QRG Ce PDF

QUICK REFRESHER GUIDE
For
Civil Engineering
By
www.thegateacademy.com
Quick Refresher Guide
Contents
CONTENTS
Part
Mathematics
Page No.
1 45
1.1 Linear Algebra

1.2 Probability & distribution
1.3. Numerical Methods
1.4. Calculus
1.5. Differential Equations
1.6. Complex Variables
1.7: Laplace Transform
18
9 14
15 19
20 30
31 37
38 42
43 45
Structural Engineering
46 141
2.1 Mechanics
2.2 Structural Analysis
2.3 Concrete Technology
2.4 Steel Structures
46 59
60 79
80 100
101 141
Geotechnical Engineering
142 171
3.1 Soil Mechanics

3.2 Foundation Engineering
142 160
161 171
#4
Water Resource Engineering
172 239
#5
Environmental Engineering
243 264
5.1 Water Quality & Standards

5.2 Water Supply and Its Treatment
5.3 Waste Water Treatment
5.4 Air pollution
243 245
246 253
254 256
257 264
Transportation Engineering
265 - 274
6.1 Highway Planning

6.2 Highway Materials
265 269
270 274
#7
Surveying
275 287
#8
Reference Books
288 289
#1
#2
#3
#6
4.1 Fluid Mechanics

4.2 Hydrology
4.3 Irrigation
172 218
219 225
226 242
THE GATE ACADEMY PVT.LTD. H.O.: #74, Keshava Krupa (third Floor), 30th Cross, 10th Main, Jayanagar 4th Block, Bangalore-11
: 080-65700750, info@thegateacademy.com Copyright reserved. Web: www.thegateacademy.com
Page. I
Mathematics
Part - 1: Mathematics
1.1 Linear Algebra
1.1.1
Matrix
Definition: A system of m n numbers arranged along m rows and n columns.
Conventionally, single capital letter is used to denote a matrix.
Thus,
A=[
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
ith row, jth column
1.1.1.1 Types of Matrices

1.1.1.2 Row and Column Matrices
Row Matrix [ 2, 7, 8, 9]
Column Matrix
[1 ]
1
1
single row ( or row vector)

single column (or column vector)
1.1.1.3 Square Matrix
Same number of rows and columns.

Order of Square matrix no. of rows or columns
Principle Diagonal (or Main diagonal or Leading diagonal): The diagonal of a square
matrix (from the top left to the bottom right) is called as principal diagonal.
Trace of the Matrix: The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix.
tr ( A) = tr(A) , is scalartr ( A+B) = tr (A) + tr (B)
tr (AB) = tr (BA)
1.1.1.4 Rectangular Matrix

Number of rows
Number of columns
1.1.1.5 Diagonal Matrix

A Square matrix in which all the elements except those in leading diagonal are zero.
e.g. [
Page 1
Mathematics
1.1.1.6 Unit Matrix (or Identity Matrix)

A Diagonal matrix in which all the leading diagonal elements are 1.
1
e.g.
I = [
]
1
1
1.1.1.7 Null Matrix (or Zero Matrix)
A matrix is said to be Null Matrix if all the elements are zero.
e.g.
1.1.1.8 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices:

Symmetric, when a = +a for all i and j. In other words
Skew symmetric, when a = - a In other words
= -A
=A
Note: All the diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix must be zero.
Symmetric
Skew symmetric
a h g
h g
f]
[h b f ]
[h
g f c
g f
Symmetric Matrix
= A
Skew Symmetric Matrix = - A
1.1.1.9 Triangular Matrix

A matrix is said to be upper triangular if all the elements below its principal diagonal
are zeros.
A matrix is said to be lower triangular if all the elements above its principal diagonal
are zeros.
a
a h g
[
]
[
g b
]
b f
f h c
c
Upper Triangular Matrix
Lower Triangular Matrix
1.1.1.10
Orthogonal Matrix: If A. A = I, then matrix A is said to be Orthogonal matrix.
1.1.1.11
Singular Matrix: If |A| = 0, then A is called a singular matrix.
1.1.1.12
)
Unitary Matrix: If we define, A = (A
Then the matrix is unitary if A . A = I
= transpose of a conjugate of matrix A
Page 2
1.1.1.13
Mathematics
Hermitian Matrix: It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to its own
conjugate transpose.
A = A or a = a
1.1.1.14
Note: In Hermitian matrix, diagonal elements
1.1.1.15
Skew Hermitian matrix:

It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to the negative of conjugate
transpose.
A = A or a =
Note: In Skew-Hermitian matrix , diagonal elements

1.1.1.16
always real
either zero or Pure Imaginary
Idempotent Matrix
If A = A, then the matrix A is called idempotent matrix.
1.1.1.17
Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar:
Every element of the matrix gets multiplied by that scalar.

Multiplication of Matrices:
Two matrices can be multiplied only when number of columns of the first matrix is equal to the
number of rows of the second matrix. Multiplication of (m n)
, and (n p) matrices results in matrix of (m p)dimension , =, .
1.1.1.18
Determinant:
An n order determinant is an expression associated with n
n square matrix.
If A = [a ] , Element a with ith row, jth column.

For n = 2 ,
a
D = det A = |a
a
a |=a
-a
Determinant of order n
D = |A| = det A = ||
a
a
a
a
|
|
Page 3
1.1.1.19
Mathematics
Minors & Co-Factors:
The minor of an element in a determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting the

row and the column which intersect that element.
Cofactor is the minor with proper sign. The sign is given by (-1)
(where the element
th
th
belongs to i row, j column).
1.1.1.20 Properties of Determinants:

1. A determinant remains unaltered by changing its rows into columns and columns into
rows.
2. If two parallel lines of a determinant are inter-changed, the determinant retains its
numerical values but changes its sign. (In a general manner, a row or a column is
referred as line).
3. Determinant vanishes if two parallel lines are identical.
4. If each element of a line be multiplied by the same factor, the whole determinant is
multiplied by that factor. [Note the difference with matrix].
5. If each element of a line consists of the m terms, then determinant can be expressed as
sum of the m determinants.
6. If each element of a line be added equi-multiple of the corresponding elements of one or
more parallel lines, determinant is unaffected.
e.g. by the operation, R
R + pR +qR , determinant is unaffected.
7. Determinant of an upper triangular/ lower triangular/diagonal/scalar matrix is equal to
the product of the leading diagonal elements of the matrix.
8. If A & B are square matrix of the same order, then |AB|=|BA|=|A||B|.
9. If A is non singular matrix, then |A |=| | (as a result of previous).
10.
11.
12.
13.
Determinant of a skew symmetric matrix (i.e. A =-A) of odd order is zero.

If A is a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix (i.e. A = A ) then |A|= 1.
If A is a square matrix of order n, then |k A| = |A|.
|I | = 1 ( I is the identity matrix of order n).
1.1.1.21
Inverse of a Matrix
|A| must be non-zero (i.e. A must be non-singular).

Inverse of a matrix, if exists, is always unique.
a b
d
If it is a 2x2 matrix 0
1 , its inverse will be
0
c d
c
| |
b
1
a
Important Points:
1. IA = AI = A, (Here A is square matrix of the same order as that of I )
2. 0 A = A 0 = 0,
(Here 0 is null matrix)
3. If AB = , then it is not necessarily that A or B is null matrix. Also it doesnt mean BA = .
4. If the product of two non-zero square matrices A & B is a zero matrix, then A & B are
singular matrices.
5. If A is non-singular matrix and A.B=0, then B is null matrix.
6. AB BA (in general) Commutative property does not hold
7. A(BC) = (AB)C Associative property holds
8. A(B+C) = AB AC Distributive property holds
Page 4
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Mathematics
AC = AD , doesnt imply C = D ,even when A

-.
If A, C, D be
matrix, and if rank (A)= n & AC=AD, then C=D.
(A+B)T = A + B
(AB)T = B . A
(AB)-1 = B . A
AA =A A=I
(kA)T = k.A (k is scalar, A is vector)
(kA)-1 =
. A (k is scalar , A is vector)
(A ) = (A )
) (Conjugate of a transpose of matrix= Transpose of conjugate of matrix)
(
A ) = (A
If a non-singular matrix A is symmetric, then A is also symmetric.
If A is a orthogonal matrix , then A and A are also orthogonal.
21. If A is a square matrix of order n then (i) |adj A|=|A|

(ii) |adj (adj A)|=|A|( )
(iii) adj (adj A) =|A| A
1.1.1.22 Elementary Transformation of a Matrix:
1. Interchange of any 2 lines
2. Multiplication of a line by a constant
(e.g. k R )
3. Addition of constant multiplication of any line to the another line (e. g. R + p R )
Note:
Elementary transformations dont change the ran of the matrix.
However it changes the Eigen value of the matrix.
1.1.1.23
Rank of Matrix
If we select any r rows and r columns from any matrix A,deleting all other rows and columns,
then the determinant formed by these r r elements is called minor of A of order r.
Definition: A matrix is said to be of rank r when,
i)
It has at least one non-zero minor of order r.
ii) Every minor of order higher than r vanishes.
Other definition: The rank is also defined as maximum number of linearly independent row
vectors.
Special case: Rank of Square matrix
Rank = Number of non-zero row in upper triangular matrix using elementary transformation.
Note:
1.
2.
3.
4.
r(A.B)
min { r(A), r (B)}
r(A+B) r(A) + r (B)
r(A-B)
r(A) - r (B)
The rank of a diagonal matrix is simply the number of non-zero elements in principal
diagonal.
5. A system of homogeneous equations such that the number of unknown variable exceeds
the number of equations, necessarily has non-zero solutions.
Page 5
Mathematics
If A is a non-singular matrix, then all the row/column vectors are independent.

If A is a singular matrix, then vectors of A are linearly dependent.
r(A)=0 iff (if and only if) A is a null matrix.
If two matrices A and B have the same size and the same rank then A, B are equivalent
matrices.
10. Every non-singular matrix is row matrix and it is equivalent to identity matrix.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1.1.1.24
Solution of linear System of Equations:
For the following system of equations A X = B

a
a
x
x
a
a
Where, A =
,
[a
B =
[x ]
A= Coefficient Matrix, C = (A, B) = Augmented Matrix

r = rank (A), r = rank (C), n = Number of unknown variables (x , x , - - - x )
Consistency of a System of Equations:
For Non-Homogenous Equations (A X = B)
i) If r r , the equations are inconsistent i.e. there is no solution.
ii) If r = r = n, the equations are consistent and there is a unique solution.
iii) If r = r < n, the equations are consistent and there are infinite number of solutions.
For Homogenous Equations (A X = 0)
i) If r = n, the equations have only a trivial zero solution ( i.e. x = x = - - - x = 0).
ii) If r < n, then (n-r) linearly independent solution (i.e. infinite non-trivial solutions).
Note:
Consistent means:
one or more solution (i.e. unique or infinite solution)
Inconsistent means:
No solution
Cramers Rule
Let the following two equations be there
a
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(i)
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(ii)
a
D = |b
a
b |
Page 6
b
D =|
b
a
|
a
a
D =|
a
b
|
b
Mathematics
Solution using Cramers rule:

x =
and x =
In the above method, it is assumed that

1. No of equations = No of unknowns
2. D 0
In general, for Non-Homogenous Equations
D 0 single solution (non trivial)
D = 0 infinite solution
For Homogenous Equations
D 0 trivial solutions ( x = x =x = 0)
D = 0 non- trivial solution (or infinite solution)
Eigen Values & Eigen Vectors
1.1.1.25
Characteristic Equation and Eigen Values:
Characteristic equation: | A
I |= 0, The roots of this equation are called the characteristic
roots /latent roots / Eigen values of the matrix A.
Eigen vectors: [
]X=0
For each Eigen value , solving for X gives the corresponding Eigen vector.
Note: For a given Eigen value, there can be different Eigen vectors, but for same Eigen vector,
there cant be different Eigen values.
Properties of Eigen values
1. The sum of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to the sum of its principal diagonal.
2. The product of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to its determinant.
3. The largest Eigen values of a matrix is always greater than or equal to any of the
diagonal elements of the matrix.
4. If is an Eigen value of orthogonal matrix, then 1/ is also its Eigen value.
5. If A is real, then its Eigen value is real or complex conjugate pair.
6. Matrix A and its transpose A has same characteristic root (Eigen values).
7. The Eigen values of triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix.
8. Zero is the Eigen value of the matrix if and only if the matrix is singular.
9. Eigen values of a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix has absolute value 1.
10. Eigen values of Hermitian or symmetric matrix are purely real.
11. Eigen values of skew Hermitian or skew symmetric matrix is zero or pure imaginary.
| |
12.
is an Eigen value of adj A (because adj A = |A|. A ).
Page 7
13. If
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Mathematics
is an Eigen value of the matrix then ,

Eigen value of A is 1/
Eigen value of A is
Eigen value of kA are (k is scalar)
Eigen value of A
I are + k
Eigen value of (A
I)2 are (
)
Properties of Eigen Vectors

1) Eigen vector X of matrix A is not unique.
Let is Eigen vector, then C is also Eigen vector (C = scalar constant).
2) If , , . . . . . are distinct, then , . . . . .
are linearly independent .
3) If two or more Eigen values are equal, it may or may not be possible to get linearly
independent Eigen vectors corresponding to equal roots.
4) Two Eigen vectors are called orthogonal vectors if T = 0.
( , are column vector)
(Note: For a single vector to be orthogonal , A = A or, A. A = A. A = )
5) Eigen vectors of a symmetric matrix corresponding to different Eigen values are
orthogonal.
Cayley Hamilton Theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
1.1.1.26
Vector:
Any quantity having n components is called a vector of order n.

