005). Again, such

improvements could lead to similar reductions in
GHG emissions. Milling electricity consumption
is typically in the range 1040 kWh/t ore milled
(for example Chauvin et al. 2000). A 10% reduction could thus translate to annual decreases of
500022,000 t CO2-e for a mine processing 5 Mt of
ore per year. Allowing for a 20% increase in explosives use to achieve this improvement, the overall
decrease in emissions would still be of the order
of 6% of the total mine emissions, excluding refining (Brent 2008). This analysis takes account of the
full life cycle emissions associated with the additional explosives used.
Most importantly, however, the reduction of inpit coal or ore losses has the greatest potential to
reduce the overall mine emissions intensity per unit
of coal or ore. The only emissions increase arises
from handling the additional coal or ore and all
other mine emissions remain constant as production increases (including for example the dominant seam gas emissions in the case of coal). Coal
handling represents a small fraction of total mine
emissions. In the case of metal ores, it is assumed
here that the extra ore is recovered through reduced
dilution with gangue in the blast; hence total
handling and milling duties remain similar. Thus,
any increase in production achieved for essentially
the same total mine emissions leads to a similar
reduction in overall mine emission intensity.
An innovative mining method called Stratablast has been developed and proven over the past

several years to dramatically reduce coal losses

from throw blasting (Goswami & Brent 2006,
Goswami et al. 2008). Using electronic detonators,
this method fully contains the coal seam under
a protective layer of rock which is blasted in the
same event, but several seconds after completion
of the upper throw blast. In-pit coal losses, which
can range up to 25%, have been virtually eliminated
with this technique (Goswami et al. 2008). Since
other blast inputs such as explosives consumption
have remained the same or even decreased slightly,
the improved coal recovery translates to a corresponding decrease in mine GHG emissions intensity. Table 3 summarizes the magnitude of GHG

Table 3. Achievable blasting impacts on mine GHG

intensity.
Reduction in mine
GHG intensity

Blast scenario

Blasting impact

Throw blasting
(electronics)

57% reduction 12%

in overburden
volumes
10% increase
6%
in mill
throughput

Improved
fragmentation
(20% more
explosives)
Coal recovery
(Stratablast)

525% increase
in coal
recovery

525%

Figure 5. Emissions from coal combustion relative to coal mining and the production and use of 1 tonne of
explosives.

679

Figure 6. Emissions from copper production relative to ore mining and the production and use of 1 tonne of
explosives.

intensity reductions on mines that are achievable

via these blasting scenarios.
Finally, the emissions associated with the enduse phase of the mineral can be evaluated in order
to provide full context for the explosives and mining emissions. Here we consider the combustion
of coal (in power generation or steelmaking) and
the refining of ore to produce the final metal
itself. Figure 5 is an illustrative example of these
emissions, relative to the utilization of one tonne
of explosive in open cut coal mining. Figure 6
shows an example for the production of copper.
Both illustrations are based on typical Australian
mining scenarios for coal and copper. Typical
powder factors and strip ratios for Australian conditions have been used in this illustration to derive
the amount of coal or ore produced per tonne of
explosive. These figures would vary substantially
across different mining operations. Emissions for
copper were derived from Norgate & Jahanshahi
(2007) for a 2% copper ore grade proessed by
rometallurgical routes. Coal combustion emissions
are based on Australian Greenhouse Office (2006).
These figures demonstrate the extent to which
these processes dominate all upstream emissions.
6

however the largest emissions in the explosives

product chain occur within ammonium nitrate
manufacture.
The actual make-up of detonation gases emitted on mines cannot be accurately determined and
this means that potentially powerful GHGs like
CH4 cannot be quantified with any certainty. Ideal
detonation codes are unsuitable for this purpose.
Field measurements are likely to be prohibitively
expensive and may lack the required accuracy. It
is proposed that the total carbon content of the
explosive should be used as the basis for GHG
determinations from detonation. The assumption of complete conversion of all carbon to CO2
would provide a simple, practical and transparent
approach that would not be subject to variability
across suppliers that may arise from artifacts of
ideal detonation codes. It would also account for
all the carbon in the product.
The emissions from explosives are small in comparison to the downstream emissions associated
with mining and mineral utilization. However,
improved blasting can make a significant contribution to reducing the overall intensity of GHG
emissions from mines. In this regard, improved
coal or ore recoveries can make the largest impact.

CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

GHG considerations are likely to increase in

importance within the blasting and mining
spheres. Whole life cycle approaches are required
for identification, quantification and control of
GHG emissions. Different production and mining
processes will result in different emissions profiles;

The author gratefully acknowledges many colleagues involved in aspects of work cited here.
Deane Tunaley and Alan Minchinton are thanked
for their input to the GHG considerations of
detonation.

680

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