Linear Dependence of Vectors
If one vector can be written as linear combination of others, the vector is linearly
dependent.
Linearly Independent Vectors
If no vectors can be written as a linear combination of others, then they are linearly
independent.
Suppose the vectors are x x x x
Its linear combination is x + x + x + x = 0

If , , , are not all zero they are linearly dependent.
If all are zero they are linearly independent.
Page 8
Mathematics
1.2 Probability and Distribution

1.2.1
Probability
Event: Outcome of an experiment is called event.

Mutually Exclusive Events (Disjoint Events): Two events are called mutually exclusive, if the
occurrence of one excludes the occurrence of others i.e. both cant occur simultaneously.
A
B =, P(A
B) =0
Equally Likely Events: If one of the events cannot happen in preference to other, then such events
are said to be equally likely.
Odds in Favour of an Event =
Where m
n
no. of ways favourable to A
no. of ways not favourable to A
Odds Against the Event =

Probability: P(A)=
.
.
P(A) P(A)=1
Important points:
P(A B) Probability of happening of at least one event of A & B
P(A B) ) Probability of happening of both events of A & B
If the events are certain to happen, then the probability is unity.
If the events are impossible to happen, then the probability is zero.
Addition Law of Probability:
a. For every events A, B and C not mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)- P(A B)- P(B C)- P(C A)+ P(A B C)
b. For the event A, B and C which are mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)
Independent Events: Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of one does not
affect the occurrence of the other.
If P(A B)= P(A) P(B)
Independent events A & B
Conditional Probability: If A and B are dependent events, then P. / denotes the probability of
occurrence of B when A has already occurred. This is known as conditional probability.
P(B/A)=
)
( )
Page 9
For independent events A & B
Mathematics
P(B/A) = P(B)
Theorem of Combined Probability: If the probability of an event A happening as a result of trial is

P(A). Probability of an event B happening as a result of trial after A has happened is P(B/A) then
the probability of both the events A and B happening is
P(A B)= P(A). P(B/A),
[ P(A) 0]
= P(B). P(A/B),
[ P(B) 0]
This is also known as Multiplication Theorem.

For independent events A&B
P(B/A) = P(B), P(A/B )= P(A)
Hence P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
Important Points:
If P
1.
2.
3.
4.
& P are probabilities of two independent events then

P (1-P )
probability of first event happens and second fails (i.e only first happens)
(1-P )(1-P )
probability of both event fails
1-(1-P )(1-P ) probability of at least one event occur
PP
probability of both event occurs
Bayes theorem:
An event A corresponds to a number of exhaustive events B , B ,.., B .
If P(B ) and P(A/B ) are given then,
P. /=
(
(
). ( )
). ( )
This is also known as theorem of Inverse Probability.

Random variable: Real variable associated with the outcome of a random experiment is called a
random variable.
1.2.2
Distribution
Probability Density Function (PDF) or Probability Mass Function:

The set of values Xi with their probabilities P constitute a probability distribution or probability
density function of the variable X. If f(x) is the PDF, then f(x ) = P( = x ) ,
PDF has the following properties:
Probability density function is always positive i.e. f(x)
f(x)dx = 1 (Continuous)
f(x ) = 1 (Discrete)
Page 10
Mathematics
Discrete Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) or Distribution Function

The Cumulative Distribution Function F(x) of the discrete variable x is defined by,
F (x) = F(x) = P(X x) =
P(x ) =
f(x )
Continuous Cumulative Distribution function (CDF) or Distribution Function:

If F (x) = P(X x) = f(x)dx, then F(x) is defined as the cumulative distribution function or
simply the distribution function of the continuous variable.
CDF has the following properties:
( )
i)
= F (x) =f(x) 0
ii) 1 F (x) 0
iii) If x
x then F (x ) F (x ) , i.e. CDF is monotone (non-decreasing function)
) =0
iv) F (
v) F ( ) = 1
vi) P(a x b) = f(x)dx = f(x)dx - f(x)dx = F (b) F (a)
Expectation [E(x)]:
1. E(X) =
x f(x ) (Discrete case)
2. E(X) = x f(x )dx (Continuous case)
Properties of Expectation
1. E(constant) = constant
2. E(CX) = C . E(X) [C is constant]
3. E(AX+BY) = A E(X)+B E(Y) [A& B are constants]
4. E(XY)= E(X) E(Y/X)= E(Y) E(X/Y)
E(XY) E(X) E(Y) in general
But E(XY) = E(X) E(Y) , if X & Y are independent
Variance (Var(X))
Var (X) =E,(x
) ]
Var (X)= (x x
) f(xx )
Var (X)= (xx

Var (X) =E(
(Discrete case)
) f(x)dx (Continuous case)
)-,E(x)-
Properties of Variance
1. Var(constant) = 0
2. Var(Cx)
= C Var(x) -Variance is non-linear [here C is constant]
Page 11
Mathematics
3. Var(Cx D) = C Var(x) -Variance is translational invariant [C & D are constants]

4. Var(x-k)
= Var(x) [k is constant]
5. Var(ax+by) = a Var(x) + b Var(y) 2ab cov(x,y) (if not independent) [A & B are
constants]
= a Var(x) + b Var(y) (if independent)
Covariance
Cov (x,y)=E(xy)-E(x) E(y)
If independent
covariance=0,
E(xy) = E(x) . E(y)
(if covariance = 0, then the events are not necessarily independent)

Properties of Covariance
1. Cov(x,y) = Cov(y,x) (i.e. symmetric)
2. Cov(x,x) = Var(x)
3. |Cov(x,y)|
Standard Distribution Function (Discrete r.v. case):
1. Binomial Distribution : P(r) = C p q
Mean = np,
Variance = npq,
S.D. =npq
2. Poisson Distribution: Probability of k success is P (k) =
no. of success trials , n no. of trials , P success case probability
mean of the distribution
For Poisson distribution: Mean = , variance = , and =np
Standard Distribution Function (Continuous r.v. case):
1. Normal Distribution (Gaussian Distribution): f(x) =
Where and are the mean and standard deviation respectively

P(
<x<
) = 68%
P(
<x<
) = 95.5%
P(
<x<
) = 99.7%
Total area under the curve is is unity i.e. f(x)dx = 1
P(x1 < x < x2) =
2. Exponential distribution :
3. Uniform distribution:
4. Cauchy distribution :
dx = Area under the curve from x1 to x2
f(x) = e
, x
, here
= , x
f(x)=
, b f(x) a
= , otherwise
f(x)= .(
)
5. Rayleigh distribution function : f(x) =
Mean:
For a set of n values of a variant X=( x , x , . . , x )
Page 12
Mathematics
The arithmetic mean, =
For a grouped data if x , x , . . , x are mid values of the class intervals having frequencies
f , f ,.., f ,then, =
If is mean for n data; is mean for n data; then combined mean of n +n data is
=
If , be mean and SD of a sample size n and m ,
SD of combined sample of size n +n is given by,
(n
n )
D = m -m
( n)
=n
+n
be those for a sample of size n then
+n D +n D
(m , = mean, SD of combined sample)
= (n
(n D )
Median: When the values in a data sample are arranged in descending order or ascending order
of magnitude the median is the middle term if the no. of sample is odd and is the mean of two
middle terms if the number is even.
Mode: It is defined as the value in the sampled data that occurs most frequently.
Important Points:
Mean is best measurement ( all observations taken into consideration).
Mode is worst measurement ( only maximum frequency is taken).
In median, 50 % observation is taken.
Sum of the deviation about mean is zero.
Sum of the absolute deviations about median is minimum.
Sum of the square of the deviations about mean is minimum.
Co-efficient of variation =
100
Correlation coefficient = (x,y) =
( , )
-1 (x, y) 1
(x,y) = (y,x)
|(x,y)| = 1 when P(x=0)=1; or P(x=ay)=1 [ for some a]
If the correlation coefficient is -ve, then two events are negatively correlated.
If the correlation coefficient is zero, then two events are uncorrelated.
If the correlation coefficient is +ve, then two events are positively correlated.
Line of Regression:
The equation of the line of regression of y on x is y
The equation of the line of Regression of x on y is (x
y=
x) =
(x
x)
(y
y)
is called the regression coefficient of y on x and is denoted by byx.
Page 13
Mathematics
is called the regression coefficient of x on y and is denoted by bxy.
Joint Probability Distribution: If X & Y are two random variables then Joint distribution is defined
as, Fxy(x,y) = P(X x ; Y y)
Properties of Joint Distribution Function/ Cumulative Distribution Function:
1. F (
,
) =
2. F ( , ) = 1
3. F (
, ) =
{ F (
, ) = P(
y) = 0 x 1 = 0 }
) = F (x) . 1 = F (x)
4. F (x, ) = P(
x
5. F ( , y) = F (y)
Joint Probability Density Function:
Defined as f(x, y) =
Property:
F(x, y)
f(x, y) dx dy
= 1
Note: X and Y are said to be independent random variable

If fxy(x,y) = fx(x) . fy(y)
Page 14
Mathematics
1.3 Numerical Methods

1.3.1
Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equation / Root Finding :

Consider an equation f(x) = 0
1. Bisection method
This method finds the root between points a and b.
If f(x) is continuous between a and b and f (a) and f (b) are of opposite sign then there is a
root between a & b (Intermediate Value Theorem).
First approximation to the root is x1 =
If f(x1) = 0, then x1 is the root of f(x) = 0, otherwise root lies between a and x1 or x1 and
b.
Similarly x2 and x3 . . . . . are determined.
Simplest iterative method
Bisection method always converge, but often slowly.
This method cant be used for finding the complex roots.
Rate of convergence is linear
2. Newton Raphson Method (or Successive Substitution Method or Tangent Method)
( )
xn+1 = xn
(
This method is commonly used for its simplicity and greater speed.
Here f(x) is assumed to have continuous derivative f(x).
This method fails if f(x) = .
It has second order of convergence or quadratic convergence, i.e. the subsequent error at
each step is proportional to the square of the error at previous step.
Sensitive to starting value, i.e. The Newtons method converges provided the initial
approximation is chosen sufficiently close to the root.
Rate of convergence is quadratic.
3. Secant Method
x
=x
) (
f(x )
Convergence is not guaranteed.

If converges, convergence super linear (more rapid than linear, almost quadratic like
Newton Raphson, around 1.62).
4. Regula Falsi Method or (Method of False Position)
Regula falsi method always converges.
However, it converges slowly.
If converges, order of convergence is between 1 & 2 (closer to 1).
Page 15
Mathematics
It is superior to Bisection method.

Given f(x) = 0
Select x0 and x1 such that f(x0) f(x1) < 0
x =x -
, f(x ) =
(i.e. opposite sign)
( )
)
Check if f(x0) f(x2) < 0 or f(x1) f(x2) < 0

Compute x
which is an approximation to the root.

1.3.2
1.
Solution of Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method
Here equations are converted into upper triangular matrix form, then solved by bac
substitution method.
Consider
a1x + b1x + c1z = d1
a2x + b2x + c2z = d2
a3x + b3x + c3z = d3
Step 1: To eliminate x from second and third equation (we do this by subtracting suitable
multiple of first equation from second and third equation)
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
(pivotal equation, a1 pivot point.)
b y + c z = d
b y + c z = d
Step 2: Eliminate y from third equation
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
b y + c2z = d
c z = d
(pivotal equation, b is pivot point.)
Step 3: The value of x , y and z can be found by back substitution.

Note: Number of operations: N =
2.
+n -
Gauss Jordon Method

Used to find inverse of the matrix and solving linear equations.
Here back substitution is avoided by additional computations that reduce the matrix to
diagonal from, instead to triangular form in Gauss elimination method.
Number of operations is more than Gauss elimination as the effort of back substitution
is saved at the cost of additional computation.
Step 1: Eliminate x from 2nd and 3rd
Page 16
Mathematics
Step 2: Eliminate y from 1st and 3rd

Step 3: Eliminate z from 1st and 2nd
3.
L U Decomposition
It is modification of the Gauss eliminiation method.
Also Used for finding the inverse of the matrix.
[A]n x n = [ L ] n x n [U] n x n
a11 a12 a13
1 0 0
a21 b22 c23
L21 1 0
=
a31 b32 c33
L31 L32 1
U11 U12 U13

0
U22 U23
0
0 U31
Ax = LUX = b can be written as

a)LY=b and
b) UX=Y
Solve for from a) then solve for from b). This method is nown as Doolittles method.
Similar methods are Crouts method and Choles y methods.
4. Iterative Method
(i) Jacobi Iteration Method
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
If a1, b2 , c3 are large compared to other coefficients, then solving these for x, y, z
respectively
x = k1 l1y m1z
y = k2 l2x m2z
z = k3 l3x m3y
Let us start with initial approximation x0 , y0 , z0
x1= k1 l1y0 m1z0
y1= k2 l2y0 m2z0
z1= k3 l3y0 m3z0
Note: No component of x(k) is used in computation unless y(k) and z(k) are computed.
The process is repeated till the difference between two consecutive approximations is
negligible.
In generalized form:
x(k+1) = k1 l1 y(k) m1z(k)
y(k+1) = k2 l2 x(k) m2z(k)
z(k+1) = k3 l3 x(k) m3y(k)
(ii) Gauss-Siedel Iteration Method
Modification of the Jacobis Iteration Method
Start with (x0, y0, z0) = (0, 0, 0) or anything [No specific condition]
Page 17
Mathematics
In first equation, put y = y0 z = z0 which will give x1

In second equation, put x = x1 and z = z0 which will give y1
In third equation, put x = x1 and y = y1 which will give z1
Note: To compute any variable, use the latest available value.
In generalized form:
x(k+1) = k1 l1y(k) m1z(k)
y(k+1) = k2 l2x(k+1) m2z(k)
z(k+1) = k3 l3x(k+1) m3y(k+1)
1.3.3
Numerical Integration
Trapezoidal Formula: Step size h =
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
(remaining terms)+
Error = Exact - approximate

The error in approximating an integral using Trapezoidal rule is bounded by
h
(b
1
a) max |f ( )|
, , -
Simpsons One Third Rule (Simpsons Rule):
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
(all odd terms)
(all even terms)+
The error in approximating an integral using Simpsons one third rule is

h
(b
1
a) max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
Simpsons Three Eighth Rule:
f(x)dx =
h ( first term
{
last term)
(all multiple of terms)

}
(all remaining terms)
The error in approximating an integral using Simpsons / rule is

(b
a)
max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
1.3.4 Solving Differential Equations

(i) Euler method (for first order differential equation )
Given equation is y = f(x, y); y(x0) = y0
Page 18
Mathematics
Solution is given by, Yn+1 = yn + h f(xn,yn)

(ii) Runge Kutta Method
Used for finding the y at a particular x without solving the 1st order differential equation
= f(x, y)
K1 = h f(x0, y0)
K2 = h f(x0 + , y0 + )
K3 = h f(x0 + , y0 + )
K4 = h f(x0 +h, y0 + k3)
K = (k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4)
Y(x0+h) = y0 + k
Page 19
Mathematics
1.4 Calculus
1.4.1
Limit of a Function
Let y = f(x)
Then lim
f(x)=
0< |x a|< , |f(x)
i.e, f(x)
|<
as x a implies for any
(>0), (>0) such that whenever
Some Standard Expansions

(1
x) = 1
a
=x
a
nx
x
e =1+x+
log(1
x) = x
log(1
x) =
Sin x = x
n(n
1)(n
.........x
.........a
.........
+
.........
.........
.........
Cos x = 1
Sinh x = x
.........
.........
Cosh x = 1
.........
Some Important Limits

lim
sinx
=
x
lim (1
lim(1
lim
lim
1
) =
x
x) =
1
x
1
x
= log a
=1
Page 20
lim
lim
log(1
x
x
x
x)
Mathematics
=1
a
=
a
lim log|x| =
L Hospitals Rule
When function is of
limit.
or
form, differentiate numerator & denominator and then apply
Existence of Limits and Continuity:

1. f(x) is defined at a, i.e, f(a) exists.
2. If lim f(x) = lim f(x) = L ,then the lim f(x) exists and equal to L.
3. If lim
f(x) = lim
f(x)= f(a) then the function f(x) is said to be continuous.
Properties of Continuity
If f and g are two continuous functions at a; then
a. (f+g), (f.g), (f-g) are continuous at a
b.
is continuous at a, provided g(a) 0
c. |f| or |g| is continuous at a
Rolles theorem
If (i) f(x) is continuous in closed interval [a,b]
(ii) f(x) exists for every value of x in open interval (a,b)
(iii) f(a) = f(b)
Then there exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that
( )=0
Geometrically: There exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that tangent at c is parallel to
x axis
C
C
2
C1
a
Page 21
Mathematics
Lagranges Mean Value Theorem

If (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,b] and
(ii) f(x) exists in the open interval (a,b), then atleast one value c of x exist in (a,b) such that
( )
( )
= f (c).
Geometrically, it means that at point c, tangent is parallel to the chord line.
Cauchys Mean Value Theorem

If (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,a+h] and
(ii) f (x) exists in the open interval (a,a+h), then there is at least one number
such that
(0< <1)
f(a+h) = f(a) + h f(a+ h)

Let f1 and f2 be two functions:
i) f1,f2 both are continuous in [a,b]
ii) f1, f2 both are differentiable in (a,b)
iii) f2 0 in (a,b)
then, for a
( )
( )
1.4.2
( )
=
( )
b
( )
( )
Derivative:
( ) = lim
( )
Provided the limit exists ( ) is called the rate of change of f at x.

Algebra of derivative:i. (f g) = f
g
ii. (f g) = f g
iii. (f. g) = f . g
f .g
iv. (f/g) =
Page 22
Mathematics
Homogenous Function
Any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in from xn . / is called homogenous function of
order n in x and y. (Every term is of nth degree.)
f(x,y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + a2xn-2y2
f(x,y) = xn
an yn
. /
Eulers Theorem on Homogenous Function

If u be a homogenous function of order n in x and y then,
x +y
= nu
1.4.3
+ 2xy
+y
= n(n
1)u
Total Derivative
If u=f(x,y) ,x=(t), y=(t)

=
u=
+
x+
.
y
Monotonicity of a Function f(x)

1. f(x) is increasing function if for
, f( )
Necessary and sufficient condition, f (x)
2. f(x) is decreasing function if for
, , f( )
Necessary and sufficient condition, f (x)
f( )
f( )
Note: If f is a monotonic function on a domain D then f is one-one on D.

Maxima-Minima
a) Global
b) Local
Rule for finding maxima & minima:

If maximum or minimum value of f(x) is to be found, let y = f(x)
Find dy/dx and equate it to zero and from this find the values of x, say x is , , (called the
critical points).
Find
at x = ,
If
, y has a minimum value
If
,y has a maximum value
Page 23
If
Mathematics
= , proceed further and find at x = .
If
, y has neither maximum nor minimum value at x =
But If
= , proceed further and find
If
, y has minimum value
If
, y has maximum value
If
at x = .
= , proceed further
Note: Greatest / least value exists either at critical point or at the end point of interval.
Point of Inflexion
If at a point, the following conditions are met, then such point is called point of inflexion
Point of
inflexion
i)
ii)
=0,
iii)
Neither minima nor maxima exists
Taylor Series:
f(a
h)= f(a)
h f(a)
f(a)
.........
Maclaurian Series:
f(x) = f( )
x f( )
f ( )
f ( )
Maxima & Minima (Two variables)

r=
1.
= 0,
2. (i) if rt
(ii) if rt
(iii) if rt
(iv) if rt
,s=
=
, t=
solve these equations. Let the solution be (a, b), (c, d)
s
and r
maximum at (a, b)
s
and r
minimum at (a, b)
s < 0 at (a, b), f(a,b) is not an extreme value i.e, f(a, b) is saddle point.
s > 0 at (a, b), It is doubtful, need further investigation.
Page 24
1.4.4
Mathematics
Standard Integral Results
1. x dx =
, n
2. dx = log x
3. e dx = e
4. a dx =
(prove it )
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
cos x dx = sin x
sin x dx = cos x
sec x dx = tan x
cosec x dx = cot x
sec x tan x dx = sec x
cosec x cot x dx = cosec x
dx = sin
12.
dx =
sec
13.
dx = sec x
14. cosh x dx = sinh x

15. sinh x dx = cosh x
16. sech x dx = tanh x
17. cosech x dx = coth x
18. sech x tanh x dx = sech x
19. cosec h x cot h x dx = cosech x
20. tan x dx = log sec x
21. cot x dx = log sin x
22. sec x dx = log( sec x tan x) = log tan(
23. cosec x dx = log(cosec x cot x) = log tan
x )
24.
dx = log(x
a ) = cosh ( )
25.
dx = log(x
a ) = sinh ( )
26. a
x dx =
27. a
x dx = x
log(x
a )
28. x
a dx = x
log(x
a )
29.
dx =
tan
30.
dx =
log (
) where x <a
31.
dx =
log (
) where x > a
32. sin x dx =
33.
34.
35.
36.
sin
sin x
sin x
cos x dx =
tan x dx = tan x x
cot x dx = cot x x
ln x dx = x ln x x
37. e
sin bx dx =
(a sin bx
b cos bx )
38. e
cos bx dx =
(a cos bx
b sin bx )
Page 25
39. e ,f(x)
Mathematics
f (x)-dx = e f(x)
Integration by parts: u v dx = u. v dx
v dx)dx
I L A T E
E
Selection of U & V
Inverse circular
(e.g. tan 1 x)
Exponential
Logarithmic
Algebraic Trigonometric
Note: Take that function as u which comes first in ILATE

1.4.5 Rules for Definite Integral
1. f(x)dx = f(x)dx+ f(x)dx
2. f(x)dx = f(a
3. f(x)dx =
x)dx
f(x)dx+
=0
4. f(x)dx =2 f(x)dx
=0
a<c<b
f(x)dx = f(a
x)dx
f(a x)dx
f(x)dx =
if f(a-x)=f(x)
if f(a-x)=-f(x)
if f(-x) = f(x), even function
if f(x) = -f(x), odd function
f(x)dx
Improper Integral
Those integrals for which limit is infinite or integrand is infinite in a
then it is called as improper integral.
b in case of f(x)dx,
1.4.6 Convergence:
f(x)dx is said to be convergent if the value of the integral is finite.
If (i)
f(x) g(x) for all x and (ii) g(x)dx converges , then f(x)dx also converges
If (i) f(x) g(x)
for all x and (ii) g(x)dx diverges, then f(x)dx also diverges
( )
( )
If lim
diverge.
is converges when p
The integral
The integral
= c where c 0, then both integrals f(x)dx and g(x)dx converge or both
dx and
1 and diverges when p
e dx is converges for any constant p
is convergent if and only if p
is convergent if and only if p
and diverges for p
Page 26
1.4.7
Mathematics
Vector Calculus:
Scalar Point Function:

If corresponding to each point P of region R there is a corresponding scalar then (P) is said to
be a scalar point function for the region R.
(P)= (x,y,z)
Vector Point Function:
If corresponding to each point P of region R, there corresponds a vector defined by F(P) then F is
called a vector point function for region R.
F(P) = F(x,y,z) = f1(x,y,z) +f2(x,y,z) f3(x,y,z)
Vector Differential Operator or Del Operator:
=.
Directional Derivative:
is the resolved part of f in direction N
.
The directional derivative of f in a direction N
= | f|cos
f. N
is a unit vector in a particular direction.
Where N
Direction cosine: l
n =1
Where, l =cos , m=cos , n=cos ,

1.4.8
Gradient:
The vector function f is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f(x,y,z) and written
as grad f.
grad f = f =
1.4.9
f is vector function
If f(x,y,z) = 0 is any surface, then f is a vector normal to the surface f and has a
magnitude equal to rate of change of f along this normal.
Directional derivative of f(x,y,z) is maximum along f and magnitude of this maximum
is | f|.
Divergence:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div. F and
is defined by the equation.
div. F = . F
Page 27
F=f +
div.F= . f = .
=
Mathematics
/ .( f +
. f is scalar
. =
is Laplacian operator
1.4.10 Curl:
The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is
defined by the equation.
Curl F =
f =|
|
f
F is vector function
1.4.11 Solenoidal Vector Function
If .A = 0 , then A is called as solenoidal vector function.
1.4.12 Irrotational Vector Function
If
A =0, then A is said to be irrotational otherwise rotational.
1.4.13 DEL Applied Twice to Point Functions:

1. div grad f =
2.
3.
4.
5.
f=
---------- this is Laplace equation
curl grad f =
f=0
div curl F = .
F =0
curl curl F =
(
f) = ( . f) grad div F = ( . f)=
(
F) +
F
F
1.4.14 Vector Identities:

f, g are scalar functions & F, G are vector functions
1. (f g) = f + g
2. . (F G) = . F
.G
(F G) =
3.
F
G
4. (fg) = f g + g f
5. . (fG)= f. G f. G
6.
(fG) = f G f
G
7. (F. G) = F (
G) G (
F)
8. . (F G) = G.(
F) F. (
G)
Page 28
(F
9.
G) = F(
G)
G(
Mathematics
F)
Also note:
1. (f/g)= (g f f g)/g
2. (F.G) = F.G F . G
3. (F G) = F G + F G
4.
(fg) = g f + 2 f. g + f
1.4.15 Vector product

1. Dot product of A B with C is called scalar triplet product and denoted as [ABC]
Rule: For evaluating the scalar triplet product
(i) Independent of position of dot and cross
(ii) Dependent on the cyclic order of the vector
[ABC] = A B. C = A. B C
= B C. A= B.C A
= C A. B = C.A B
A B. C = -(B A. C)
B
= (extreme adjacent) Outer
) C
2. (A
= (Outer. extreme) adjacent (Outer. adjacent) extreme
= (C
.A
)B
.B
- (C
)A
(A
B)
C
(B
) = (A
.C
)B
.B
C
- (A
)C
A
(A B ) C A (B C )
1.4.16 Line Integral, Surface Integral & Volume Integral
Line integral = F(R)dR

If F(R )= f(x,y,z) (x,y,z) + (x,y,z)
dR = dx dy dz
dy dz )
F(R )dR = ( f dx
ds, Where N is unit outward normal to Surface.
Surface integral: F .
ds or F . N
Volume integral : F dv
If F(R ) = f(x,y,z) +
(x,y,z)
F dv = fdxdydz
(x,y,z) and v = x y z , then
dxdydz + dxdydz
1.4.17 Greens Theorem

If R be a closed region in the xy plane bounded by a simple closed curve c and if P and Q are
continuous functions of x and y having continuous derivative in R, then according to Greens
theorem.
(P dx
Q dy) = .
/ dxdy
Page 29
Mathematics
1.4.18 Sto es theorem

If F be continuously differentiable vector function in R, then F. dr =
F .N ds
1.4.19 Gauss divergence theorem

The normal surface integral of a vector point function F which is continuously differentiable over
the boundary of a closed region is equal to the
F .N.ds = div F dv
Page 30
Mathematics
1.5: Differential Equations

1.5.1
Order of Differential Equation: It is the order of the highest derivative appearing in it.
1.5.2
Degree of Differential Equation: It is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it,
after expressing the equation free from radicals and fractions as far as derivatives are
concerned.
1.5.3
Differential Equations of First Order First Degree:
Equations of first order and first degree can be expressed in the form f (x, y, y ) = or
y = f(x, y). Following are the different ways of solving equations of first order and first degree:
1. Variable separable : f(x)dx + g(y)dy = 0
f(x)dx
g(y)dy = c is the solution
2. Homogenous Equation:
( ,
( ,
)
)
To solve a homogeneous equation, substitute y = Vx

=V+x
Separate the variable V and x and integrate.
Equations Reducible to Homogenous Equation:

The differential equation:
This is a non - homogeneous but can be converted to homogeneous equation

Case I: If
Substitute x = X + h
y=Y+k
(h and K are constants)
Solve for h and k

ah b
c=0
ah b
c =0
=
Case II: If
=
=
=
(say)
(
(
)
)
Page 31
Mathematics
Substitute ax +by = t, so that,

(
Solve by variable separable method.

3. Linear Equations:
The standard form of a linear equation of first order:
+ P(x) y = Q(x) , where P and Q are functions of x
Second order linear equation:
d y
dx
P(x)
dy
dx
Q(x)y = R(x)
Commonly nown as Leibnitzs linear equations

Integrating factor, I.F. = e
ye
= Q. (I. F)dx
y(I. F. ) = Q. (I. F)dx
Note: The degree of every linear differential equation is always one but if the degree of the
differential equation is one then it need not be linear.
Ex:
x . /
= 0.
.1 Bernoullis Equation:
+Py=Qy
where, P & Q are functions of x only.
Divide by y
y
Substitute, y
Py
=Q
=z
(1
n)Pz = Q (1-n)
This is a linear equation and can be solved easily
4. Exact Differential Equations:

M (x, y) dx + N (x, y) dy = 0
Page 32
Mathematics
The necessary and sufficient condition for the differential equations M dx +N dy = 0 to be

exact is
=
Solution of exact differential equation:
M dx
(terms of N not contaning x ) dy = C
4.1 Equation Reducible the Exact Equation:

Integrating Factor:
Sometimes an equation which is not exact may become so on multiplication by some
function known as Integrating factor (I.F.).
Rule 0: Finding by inspection
1. x dy + y dx = d (x y)
2.
=d( )
3.
= d [log (
4.
=-d( )
5.
= d [tan (
)-
6.
=d[
)-
log(
)]
Rule 1: when M dx + N dy = 0 is homogenous in x and y and M x + N y

Rule 2: If the equation f (x, y) y dx + f (x, y) x dy = 0 and M x N y
/ = f(x), then I.F. = e
Rule 3: If the M dx + N dy = 0 and .

Rule 4: If the equation M dx + N dy = 0 and
1.5.4
0 then I.F. =
0 then I.F. =
( )
/ = f(y) , then I.F. = e
( )
Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients:

-------
The equation can be written as (D
y=X
D
-----
)y = X {Where, D =
f(D) y = X ; f(D) = 0 is called Auxiliary Equation.

Rules for Finding Complimentary Function:
Case I :
If all the roots of A.E. are real and different
Page 33
(D
m ) (D
m ) - - - - - - (D
m )y=0
So, the solution is: y = C e

Case II:
Mathematics
C e
-- - - - -+ C e
If two roots are equal i.e. m = m

y = (C
C x)e
Similarly, if m = m = m
y = (C
Case III:
C x +C x ) e
If one pair of roots are imaginary

i.e.
m =
i , m =
y = e (C cos x
Case IV:
i
C sin x)
If two pairs of root are imaginary

i.e. repeated imaginary root
y=e
1.5.5
i ,
C ) cos x
,(C x
i
(C x
C ) sin x ]
Rules for finding Particular Integral

P.. =
X=
( )
.X
Case I:
When X =
P.I. =
( )
P.I. = x
( )
P.I. =
( )
put D = a
[ ( )
0]
put D = a
[ ( )
0, ( ) = 0]
put D = a
[ ( ) = 0, ( ) = 0, ( )
0]
Case II:
When X = sin (ax + b) or cos (ax +b)
P.I. =
=x
=
)
(
put
)
=-
, (-
0]
put
=-
, (-
, (-
) = 0]
) put
=-
, (-
, (-
Page 34
= , (-
Mathematics
) = 0]
Case III:
When X =
, m being positive integer

P.I. =
= [ ( )-
( )
(D) ,1
(D) [1
( )
( )
( )
( )
Case IV:
When X =
V where V is function of x
P. I. =
( )
V then evaluate
V as in Case I, II & III
Case V:
When X = x V(x)
P.I. =
( )
( )
x V(x) = 0
( )
( )
V(x)
Case VI:
When X is any other function of x
P.I. =
Factorize f(D) = (D
( )
) (D
and then apply,
) - - - - - - - (D
X=
) and resolve
( )
into partial fractions
on each terms.
Complete Solution: y = C.F. + P..

1.5.6
Cauchy-Euler Equation: (Homogenous Linear Equation)

.
Substitute
------ -
=X
x=e
x
= Dy
= D (D-1) y
= D (D-1)(D-2) y
Page 35
Mathematics
After substituting these differentials, the Cauchy Euler equation results in a linear equation
with constant coefficients.
1.5.7
Legendres Linear Equation:

(
ax + b =
- - - - -- -
=X
t = ln (ax + b)
(ax + b)
=aDy
D(D-1)y
D(D-1)(D-2)y
After substituting these differentials, the Legendres equation results in a linear equation with
constant coefficients.
1.5.8
Partial Differential Equation:

z = f(x, y)
=p,
1.5.9
=q,
= r,
= s,
Homogenous Linear Equation with Constant Coefficients:

------ -
= f( x, y)
this is called homogenous because all
terms containing derivative is of same order.

(
-------
) = f(x, y)
{ where D =
and D =
f (D, D) = f(x,y)
Step I: Finding the C.F.
1. Write A.E.
Where m =
2. CF = (y +
CF = (y +
CF =
(y +
----= 0,
and the roots are
,
---- x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
are distinct
x) + x (y +
x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
x) + x
(y +
x) +
(y +
x) + - - - -
,
,
two equal roots.

three equal roots.
Page 36
Mathematics
Step II: Finding P.I.

P.. =
( ,
f (x, y)
1. when F( ax +by ) =
, put [ D = a, = b]
2. when F( x, y) = sin (mx +ny), put ( =
,
3. when F(x, y) =
, P. = ( , )
=[ ( ,
4. when F(x, y) is any function of x and y. P. =
( ,
=
))
f (x, y) , resolve
( ,
into partial
fractions considering ( , ) as a function of D alone and operate each partial fraction

)
on f(x, y) remembering that
f(x, y) = ( ,
where c, is replaced by
(
y + mx after integration.
Page 37
Mathematics
1.6: Complex Variables

=
is a complex no., where x & y are real numbers called as real and imaginary part of z.
Modulus or absolute value = | | =
, Argument of
( )=
. /
1.6.1 Function of a Complex Variable: It is a rule by means of which it is possible to find one or
more complex numbers w for every value of z in a certain domain D, then w = f (z)
Where z = x + iy,
w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
1.6.2
Continuity of f (z):
( ) = ( ).
A function = f (z) is said to be continuous at = if
Further f (z) is said to be continuous in any region R of the z-plane, if it is continuous at
every point of that region.
Also if w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is continuous at = , then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are also
continuous at x= & y = .
1.6.3
Theorem on Differentiability:
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function f( ) to exist for all
values of in a region R.
i)
ii)
1.6.4
Analytic Functions (or Regular Function) or Holomorphic Functions
, are continuous functions of x and y in R.

=
Cauchy-Riemann equations (CR equations)
A single valued function which is defined and differentiable at each point of a domain D is
said to be analytic in that domain.
A point at which an analytic function ceases to possess a derivative is called Singular point.
Thus if u and v are real Single valued functions of x and y such that
, ,
,
are
continuous throughout a region R , then CR equations
=
=-
are both necessary and sufficient condition for the function f(z) = u
iv to be analytic in R.
Real and imaginary part i.e. u, v of the function is called conjugate function.
An analytic function posses derivatives of all order and these are themselves analytic.
Page 38
1.6.5
Mathematics
Harmonic Functions:
If f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function in some region of the z plane then the C R equations are
satisfied.
=
Differentiating with respect to x and y respectively,

=
=0
(Laplace Equation)
Note:
(1) For a function to be regular, the first order partial derivations of u and v must be
continuous in addition to CR equations.
(2) Mean value of any harmonic function over a circle is equal to the value of the function at
the centre.
1.6.6
Methods of Constructing Analytic Functions:
1. If the real part of a function is given then,

( ) =
-i
Integrate with points at (z, 0)
f(z) = . /
dz - i . /
( , )
( , )
dz + c
Similarly in case v(x, y) is known, then

f (z) =
+i
f (z) = . /
( , )
dz + i . /
( , )
dz + c
2. If u (x, y) is known, then to find v(x, y) we have

dv =
dx + dy
dv =
dx +
dy
Integrate this equation to find v.

f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
3. If a real part of the analytic function f(z) is given which is harmonic function u (x, y), then
f(z) = 2u . , / - u(0, 0)
1.6.7
Complex Integration
Line integral = ( ) , C need not be closed path
Here, f(z) = integrand , curve C = path of integration
Contour integral = ( )
, if C is closed path
Page 39
Mathematics
If f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) and dz = dx + i dy
( )
=(
Theorem: f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain then
( )
= f( )
( ), i.e.
integration is independent of the path

Dependence on Path: In general Complex line integration depends not only on the end points
but also on the path (however analytic function in simple connected domain is independent of
path.)
1.6.8
Cauchys Integral Theorem:
If f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain D, then for every simple closed path C in D,
() = 0
Note: In other words, by Cauchys theorem if f(z) is analytic on a simple closed path C and
everywhere inside C (with no exception, not even a single point) then ( ) =
D
C
1.6.8.1 Cauchys Integral Formula:

If f(z) is analytic within and on a closed curve and if a is any point within C, then
( )=
( ) =
( ) =
( )
( )
(
)
( )
.
( )=
( )
(
Page 40
1.6.9 Moreras Theorem: If f(z) is continuous in a region and

simple closed C then f(z) is analytic in that region.
Mathematics
( )
= 0 around every
1.6.10 Taylors Series: If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a then for z inside C
f(z) = f(a)
f(z) =
where
( )
f(a) (z-a) +
(
=
(z-a) + - - - - - - -
( )
)
Other form, put z = a + h

f(a+h) = f(a) + h ( ) +
( ) + - - - - - - -
1.6.11 Laurents Series: If f(z) is analytic in the ring shaped region R bounded by two concentric
circles and of radii and (
) and with centre at a then for all z in R
(
f(z) =
where,
( )
)
If f(z) is analytic inside the curve then
= and Laurent series reduces to Taylors series.
1.6.12 Zeroes of Analytic Function:

The value of z for which f(z) = 0
If f(z) is analytic in the neighbourhood of a point z = a then by Taylors theorem.
where
if
f(z) =
=
=
( )
=------
= 0, then f(z) is said to have a zero of order n at z =a.
1.6.13 Singularities of an Analytic Function:

A singular point of a function as the point at which the function ceases to be analytic.
1. Isolated Singularity: If z =a is a singularity of f(z) such that f(z) is analytic at each point in its
neighbourhood (i.e. there exists a circle with centre a which has no other singularity 1, then
z =a is called an isolated singularity).
2. Removable Singularity: If all the negative powers of (z-a) in Laurent series are zero then
Page 41
Mathematics
f(z) =
(
)
singularity can be removed by defining f(z) at z = a is such a way that it becomes analytic at
z =a
( ) exists finitely, then z = a is a removable singularity.
Example: f(z) =
, then z = 0 is a removable singularity.
3. Essential singularity: If the numbers of negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series is infinite,
then z =a is called an essential singularity.
( ) does not exist in this case
4. Poles: If all the negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series after
singularity at z = a is called a pole of order n.
A pole of first order is called a simple pole.
are missing then. The
1.6.14 Residue Theorem

If f(z) is analytic in and on a closed curve C except at a finite number of singular point within C
then
f(z)dz = i (sum of the residue at the singular point within C)
Calculation of Residues
1. If f(x) has a simple pole at z=a , then
Res f(a) =
,(
) ( )( )
) ( ), ( )
2. If ( ) = ( ) where ( ) = (
Res ( ) =
( )
( )
3. If ( ) has a pole of order n at z=a , then

( )=(
,(
( )-3
Here n =order of singularity

Note: If an analytic function has singularities at a finite number of points, then the sum of
residues at these points along with infinity is zero.
Page 42
Mathematics
1.7: Laplace Transform

1.7.1
Introduction
Laplace Transform (LT) is a method to get generalized frequency domain representation of a

continuous time signal and is generalization of CTFT (Continuous Time Fourier Transform).
Definition of Laplace Transform
, ( )- = ( ) =
. ( )
, ( )- = ( )=
1.7.2
. ( )
: One sided/ unilateral LT, where S = (
J )
: Two sided/ bilateral LT.
Properties of Laplace transform
Frequency shift
L [e-at f(t) ] = F(s + a) and
[eat f(t) ] = F(s - a)
Time shift
L [f(t to)] =
. F(s)
Differentiation in Time domain

[
( ) ] = s F(s) f(0) where f(0) is initial value of f(t).
If initial conditions are zero (i.e. f(0) = 0),differentiating in time domain is equivalent to
multiplying by s in frequency domain.
Similarly,
( )]=
F(s) s f(0) -
(0) where
(0) is the value of [
( ) ] at t = 0
Integration in Time domain

L 0
( ) 1=
( )
and
( ) 3=
( )
( )
Integration in time domain is equivalent to division by s in frequency domain, if f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
Differentiation in Frequency Domain
L [ t f(t) ] =
( )
and
( )+ = ( 1)
(F(s))
Differentiation in frequency domain is equal to multiplication by t in time domain.

Integration in Frequency Domain
L0
( )
1 =
( )
Page 43
Mathematics
Integration in frequency domain is equal to division by t in time domain.
1.7.3
Initial Value Theorem
If f(t) and its derivative
( ) are Laplace transformable, then
( )=
( )
This theorem does not apply to the rational function F(s) in which the order of numerator
polynomial is equal to or greater than the order of denominator polynomial.
1.7.4
Final Value Theorem
If f(t) and its derivative
(t) are Laplace transformable, then
( )=
( )
For applying final value theorem, it is required that all the poles of
s- plane (strictly) i.e. poles on
axis also not allowed.
1.7.5
Convolution theorem
L, ( ). ( )- = ( )
( )
L, ( )
( )
( )- =
( ).
( ) be in the left half of
1.7.6 Laplace Transform of the Periodic Function

If f(t) is periodic function with period T, then
( ( )) = (
1.7.7
(s) where
(s) =
( )
Laplace Transform of Standard Functions

Table. Laplace Transform of Standard Functions
S. No
1.
2.
Function, f(t)
( )
u(t)
4.
5.
u(t)
6.
t.u(t)
8.
3.
7.
Laplace transform of f(t), L{f(t) = F(s)

1
. ()
. ()
f(t).
1
1

()
F(s-a)
Page 44

9.
sin at. u(t)
10.
cos at. u(t)
11.
sin hat. u(t)
12.
cos hat. u(t)
13.
14.
15.
f (t)
f (t)
16.
19.
20.
f(ta)
f(at)
21.
f1 (t) f (t)=
e
22
23
24
25
s . F(s) s. f(o ) f (o )
1 F(s)
s
1
S
F(s)
u)du
1
S
where f 1 (o ) =
f(u)du
. F(s)
dn
( 1)n . n (F(s))
ds
|a|. F(as)
1
F(sa)
|a|
F1 (s). F (s) where * is convolution operator
e
f1 (u). f (t
f 1 (o ).
(s
sin t
as
)
((
s
((s )
s F(s)ds
t
t
. cos t
. f(t)
(
(s
a )
s.F(s)-f(o )
f(u) du
t
f(u)du
f(t-a).u(t-a)
tn . F(t)
17.
18.
(
(
Mathematics
Page 45
Part 2: Structural Engineering

2.1 Mechanics
Simple Stress and Strain relationship stress and strain in two dimensions, principle stresses,
stress transformation, mohr circle
Normal stress = E
Shear stress = G
Where, , are normal and shear strain respectively

E, G are Youngs modulus and shear modulus respectively
A Proportional limit point
B Elastic limit point
C Upper yield point
D Lower yield point
E True breaking stress point
F Nominal breaking stress point
E
B
Stress
C
F
Strain
Stress-Strain Relationship For mid steel
Proof stress is equivalent to 0.1% to 0.2% stress

Proof stress = Yield stress
Factor of safety =
Let k = bulk modulus of elasticity, = Poissons ratio

a) E = 2G (1+ )
b) E = 3 K (1- 2)
Relations Between E,K,G,
c) E =
d) =
Theoretically poissons ratio varies from -1 to +0.5,

Practically poissons ratio varies from 0 to 0.5.
Elongation of bars of different section

1. For uniformly tapered circular bars
THE GATE ACADEMY PVT.LTD. H.O.: #74, KeshavaKrupa (third Floor), 30th Cross, 10th Main, Jayanagar 4th Block, Bangalore-11
Page 46
4PL
Ed d
2. Uniformly tapered rectangular bars
3. Elongation of a uniform section bar due to self weight

=
2
Where
W = Weight of bar
A = Area of cross section
4. Elongation of a bar uniformly tapered due to self weight
=
2
6
Where A = Average area of cross section
5. Elongation of a stepped bar
= Unit weight of material of a bar
Page 47
=
=
+
[
+
+
Analysis of a compound bar

1. Condition of equilibrium
,
,
P +P =P
2. Condition of compatibility
=
PL
PL
=
E
E
3. Equivalent modulus of elasticity
PL
PL
PL
=
=
E
E
E
P +P =P
PL
E
PL
E
+
=P
E
L
R
L
, L =L 1
, E + E -=1
E
E + E
E=
+
,
=
For composite material consisting of steel and copper rod,

For thermal expansion, as
>
Steel steeve ( E )
Copper will be in compression and steel
will be in
Cu - rod ( E )
tension.
Steel steeve (
Governing equation will be (
E)
)t =
Temperature Stresses
1. In uniform section fixed from both sides
change in length = tL
where
= coefficient of thermal expansion
t = change in temperature
Page 48
=( ) E = tE
L
It support yields by a
(
a)
then =
E = ( tL
L
a)
E
L
2. In a tapered circular section fixed from both sides

Force P induced due to temperature change t
tL a
=
(
)
4
3. Composite sections
Governing equation
P
P
(
=
+
)
E
E
E +
E
=(
) Lt
E + E
Where t is temperature change
Strain energy = =
Module of resilience is the strain energy per unit volume = u =
=
= E
Proof resistance is applicable when = yield stress =
up =
If and are stress acting on the body as shown below, along x-x
X
Normal stress, =
Shear stress =
If, = 90 +
=
=
cos 2
Sin 2
cos 2
sin 2
are complementary
normal stress
, are complementary shear stress

+ = +
+ = 0
If shear stress
also acts on body along with and
Page 49
Normal stress, = .
Shear stress, =
/+.
/ cos2 -
sin 2 +
Sin 2
= cos 2
Principle stresses are direct normal stresses acting on mutually perpendicular planes on
which shear stresses are zero.
If and are the principle stresses (major and minor respectively)
/.
, =.
/ +
The plane of maximum shear stress lies at 45 to the plane of principal stress
=
and on that plane of
, =
If the plane on which is maximum makes angle with vertical the plane on which is
maximum, makes (45+ ) angle with vertical,
Tan 2 =
maximum
Cot 2 =
maximum
In case of pure shear element, the principle stresses act at 45 to the plane of pure shear
stress
Stress invariants
I = ( + + ) = + + = + +
i.e. sum of stresses on any plane is constant
I = ( + + ) = + +
Mohrs Circle
(
=(
+
+
)
=
=
=
Transformation equation for strains
Page 50
=
=
+.
/ cos 2 +
= sin 2
2
2
2
+
2
= .
= sin 2
2
/ cos 2
/ cos 2 +
= sin 2
2
Maximum normal strain

=
+ .
/ +. /
2
2
2
+
2
/ +. /
2
To find plane of principal strain use

tan 2
Maximum shear strain

To find plane of maximum shear strain
tan 2
/ +. /
2
Sign convention for strain
,
+
Page 51
=+
=
Properties of Mohrs Circle

a) Center of Mohrs Circle, C =
b) Radius of Mohrs Circle r =
=
=
= .
/ +
xy
c) Major principle stress, = C + r

d) Minor principle stress, = C r
e) In case of pure shear elements = + and = - and centre of the circle coinsides with the
origin
Octahedral stresses
Stress on a octahedral plane (a plane which is equally inclined it all three principal axis of
reference
For such plane
=
Where
=
=
Let,
3
are direction cosines
3
(
) +(
) +(
9
2
Simple bending theory, flexural and shears tresses, unsymmetrical bending

y = distance of any particular section from neutral axis stress due to bending, =
Page 52
Where M = Bending moment

I = Moments of inertia about neutral axis
Also,
Where E = Youngs modulus

R = Radius of curvature
Flexure formula
=
Some Special Cases
For the same square beam, and for a given stress, the ratio of moments of resistance,
= 2
y
y
b
x
X bx
y
b
y
Position (ii)
Position (i)
To achieve same strength under same stresses, the relation regardings weight among
rectangular, circular and square section is
W
<W
<W
The ratio of depth to width of the strongest beam that can be cut from a circular log is 1.414
Moment of resistance m = Z M Z where Z section modulus
As at the top of beam, y = maximum and at the neutral axis y = 0, bending stress at top is
maximum and at neutral axis is zero
Shear stress for Different Section

i) For rectangular section with shear force V,
Shear stress =
y /, d = depth
Average shear stress =
, b = width
Maximum shear stress =

ii) For circular section with shear force v,
(r
Shear stress =
y ), r = radius of circle
Page 53

At y = local shear stress is equal to the average shear stress
iii) For triangular section, with shear force v,

Shear stress =
(h-y)y, b = base width
h = height
iv) For tubular section, with shear force V
(
Maximum shear stress

4
+
+
=
=(
3
+
Where
= (
Same typical shear distribution diagram

2h
3
r
3 v
2 bh
b
Rectangular
section
4 v
3 r
h
3
Circular
section
h
8 v
3 bh
b
Triangular
section
=
T-section
I-section
Shear centre, thin walled pressure vessels, uniform torsion, bulking of column, combined and
direct bending stress.
Shear centre
Lateral load acting on a beam through shear centre will produce bending without
torsion
Shear centre is the centre of flexure
Shear centre always lies in the axis of symmetry
Page 54
For channel sections,
h/2
tf
tw
Shear centre distance
c
e
v
h/2
e=
Where, I = moments of inertia about axis of symmetry
For semi circular sections,

e
r
e=
0
V
Thin walled Pressure vessels
Let p = internal pressure, t = thickness
d= diameter =
= Poissons ratio
E = Youngs modulus
For Cylinders
1. Hoop stress or circumferential stress, F =
2. Longitudinal stress, F =
3. Maximum shear stress, =
4. Hoop strain, E =
.2
5. Longitudinal strain, =
6. Volumetric strain =
=
/
.1
.5
/
/
For Spherical shells

1. Hoop stress (f ) = longitudinal stress (f ) =
2. Maximum shear stress = 0
3. Strain in any direction, =
.1
/
4. Volumetric strain, =
.1
Uniform Torsion
Let T = Total torque acting on the section
Page 55
J = Polar moment of inertia

= Shear stress at any radial distance
R = Radius of shaft
G = Rigidity modulus
= Angular momentum due to strain in length of shaft
L = Length of shaft
= Angular strain in cross-section
T
=
J
=G
For solid shaft of diameter d, T =
For hollow shaft of outer diameter do and inner diameter di, T =
Power transmitted by shaft, p =

KW
Where N = Rotation per minute (rpm)
T = means Torque (KN.m)
(d
d )
Strain energy in torsion

1
U=
T
2
For shaft in series,
Dia = d
A
B Dia = d
l
l
Torque will be same for both the shafts
1. Twists will be different for both the shafts
Let twist are for AB and for BC
=. /
T
A
C
l
T +T =T
at =
l
=
at
Page 56
=
Shaft of varying diameter
1.
2. Indeterminate system of shafts
( )
( )
Column stability
Short column fails by crushing
Long column fails by bucking
Intermediate columns fails by combinations of crushing & buckling
Buckling Of Columns
A.
Eulers Theory
Assumptions
1. Flexural rigidity EI is uniform
2. After unloading axis the column should be perfectly straight
3. Material is isotropic and homogeneous
4. The line of thrush will coincide exactly with the unrestrained axis of the column
Buckling load, P =
Page 57
. /
L
Where
= called stenderness ratio
r
Where, L = effective length of the column
End conditions
Effective length (of original length L )
L =L
Both end hanged
L =
Both end fixed
L = 2L
One end fixed,
Other end free
L =
One end fixed

Other end hanged
B. Variation of bucking load/Euler load
with slenderness ratio
If
is less than a certain limit , . /
We cannot use Eulers theorem
L
( )
r
Rankine Gordon formula (for intermediate columns)

1
1 1
= +
P
P P
Where
P = Rankine buckling load
P = Direct compressive load
P = Eulers load
= Yield Stress
i. e. , =
.
EI
P =
L
. .,
1+
L
where. = called slenderness ratio
r
Page 58
Combined bending and direct stress

Let normal stress is due to bending M and
of diameter d,
Then, =
is shear stress due to tourism T for shaft
=
=
If the major and minor principal stress are =
respectively,
Maximum shearing stress =
= . / +
(M + M + T ) and
=
. / +
d=
M + T
(M + M + 2)
Where, = allowable working stress intension

Again d =
Where,
M + T
= allowable working stress in shear
Page 59
2.2 Structural Analysis

(Analysis of statically determinate trusses, arches,
beams, cables and frames)
Three hanged arch

Standard cases
Case1:
three hinged parabolic arch of span L rise h carries a udl of w over the whole span
W unit per
run
h
H
H
L
(a) The horizontal reaction at each support is H =

(b) The net bending moment and shear force at any section on the parabolic three hinged
arch is zero
M = Beam moment H moment = 0
Case2:
three hinged semicircular arch of radius R carries a udl of w even the whole span.
W unit per
run
C
X
y
WR
WR
(a) The horizontal thrust at each end; H =

(b) The maximum bending moment for the arch is Mmax =
(Hogging) which occurs at
= 30 from the horizontal and the distance of point of maximum bending moment from
the crown is,
R cos 30 =
Page 60
Case 3: A three hinged arch consisting of two quadrant parts AC and CB of radii R and R . The
arch carries a concentrated load of W on the crown
W
C
0
B
V
V
V =V =H=
Case 4: A symmetrical three- hinged parabolic arch of span land rise carries a point load w,
which may be placed anywhere on the span
W
K
h
y
H
A
x
V
H=
The absolute maximum bending moment occurs at a distance of
on either side of the crown
Case 5: A three hinged parabolic arch of span has its abutments at depth
crown the arch carries a udl of w per length over the whole span
h
H A
and
below the
h
L
B
L
L
Page 61
The horizontal thrust at each support is give by H =
Case 6: A three hinged parabolic arch of span l has its abutments A and B at depth h and h
below the crown C. The arch carries a concentrated load W at the crown.
The horizontal thrust at each support is given by
H=
Hinged Arches
Two hinged arch is an indeterminate structure. V and V can be determined by taking moment
about either end. The horizontal thrust at each support may be determined from the condition
that the horizontal displacement of the either hinge with respect to other is zero
W
W
C
y
A
V
=
Where, M is beam moment

Standard Cases
Case 1: A two hinged semicircular arch of radius R carries a concentrated load W at the crown
W
C
B
H
H
V =
V =
The horizontal thrust on each support is given by H =
Page 62
Case 2: A two hinged semicircular arch of radius R carries a load W at a section, the radius vector
corresponding to which makes an angle with the horizontal
W
C
D
H
V
The horizontal thrust at each support is given by H =
Sin
Case 3: A two hinged semicircular arch of radius R carries a udl W per unit length over the whole
span
W unit per run
C
R
H
WR
WR
The horizontal thrust at each support is given by H =
Case 4: A two hinged semicircular arch of radius R carries a distributed load uniformly varying
from zero at the left end to w per unit rup at the right end.
W
x
R
B
A
H
0
V
The horizontal thrust at each support for this case is H = .
Page 63
Case 5: A two hinged parabolic arch carries a udl of W per unit run on entire span of the span of
the arch is L and its rise is h
W unit per run
C
H
B
H
L
V =
V =
The horizontal thrust at each is given by H =

Case 6 : When half of the parabolic arch is loaded by udl. Then the horizontal reaction at support
is given by
H=
Case 7 : When two hinged parabolic arch carries uniformly varying distributed load, for zero to
w the horizontal thrust is given by H =
Case 8: A to hinged parabolic arch of span L and rise h carries a concentrated load W at the
crown
W
C
y
H
V =
V =
The horizontal thrust at
Static & Kinematic Indeterminacy

I. Static Indeterminacy
1. Statically Determinate Structures
Can be analyzed with the help of equation static equilibrium alone
For a plane frame f = f = M = 0
For a space from f = f = f = M = M = M = 0
Page 64
2. Statically Indeterminate Structures

Cannot be analyzed using equations of equilibrium alone
Number of forces> Number of equilibrium equations
Degree static indeterminacy
= Number of unknowns number of static equilibrium equations
A. For frames
D =D +D
where
D = Internal indeterminacy
= m (2j 3) for pin joined plane frame (i.e. truss)
= m (3j 6) for pin joined space frame (i.e. truss)
= 3C for rigid jointed plane frame
= 6C for rigid jointed space frame
D
= External indeterminacy
= r 3 for a plane frame
= r 6 for a space frame
Where
m = Number of members in the structure
j = Number of joints in the structure
c = Number of curs required to obtain an open configuration
B. Simplified formula
= ( + ) 2 for pin jointed plane frame
= ( + ) 3 for pin jointed space frame
= (3C + r) 3 for rigid jointed plane frame
= (6C + r) 6 for rigid jointed space frame
II.
Kinematic Indeterminacy (or Degrees of freedom)

The number of independent components of joint displacements (x,y,z & )
Kinematically Indeterminate Structures

If the displacement components of the joints cannot be determined by compatibility equations
alone i.e. additional equations based on equilibrium are required
= 2j
r for pin joined plane frame
= 3j
r for pin joined space frame
= 3j
r for rigid jointed plane frame
= 6j
r for rigid jointed space frame
If axial strains are also considered in members then
Page 65
=3
+ ) for rigid jointed plane frames
=6
+ ) for rigid jointed space frames
Method of Analysis
1. For statically determinate structures
a. Double integration method
b. Maxwells reciprocal theorem
c. Moment area method
2. For statically indeterminate structures
i. Force methods
a. Conjugate beam method
b. Theorem of three moments
c. Column analogy method
ii. Displacement methods
a. Slope deflection method
b. Moment distribution method
c. Kanis method
iii. Energy methods
a. Castigliones theorem
b. Principal of virtual work
1. Beths theorem
2. Unit load method
3. Maxwells reciprocal theorem
Truss
1.
2.
Truss members are subjected to only axial forces i.e. no bending moment and shear force.
Joints are assumed to be pin joints.
3.
4.
Strain energy, u= , where P is member force.

In a truss for the given load system, If force in individual member be P1 and to find the
deflection at any node of the truss in any direction, apply a unit load in that direction at
that node now, suppose the forces in member due to this unit load is
So, deflection at node in that direction,
Ui Pi hi
=
n = no of member
i Ei
Beam & Frame

1. Beam carries transverse load ie. bending moments and shear force but no axial force.
2. Frame carries both axial force and transverse load.
3. For beam &Frame,
=
a) When M is original bending moment due to external loading and m be moment induced
due to unit load/virtual load,
Then deflection =
Page 66
Cables
1.
2.
Cable theorem Product of horizontal components of cable tension and vertical distance
between the cable chord and cable at any point is equal to bending moment at that point on
a horizontal simply supported beam subjected to the same external loading as that on the
cable.
Horizontal thrush (H)=
( )
Some Simple Results

Configuration
Slope
(
6
P
a
Deflection
)
(2
6
)
93
At center, if a>b,
=
(3l
4b
P
A
H2
C H2
=
Udl=w
=
=
16
24
max =
48
=
5wl
384 EI
M
A
max = ml / 9 3 EI
At x = L / 3
t centre, =
3
Page 67
max =
max =
max =
max =
max =
A
l
P
a
(3l - a)
Udl =
A
M
A
Method for Determinate Structures

1. Double Integration Method
Involves successive integration of expressions for BM.
Under pure bending
d
1 M
=
= =
dx
R EI
Where
= Curvature
y = Deflection at any point x
R = Radius of curvature
Page 68
EI = Flexural rigidity
Slope
dy 1
= Mdx
dx EI
1
Deflection, y = Mdx
EI
2. Macaulays Method
It is same as double integration method but the integration of expression for B.M is used in
such a way that same constants of integration are valid for all portions of the beam even
through the law of bending moment difference form portion to portion.
Rules for applying Macaulays Method
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The origin (where x = 0) is to be taken on the extreme end

The section P (at which BM is found out) is to be taken between the last load and the other
extreme end (where x = l)
While integrating, the terms within the brackets are to be kept intact i.e. the brackets are
not to be cleared. For example the expression (x a ) dx = (x a) + C
If for any value of x, the quantity within the brackets is ve, the term is to be neglected.
That is, if the expression (x-a) becomes ve, after substituting the value of x, the term
containing the factor (x a) is to be omitted
If a beam carries U.D.L for a portion of its whole length, the U.D.L is to be extended upto
the extreme end of the beam and we are to superimpose a U.D.L equal and opposite to that
which has been added while extending the given U.D.L
3. Deflection by moment area theorem(or Mohrs method)

Original shape
B
B
Only deflected shape
Deflected shape
According to 1st moment area theorem, the change in the slope of elastic curve between any two
points for an initially straight continues beam, is equal to the area under the diagram between
these two points.
i.e.
( )
dx
According to 2nd moment area theorem the tangential deviation of pt. B measured from the
tangent to the elastic curve at point A is equal to the moment of the area under the diagram A
and B about point B.
i.e. t
= (x
x )
dx
Page 69
4. Deflection by Conjugate Beam Method

Shear force at any section of conjugate beam
Original Beam
Conjugate Beam
i)
i)
ii)
ii)
iii)
iii)
1.
Overviews of Force Method

Degrees of indeterminacy should be calculated and all the reactions should be located
The redundant reactants whose number is same as degree of indeterminacy should be
picked up.
The reaction other than redundant reaction should be expressed in terms of redundant
reactions.
Compatibility conditions should be applied to calculate redundant reaction.
The redundant reaction should be calculated back from the redundant reaction knowing
equilibrium conditions
The deflections are calculated from the forces and reactions.
a. Shear force of any section of the conjugate beam gives the rotation t that section of the
original beam
b. Bending moments of any section of the conjugate beam gives the deflection at that
section of the original beam
2. Analysis by Three Moment Theorem

Generally for continues indeterminate beam it is applied
B
diagram for L and
are area of bending moment

L span respectively
x , x are the CG distance
Page 70
According to this theorem,

M
+ 2 MB .
/+M
+ 6E .
= -6 .
+
/+
Where I and I are moment of inertia for span L and L respectively.

,
are support settlement at support A,B,C respectively
Method for a Indeterminate Structures

I.
Force methods
Conjugate beam method
1. Slope at any point in the elastic curve of active beam is equal to the shear force at the
point in its conjugate beam.
2. Deflection at any point in the active beam is equal to the bending moment at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam
3.
diagram of the original beam will be the loading for the conjugate beam to
determine shear force and bending moment as require in point 1 and point 2
mentioned above.
II.
Energy Methods
For bending strain energy = =
Deflection, =
= m
dx
dx
If m be the bending moment at the point due to external loading and m be the bending
moment due to unit load applied at that point
Deflection =
For which moment m applied at that point
Slope, =
1. Maxwells Reciprocal Theorem
In any beam or truss the deflection at any point D due to a load W at any other point C is the
same as the deflection at C due to the same load W applied at D.
W
W
C
C
D
d
C
c
So, C = d
Page 71
2. Castilians Theorem
a. Castigliones First Theorem
The partial derivative of the strain energy of a linear elastic structure expressed in terms
of displacements with respect to any displacements with any displacement
is equal to
the force at coordinate:
. .,
=
The partial derivative of strain energy has been used because the change of strain energy
due to an increment in displacement at coordinate has only been considered keeping all
other displacement unchanged
b. Castigliones Second Theorem
The partial derivative of the strain energy of a linearly elastic structure expressed in
terms of forces with respect to any force
applied at coordinate
is equal to the
displacement at coordinate j.
. .,
=
Where,
Ss ds
=
for axial forces
E
Mm ds
=
for moment
E
First Theorem of Castigliano

In any beam or truss subjected to any load system, the deflection at any point r is given by the
partial differential co-efficient of the total strain energy stored with respect to a force Pr, acting
at the point r in the direction in which the deflection is desired.
P P P
So, y =
r
yr
A here, = Corresponding strain energy stored

III. Analysis by displacement methods (Slope deflection and moment distribution methods)
Degrees of freedom are the number of independent displacement components of a
structure required to be known to completely find out the deformed shape of the
structure.
Degrees of freedom for flowing frame for different conditions
Page 72
a) All members are axially rigid and the beam is also flex rally rigid: DOF = 1
b) All members are only axially rigid : DOF = 3
c) Members are neither axially nor flexuarally rigid : DOF = 6
Overview of displacement method
ll the unknown displacement components i.e. DOFs are located

The relationship between force/moments and displacement rotations are obtained
using compatibility
conditions.
Joints equilibrium conditions are used and then expressed in terms of displacement or
rotations with the help of the compatibility conditions.
Now the simultaneous equations are expressed in terms of displacements and solved to
obtain the unknown displacements.
Unknown reactions are obtained from unknown displacement
1. Analysis by slope-Deflection Method

In any continuous beam, considering one span as below
C
Considerin
g
Only AB
L
(Settlement
)
Again
(Settlement of
support B)
M
L
Where M M
are fixed end moments
M =
(2 + )
M =
(2 + )
M = M = -6 EI
So, M = M
(2
) - 6 EI
M =M
(2 + ) - 6 EI
Page 73
Some common fixed end calculation

Udl =
A
B
L
P
B
b
a
L
,M
M =
,M =
2. Analysis by Moment Distribution Method
Moment required to create unit rotation in a beam with near end hanged and far end
hanged or fixed is called flexural stiffness factor
Carry over factor is the ratio of moment created at the far end to the moment created at
the near end
End Condition
Far end Fixed

4 EI / L
Stiffness Factor
Far end hanged

3EI
L
0
1
2
Carry over factor

A
A
0
E , L ,I
E , L ,I
I , E ,L
M
0
Common rotation at 0 =
M =.
M =.
M =.
Total M = M + M + M = .
Or, =
Page 74
M =M
Distribution factor
M =M
M =M
Influence Lines for Determinate and Indeterminate Structure

Influence line diagram (ILD) for a specific effect (e.g Reaction R) Shear force (v), Moment
(m), Torsion (t) at a specific point may be defined as a curve, the coordinates of which show
the variation of that effect caused by a unit moving along the span
Muller Breslors Principle The influence line for any stress function of a structure such as
shear force, bending moment or any reactive force or movement is given by the deflected
curve of a structure obtained by unit distortion or deformation in the direction of stress
function of the structure
Different Cases
For a Single Concentrated Load Moving From One End to Another
1.0
B
A
L
Reaction at one end will be maximum when the load is at that one end and reaction at
other end will be zero simultaneously
Maximum shear force (may be (+)ve, may be (-)ve at a section across when the load is
at the section itself
Absolute maximum shear force anywhere in beam equal to the reaction itself
Maximum bending moments at a section occurs when the load itself is at the section
Absolute maximum BM occurs when the load is placed at the centre of the span
Page 75
1.0
1.0
B
L
a
Absolute
max. SF
1.0
1.0
A
+
ILD for R
+
ILD for R
1+
-
C
a
L
a(1- )
B
+
1.0
A
ILD for M
1.0
Absolute
max. SF
L/2
ILD for V
Reaction
L
L/2
Shear Force
A
Absolute max. BM
Bending Moments
For UDL Moving From One End to Another

Type A: For UDL greater than span of girder: (d > L)
Maximum positive SF occurs when the tail of the load is at the section itself
Maximum negative SF occurs when the head of the load is at the section itself
Maximum BM occurs at any section when the entire span is fully loaded
With the entire span fully loaded, absolute maximum BM occurs at the centre of the span
Type B: For UDL less than span of girder (d < L)
Maximum positive SF occurs when the tail of the load is at the section itself
Maximum negative SF occurs when the head of the load at the section itself
Maximum BM occurs at any section only when the load is placed with the equal ratio as
of span of the two length divided by the section itself
Page 76
Absolute maximum BM occurs at the midpoint of the span when the load is placed
equally divided on the span
For Several Concentrated Load Moving From One End To Another
A
C
L
a
x
W (Resultant)
Now, to find critical load we have to place loads over the span w.r.t. c let, W , W , W are on
the hand side of C and W , W , W are on the right hand side of C
Let,
>
Again putting W on the right hand side of C,
If
<
W is the critical load
Now, the load W is nearly to resultant W. So, maximum BM will occur under W and the
position like following figure.
W
L/2
L/2
i.e. load position of W is at a distance .
/for maximum BM
The absolute maximum bending moment generally occurs under the heavier loads, which
is very near to the CG of the load system
Matrix Method of Structural Analysis (Basic Concepts)

Coordinate Systems
1. Global Coordinates: If the location and direction of all the displacement vectors and
the forces are written w.r.t a single coordinate system, the coordinates are called
global coordinates.
2. Local Coordinates: If the location & direction of all the displacement vectors and the
forces are written by shifting the origin to the starting node of each element, the
coordinates obtained are called local coordinates. Global and local coordinates are
interchangeable
Page 77
Flexibility & Stiffness

The flexibility of a structure is defined as the displacement caused by a unit force.
i. e. f = | Stiffness is the force required for unit displacement. K =

Cases
1. Axial Displacement
2
1
P1
(4)
3
1 =
axial flexibility
11
Axial stiffness K11 = =
2. Transverse displacement
P2
(2)
D2
A
2 =
Transverse flexibility
11
and Transverse stiffness K22 =
If the further end (end ) is hinged then 2 =
So, transverse flexibility,
22
and transverse stiffness K22 =

3. Bending or flexural displacement
3 =
Flexural flexibility
33
Page 78
and flexural stiffness K33 =

If the end is hinged
Then 3 =
Flexural flexibility
33
Flexural stiffness K33 =

4. Torsional Displacement or Twist
The angle of twist 4 due to torque P4 is given by
4 =
Where,
G = Shear modulus of elasticity
K = Torsion constant.
torsional flexibility,
44
Torsional stiffness K44 =

GK
L
Some basic Relations
i. e upto K
If NF = Total number of known member forces

NP = No. equation can be formed or no. of global degree of freedom
Global
1. *deformation vector+ = ,Deformation matrix- x {
}
displacement vector
Or *e+
= ,B-
x *X+
2. *element force vector+ = ,Stiffness matrix- x *Deformation vector+

Or *F+
= ,Sx *e+
, Local stiffness matrix
3. Global Stiffness matrix, [k] = [A] [S] , - , Transformation matrix
Step for solution
a.
b.
c.
d.
Calculate [k] = [A] [S] , Calculate *X+ = ,k- {f}

Calculate {e} = , - {X}
Calculate {f} = [S] {e}
Page 79
2.3 Concrete Technology

Properties of Concrete & Basics of Mix Design
Water cement and aggregates are basic ingredient of concrete

C S give long term stability in concrete& generate minimum heat
C S gives short term strength
C gives maximum amount of heat of hydration
Max C means rapid hardening cement
During manufacturing gypsum is added to cement to prevent fast setting due to excess
heat of hydration caused by ettringite (calcium sulfur ferrite)
Plasticizer work as water reducers to obtain higher workability without using excess of
water
Retenders slower the processes of hydration e.g. Gypsum
Accelerators are used to increase the rate of early strength development in concrete
Properties of concrete are of two types

1) Fresh
2) Hardened
Fresh properties of concrete are
a) Setting time
i) Initial and (30 to 60 minutes)
ii) Final which can be found out by penetrometer test (5 to 6 hours) & should not be
exceed 10 hours
b) Workability: Degree of fluidity or mobility. Measurement of work ability is done by
following methods
i) Slump test:
Low slump slump height 25 75 mm
Medium slum slump height 50 100 mm
High slump slump height 100 150 mm
ii) Compacting factor test : work ability
C. F =
compacting factor (C.F)
weight of partially compacted concrete

weight of finally compacted concrete
iii) Flow test

iv) Vee-bee compaction meter test
c) Segregation: Separation of constituent materials of concrete
d) Bleeding: One type of segregation in which laitance (formation of cement paste at the
surface) is occurred
e) Bulking of aggregates: Maximum increase in volume is 40% and maxm bulking occurs at a
moisture content means 5%
Page 80
f) Consistency of concrete: If P is the standard consistency of cement the amount of water

used in conducting initial setting time test on cement is 0.85 P, water of ( + 3.0)
percent of combined weight of cement and sand is to be added to cement and sand for
strength test
g) Alkali aggregate reaction:
Reaction between the alkalis of cement and the active silica or carbonates aggregates
Alkali silica gel is produced
Can be avoided by using non-reactive aggregates and low alkali cement
1. Hardening Properties of Concrete
Strength
1. Compressive strength lower water cement ratio higher compressive strength
2. Tensile strength
a) Direct tensile strength
b) Flexural strength ()
P
l
M=
= , Z = section modulus
c) Splitting tensile strength ( )
Load P, cylinder diameter D cylinder length = L
=
=
3. Modulus of elasticity (E ): E = 5000 fck

fck = characteristic strength of concrete
Durability: Indicates lifetime of concrete structure
Other Properties of Concrete
a) Shrinkage in concrete change in volume from fresh state to hardening state of concrete
b) Creep in concrete : Increment of strain in concrete due to sustained load
Concrete mix design
Fck = characteristic strength of concrete
Fck = target strength of concrete
t = acceptance criteria
s = standard deviation
Relation is fck = fck + t s

Normal mix is only applied m 20 or below grade concrete
Grade of concrete
nominal mix (cement: stone: sand)
M 20
1 : 1.5 : 3
M 15
1:2:4
M 10
1:3:6
Volume of 1 bag cement = 34.5 litres

Page 81
Important Method of Concrete Proportioning

1. Maximum density method
Fullers maximum density
d
P = 100
D
2. Fineness modulus & water cement ratio method proportion of fine aggregate to coarse
aggregate + fine aggregate is given by
P
P
R=
P P
Where , are fineness modulus of coarse and fine aggregate respectively Q and P is
desired fineness modulus
Impact of Water Content on Concrete Properties
1. High water cement ratio increases workability but reduces strength
2. Lower water cement ratio also reduces strength and workability
3. Optimum water cement ratio for required strength of concrete should be decided
from graphs and expressions
Practical Water Cement Ratio
M 15 0.50
M 20 0.50
M30 0.45
Concrete Design
Basic working stress and limits state design concept analysis of ultimate load capacity and
design of members subjected to flexure shear compression and torsion by limit state method.
Working stress method of design: - {
= characteristic strength of concrete

}
f = characteristic yield stress of steel
Assumption
1. Based on the behavior of structure at working load
2. Stress strain relationship is linear under working load
3. Factor of safety for concrete in compression & bending and for steel in tension &
bending are 3.0 and 1.8 respectively
4. Real factor of safety = 0.67 fck/0.33 fck = 2.0 for concrete
Consideration
1. Modular ratio (m) =
where
= permissible compressive stress in

concrete in bending = 0.33 fck
2. Permissible stress in tension in steel
= 0.55
Page 82
3. From definition m =
Where E = Young modulus of steel
E = Young modulus of concrete = 5000 f
Some Constants
1. Neutral axis constant, k =
2. Lever arm constant, j = (1 - k3)
3. Moment of resistance constant
=.
Position of Neutral Axis

Case I: (section is known)
(
X=
Where
= Area of steel reinforcement
m
= Equivalent concrete area
Case II: (when stresses developed in the section are known)
x = kid
Different Type of Sections

x
x
x
m
Balanced
section
=
m
m
Under
reinforced
section
m
m
over
reinforced
section
xC = critical depth of neutral axis (for balanced section)

x &x = actual depth of N.A
When balanced section is not possible under reinforced section is preferred as the
steel reaches the yield stress first
Page 83
Some basic concepts
Nominal
reinforcement
D
b
Stirrup
Main reinforcement
Enlarging
Q
Q
Nominal cover
Nominal cover
b = width of section
D = over all depth of section
= dia of stirrup
= dia of main reinforcement
Section
Nominal
cover (mm)
15
25
40
50
Slab
Beam
Column
Footing
Clear cover = Nominal cover +

Effective cover = clear cover +
So, effective depth, d = D effective cover
Moment of resistance for balanced section

b
C =
x
N.
Z = lever arm
D
T=
Alternatively MR = T Z
Z=
jd (for under reinforced sec)
Or
=
For balance section Qbd =
jd
Page 84
Or
100% =
100
Chose shear stress ( C) according to p check whether max shear stress (

corresponds to p is greater than or less than C
Cmax)
a) If ( C)max>
Design shear force VS = V - T bd
Provide stirrup with spacing (SV) of minimum of these three
= permissible stress in stirrup for ahear
= for fc 250 fc 415
i) S =
(
)
= rea of stirrup
.
ii) S =
.
iii) S = 0.75 d
b) If ( c)max< c (Sectors are needed to be redesigned) Spacing of main
reinforcement should not be greater then 300 mm or width of beam whichever is
less.
Deflection Cheek
a) Using Basic Value Only
Basic value = 7 (for cantilever)
(for span upto 10 m) = 20 (for simply supported)
= 26 (for continuous)
Effective depth (d) =
For spans above 10 m, the above value shall be multiplied by
in meters except
for cantilever
b) Using Modification Factor Also
d=(
)
where k = modification factor for % of main reinforcement (tension)
k = modification factor for % of compression reinforcement (for double
reinforcement beam)
k = modification for T beam or L.Beam
Development length (Ld) cheak
= Bond stress L
pullout force = frictional force
=
L
Or L =
4
For end anchorage + L >L
bd
Page 85
Where m1 max moment of resistance at particular section

V = max shear force at that section
L = Effective depth (d) or 12 which ever is greater. The value of
may be
increased by 30% when ends of the reinforcement by compressive reaction effective

length for simply supported beam or slab reaction
It is smaller of (L + d) or (L + a)
Where l = clean distance between the support
a = support width (if the support width is unequal take the lesson one)
for simple beam generally b is taken as and D is taken as . to /
Base rule for Design Formulation of Slab:
l
(y denotes
longer direction)
If > 2, one way slab

l
(x denotes
shorter
direction)
If , 2 way slab
Effective Span (Same as beam)

Deflection check (Same as beam)
Minimum reinforcements 0.15% mid steel
-
0.12% for high strength deformed bar
Maximum diameter th of total thickness of slab no shear reinforcement should be

used spacing of bar
i) Main reinforcement - 3d or 300 mm whichever is
ii) Secondary reinforcement - 5d or 450 mm which over is smaller
Page 86
Design formulation for double reinforced beam
Asc
Ast 2
Ast1
Balanced section
Compression steel and

additional tensile steel
Total moment of resistance, m = m + m

m = movement of resistance of balanced section
m = moment of resistance for compression steel
Ast1 =
, Ast2 = (
)
Total
= Ast1 + Ast2
Asc =
x
x
(where, x = x = kd)
For same cross sectional area, moment of resistance of T-section is greater then that
of rectangular section
Some important codal provisions (IS: 456, 2000)
Tensile stress =
Where F = Total tension on the member minus pretension in steel
= Cross sectional area of concrete
Design formulation column
Eccentricity. e =
+ 20 mm
If or 12, short column
or > 12, longer slender column
Where, L, D, b are length, diameter and breath of column respectively
For short column, Permissible loads, P =
+ Asc
Where, = Permissible stress in concrete for direct compression
(e.g. m 4.0n mm , m 5.0 n mm )
= Permissible compressive dress for column bars
Ac = Cross-sectional area of concrete excluding reinforcement of steel
Asc = Cross sectional area of longitudinal bars
For long column permissible load, P = Cr. (
+
Where, Cr = Reduction factor < 1
= 1.25
B = least lateral dimension of column
) = Cr. P
For Short Column with Reinforcement

Permissible load, P =1.05 ( Ac + Asc)
I.S code requirements for design of column
Page 87
a. % of longitudinal reinforcement, Asc 0.8 %

6
For practical purpose Asc 4%
b. Minimum number of longitude bars is 4 for square and rectangular column and 6 for
circular column
c. Minimum diameter of bar to be used is 12 mm
d. Spacing of longitude bars measured along periphery shall not exceed 300 mm.
e. Diameter of lateral ties (transverse reinforcement)
th of dia of longest longitudinal bar or minimum 6 mm
f. Pitch (vertical spacing) for lateral ties are be minimum of these three
i) Least lateral dimension of column
ii) 16 times smallest dia. of longitudinal bars
iii) 300 mm
Design Formulation for Footing

a. Minimum depth of footing at the end of sloped footing should not be less than 150
mm
b. Permissible shears tress (for punching shear) at critical section is K
Where K = (0.5 + Bc) but 1
B = ratio of short side to long side of column
= 0.16 f (Working stress method)
= 0.25 f (Limit state method)
c. Shear force
i) One way shear
Critical section for shear shall be assumed at c vertical section located from the
face of the
column at a distance equal to depth of footing (d)
Column
d
d d
ii) Two way shear (punching shear)
The critical section shall be of a distance of d/2 from the periphery of the column
d
2
d
2
Page 88
d. Bending moments:
Critical section shall be at the face of column
Critical section
Limit State Method of Design
Assumptions
1. Stress and strain relationship in concrete of parabolic are parabolic & linear
respectively
.
2. Measure compressive stress . = 0.446 fck
3. Maximum strain concrete in compression is 0.0035 in bending irrespective of
strength of concrete
4. Maximum strain in tensile reinforcement at failure should not be less
than.
+ 0.002 /
.
Considerations: 1. Two types limit states.

2. Limit state of collapse a) Flexure
b) Shear
c) Torsion
d) Compression
ii) Limit states serviceability
a) Cracking
b) Deflection
c) Vibration
d) Fire resistance
2. Partial factor of safety for limit state of collapse for concrete 1.5 and for steel 1.15
3. Load combination design load = DL + L.L
Or
D.L + W.L
Or
= D.L + 0.8 L.L + 0.8 W.L
Whichever is maximum
Moments of resistance of a rectangular section (single reinforced)

.
.
=
.
=
= .
= .
Page 89
x =
3x
4x
= 0.430 x =
= 0.51
7
7
Also, according to IS: 456, 2000, For balanced section,

Fy
X
/d
250
0.53
415
0.48
500
0.46
Design compressive force in concrete (c) = 0.36 f bx
Design tensile force in steel = 0.87 f
For a balanced section
C=T
0.36 f b x = 0.87 f
0.87 f
x =
0.36 f b
From strain diagram
+
x , lim
=
d
+
x , lim =
+
.d =
0.0035
0.0035 + .0.002 +
When x = x , lim section is balanced

x
x lim section is under reinforced
x
x lim section is over reinforced
Lever arm = distance between C.G of compressive force (C) & tensile force (T)
i.e., Z = d 0.416x = d .1 0.416 /
Moment of resistance, (MOR)
1. For balanced section, (x = x , lim)(both concrete & steel fail together)
x , lim
x lim
MOR = C Z = T Z = {0.36f b (
) d} {d (1 0.416
)}
d
d
x , lim
x lim
M = 0.36 f
(1 0.416
) bd
d
d
2. For under reinforced section (
MOR = T
Z = 0.87f
d .1
) steel fails first desired

x
0.416 /
4
Page 90
M = 0.87 f
d *1
f
+
f bd
3. For over reinforced section (concrete fails first not desired)

x , lim
MOR = C Z = 0.36 f b x , lim [d 0.416
] bd
d
MOR = C Z = 0.36 f b x , lim,d 0.416x , limx , lim
x , lim
M = 0.36 f
(1 0.416
) bd
d
d
According to IS 456 : 200
f
x , lim d
250
0.53
415
0.48
500
0.46
Doubly reinforced rectangular section
Moment resisted by compression reinforcement
= Moment applied (M) limiting moment of resistance of singly reinforced section
Case 1:
is less than the limiting value ,
(
= 0.36
0.416 ) + (
0.446
= 0.87
(
0.416 )
Case 2:
M , lim
=
= 0.36f x , lim b(d
Case 3:
)(
0.416x , lim) + (f
0.446f )
(d
d)
This corresponds to over reinforced section
Flanged Beam
(FLANGED WIDTH)
Page 91
Flange width (bf)

For T beams:
= min (
+6
For Isolated T beams

= min (
+4
, )
For L-beams
= min ( +
12
+ 3
For isolated L- Beams

= min (
0.5
+4
bf= effective width of flange

bw = breadth of rib or web
b = actual width of flange
lo = distance b/w points of zero moments in beam (may be taken as 0.7 time effective
span for continuous beams)
x1, x2= half the clear distance b/w/ two adjacent beams
df = thickness of flange
Moment of Resistance
The depth of NA is first calculated assuming it falls in flange ie (xu<Df)
=
0.87
0.36
If the xu come out to be less than Df ,then it is treated as a rectangular section of width bf.
Otherwise xu falls outside the flange and compression of web has to be taken into
account
(N inside the flange)
Case 1:
Neutral axis lies within the flange, The moment of resistance can be found out from
expressions applicable for rectangular sections by replacing b by bf.
= 0.87
= 0.36
)*
(1
,
.1
0.416
+
,
When xu>xu, max, this become over-reinforced section & should be redesigned however
moment of resistance is limited to Mu, lim.
Page 92
Case 2:
1.
2.
(N outside the flange)
Two situation can arise in this case

(N falls outside the rectangular portion of stress block).
(N falls inside the rectangular portion of stress block)
b -b
Figure 4.5
The compressive force Cuv from the web contribution is given by
= 0.36
If reinforcement Asw is the component of tensile reinforcement required to balance the
compressive force Cuv and remaining reinforcement Asp if required to balance the compressive
force Cuf in the flange, we have Ast = Asw +Asfthe tensile force Tuv balancing the compressive force
Cuv will be 0.87 fyAsw 0.36 fckxubw= 0.87 fyAsw. A rectangular stress block of depth yf , can be
assumed instead of actual rectangular-cum-parabolic stress block for computation of
compression force Cuf. The assumed stress blocks have same peak stress value 0.446fck.
y = 0.15 x + 0.65 D but less thanD
Compressive fore in flange (Cuf)= 0.446fck (bf bw) yf
Tensile force Tuf balancing the Cuf= 0.87 fy Asf
Total Cu = 0.36 fckxubw + 0.446 fck (bf-bw) yf
Total Tensile force Tu = Tuf = 0.87 fyAst equating Tu and Cu
0.36 f x bw + 0.446 f (b b ) y = 0.87 f As
Page 93
If yf>Df
Then yf is taken as Df
Therefore, 0.36 fckxubw +0.446 fck (bf-bw) Df = 0.87 fyAst
Under Reinforced section : (xu = xu, max)
1.
= 0.36
= 0.87
= 0.446 (
) = 0.87
=
0.416
) = 0.36
01
0.416
= C (d 0.416x ) = 0.446f (b - b )D (d 0.5D )

Where Muw & Muf are the moment of resistance of web and flange respectively. Similarly
w and f in subscripts denotes the web & flange respectively Mu = Muw +Muf
2.
y = (0.15 x + 0.65 D )orD whichever is lesser
= 0.36
= 0.87
= 0.446 (
) = 0.87
Therefore,
(
=
0.416 ) = 0.36
.1 0.416
=
Hence
= 0.36
0.5 ) = 0.446
.1
0.416
0.5
) (
+ 0.446
/
)
) (
0.5 )
Vertical stirrups
5 mm to 15 mm dia steel bars are provided as stirrups by bending them around tensile
reinforcement. The stirrups may be two legged, one legged, four legged or multi-legged the
strength of shear reinforcement as vertical stirrups is given by
0.87
=
,( ) =
0.87
0.87
(
Minimum & maximum shear reinforcement

As per Is 456 : 2000, minimum shear reinforcement shall be provided in form of stirrups
such that:
0.4
0.87
Where,
= Characterstic strenght of stirrups and shall not be taken greater than 415 N mm
Hence spacing based on minimum shear reinforcement
0.87
2.175
0.4
The maximum spacing of shear reinforcement measured along the axis of member shall not
exceed 0.75 d for vertical stirrups and d for inclined stirrups at 450 where d is the effective
depth of section under consideration. In no case shall the spacing exceeds 300mm.
Page 94
Limit State of Collapse Bond

The external load on a RC element is first borne by concrete and then transferred to steel
reinforcement. This transfer of force from concrete to steel is effected only when there is no slip,
sliding or relative movement b/w any one of them when any one of these is strained. The force
which prevents the slip is called bond.
Development length of bars (Ld)
This is the length of bars required on either side of any section to develop the required stress
in steel.
=
Where
, = Nominal diameter of bar
= Design bond stress for plain bars in tension.
Limit state of collapse in Torsion

Torsion is dominant in peripheral beams in each floor of any multi-storeyeed building in which
slabs are casted monolithic with beam giving the L-beam configuration. In the ring beam also
provided at bottom of an elevated water tank, tensional forces comes.
Torsional reinforcement is calculated with each of the shear reinforcement & longitudinal
reinforcement resulting in fictitious shear and fictitious bending moment respectively which are
function of torsion with shear force and torsion with bending moment.
Shear & Torsion
Equivalent shear as a result of shear & torsion is calculated by following expression.
=
+ 1.6
Where,
= Equivalent shear
= hear
= Torsional moment
= Breadth of beam
=
= Equivalent nominal shear stress
Page 95
Reinforcement in Members Subjected to Torsion

If veexceeds c the reinforcement is required otherwise not. It is provided as longitudinal
reinforcement and transverse reinforcement.
1. Longitudinal Reinforcement
It should be provided to resist an equivalent bending moment Me1 = Mu + Mt.
Where,
= Bending moment at cross section
1+
= [
]
1.7
= Torisonal moment
= Overall depth of beam
If Mt exceeds Mu, then torsional reinforcement shall be provided on compression flexural
compression face, such that equivalent BM Me2 can also be resisted
=
Where,
is taken as acting in opposite sense to
2. Transverse Reinforcement
=
(0.87
2.5 , (0.87
However, total reinforcement shall not be less than

(
)( )
0.87
Transverse torsional reinforcement shall be closed rectangular stirrups and placed
perpendicular to the axis of member. The spacing shall not exceed the least of x,
,
300 mm. where x1&y1 are respectively short and long dimension of stirrups.
Longitudinal torsional reinforcement shall be placed as close as possible to corners of
cross section for all cases, there should be at least one longitudinal bar in each corner of
ties.
One way slab
Analysis is done by assuming it to be a beam of 1 m width and reinforcement is
calculated and distributed accordingly
=
0.5
*1
4.16
+ 1000
(1000 )
Spacing of main reinforcement

1000
S=
rea of cross section of 1 bar
Transverse reinforcement
Min 0.15 if mild steel is used
0.12 if HYSD bars used
Two way slabs, along x. M =
M =
w lx
w ly
Page 96
Where
,
IS 456:2000
are constant depending upon
ratio and different edge condition as given
Design Formulation for column

Axial load on member, P = 0.4 fck + 0.67 fy
= 0.45
+ 0.67
Where, Ac = Area of concrete
Asc = Area of longitudinal reinforcement
Members subjected to combined axial load and biaxial bending may be designed
satisfying following equation
0
+[
] 1.0
Where, M , M = moments about x and y axes due to design loads

M , M = maximum uniaxial moment capacity for an axial load
P , bending about x and y respectively.
=
And P = 0.45 fck Ac + 0.75 fy Asc
The additional moments for slender compression members M
calculated by
M
and May shall be
M =
. /
Where, Lex = effective length in respect of the major axis.
Ley = effective length in respect of the minor axis
D = depth of the cross-section at right angles to the major axis
B = width of the member
Some codal provision (IS, 456: 2000)
To prevent sulphate attack, the water soluble sulphate content of the concrete Max,
should not exceed 4 percent by mass of the cement in the mix
Concrete in sea water shall be at least m20 grade for pcc and m30 grade for Rcc
The maximum permissible free fall of concrete is 1.5m
Under transient wind load the lateral sway at top should not exceed H/500, where H
is the total height of building
Where a member is built into a masonry wall which develops only partial restraint,
the member shall be designed to resist a negative moment at the face of the support
of where w is the total design load and L is the effective span
Effective width of flange
Slenderness limit for a simply supported or continuous beam is 60db or

whichever is less.
For a cantilever beam is 25b or
whichever less
The final deflection due to all loads including the affects of temperature, creep and
shrinkage
a. And measure from the as cast level of the support of floors, roofs and all other
horizontal member, should be limited to span/250
Page 97
b. Occurring after erection of partitions and the application of finishes should be

limited to
or 20 mm which is less
To calculate the development length of bars,

a. The depth stress values (as IS: 456,2000) should be increased 60% for deformed
bar
b. For bars in compression the values of bond stress be increased by 25% bars in
tension
The anchorage value of
a. Bend shall be taken as 4times the diameter of the bar for each 45 bend subject
to maximum of 16times the diameter of the bar.
b. Standards u-type hook shall be equal to 16 times the diameter of the bar.
Bars in a bundle shall terminate at different points spaced apart by not less than 40
times the bar diameter except for bundle stopping at a supports
Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than 36 mm.
Lap length including an change value of books for bars
a. In flexural tension is L or 30Q, whichever is greater
b. For direct tension is 2L or 30Q, whichever is greater
c. Straight length of the lap shall not be less than 15 Q or 200 mm
d. In compression L or 24Q, whichever is greater
Minimum horizontal distance between individual bars is the greater of the

following:
1. Diameter of bar for equal bar diameters
2. Diameter of length bar for unequal bar diameter
3. 5mm more than the nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate
Tension Reinforcement:
.
a. Minimum:
=
b. Maximum: Ast = 0.04 bD

Where, D = overall depth
Compression Reinforcement
Maximum Asc = 0.04 bD
Side face reinforcement
D)750 mm
Total 0.1%
Applicable
for depth of web in beam exceeding 750mm total area of side face
of web area
reinforcement = 0.1% of web area to be distributed equally on two faces at a
spacing not exceeding 300 mm or web thickness whichever is less
One or more expansion joints are provided for structures exceeding 45m in length
For deep beam, < 2.0 for simply supported beam
< 2.5 for continue beam
Lever arm for deep beam,

Z = 0.2 (l+2D) for 1 2 (simply supported beam)
Z = 0.2 (l+1.5D) for 1 2.5 (for continues beam)
Page 98
Minimum thickness of walls shall be 100 mm

Permissible bearing stress = 0.25 fck (W.S.M)
= 0.45 fck (L.S.M)
A member subjected to lesser load than 0.2 fck Ac may be considered as flexural
member for the purpose of crack control
3. Basic Elements of Pre-stressed concrete, analysis of beam section at transfer and service
loads
Concrete strength requirements
Pre-tensioning member M 40
Post-tensioning member M 30
Ultimate tensile strength of steel is about 1500 N/mm for wires of 5 to 7 mm

diameter
Cover Requirements
i) Pre-tensioning member 20 mm
ii) Post-tensioning member 30 mm
Pre stressing system

a. Pre-tensions hoyer system
b. Post-tensioning
1. Fressmet system
2. Magnel Blaton system
3. Gifford udall system
4. Lee-Mccall system
nalysis of Beam
Case 1: Concentric Tendon
P/A
M/Z
+
+
Cross section
P/A
Direct stress
Due to prestress
MZ
Stress due to
external bending
moments
Final Stress
Case 2: Eccentric Tendon

PeZ
P/A
e
P
e
Cross section
M/Z
+
P/A
MZ
Direct stress
Due to prestressStress due to
Stress due to
eccentricity of external bonding
prestress
moment
PeZ
+
Final Stress
Page 99
Stresses
At Transfer
a. At top fiber = -
b. At bottom fiber = +
At working loads/ service loads

a. At top fiber = .
/+.
b. At bottom fiber = .
/+.
/
+
Where M and M dead load and live load moments respectively

Z andZ are section modulus at top and bottom respectively
= loss factor, (Unless mentioned =1 (take))
Two critical situations
1. At transfer
Maximum Pre-stressing force

Minimum service force
2. At service
Maximum Service load

Minimum Pre-stressing force.
Loss of Pre-stress
Loss in pre-tensioning is more than loss of post tensioning
Loss due to elastic shorting = mfc
Where fc = Average stress in concrete at the level of steel
Loss due to shrinkage = EcsE
Where E = 300 x 10 for pre tensioned
=
for post tensioned
And t = Age of concrete at the time of transfer in day
Loss due to creep = m Fc

Where, = Creep co-efficient
Use of Pre-stress
Pre-tensioning is more economical for large number of small scale production e.g.
railway sheepers where as, post-tensioning is more suitable for very long span structure
line box girden type bridge deck
Page 100
2.4 Steel Structures

Introduction
Types of Structural Steel
1. Mild steel (standard steel)
2. High tensile strength steel
Properties of Structural Steel
1. Physical properties
Density = 7850
Modulus of elasticity E = 2 10 N mm
Poissons radio = 0.3
Modulus of rigidity G = 0.769 10 N mm
Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 10
2. Mechanical properties
Yield stress
Ultimate stress
Determined by tensile tests
Maximum strain allowed
Stress-strain curve for meld steel

3. Analysis and Design of Tension Members
Tension Member
Tie
A member carrying direct tension is called a Tie. Angle section are mostly used as tie
Page 101
Various design philosophies

1. Working stress method (WSM) IS 800:1984
Oldest analytical method
It considers yield point as failure points which as not true
Permissible stress (f ) =
Gives over safe and economical sections so, no need to check for service ability
2. Ultimate load design (ULD) or load factor method (LFM)

Formation of several plastic hinges
Allowed redistribution of forces is accounted
Load factors are introduced instead of safety factor for material behavior
Design load
Load factor =
Working load
Load combination
Allowed stress
(WSM)
1.7
DL+LL
DL + WL
DL + WL + WL/EL
Minimum load factor
1.7
1.33
1.3
3. Limit state design (LSD) IS 800:2007

Limit states are the states beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the specified
performance requirements
Categories limit states of strength
Categories limit states of service ability
LSD is a probabilistic approach
Characteristic strength ( )
The strength (ultimate or yield) shown by 95% of samples tested.
Design strength
=
Where
partial safety factor
For designed governed by
Yielding
Buckling
Fracture
. .,
Or
=
1.10
1.10
1.25
1.10
1.25
Page 102
Bolted Connections
Classification of Bolts
1. Bearing Type
Unfinished (black) bolts
Finished (Turned) bolts
2. Friction type : HSFG Bolts
For unfinished bolts Hole dia = nominal bolt dia +mm
For finished bolts hole dia. = normal bolt dia. + 1.50 mm
In friction grip bolts, bolts are tightened to a proof load and hence the plates are pulled
together to develop a huge friction force so, no need to check for shearing. Its surface is kept
unfinished like black bolts
Classification of bolted Connections
1. Based on arrangement of bolts and plates
a. Lap joint bolting
Single bolting
Chain bolting
Staggered bolting
Bolts are subjected to single shear
b. Butt joint
Single bolted butt joint
Chain bolted butt joint
Staggered bolted butt joint
Terminology
1. Pitch of bolts
2. Gauge distance
Page 103
3. Edge distance
4. End distance
5. Staggered distance or staggered pitch
IS 800 :2007 Recommendations
1. Clause 10.2.2
min p 2.5 d nominal dia of bolt
2. Clause 10.2.3
max p lesser of
a. 16 t or 200 mm tension member
b. Lesser of 12 t or 200 mm compression
c. For staggered joints p may be increased by 50% of values mentioned in above clauses
(2.9 or 2.6) if gauge distances is less than 15 mm
d. For butt joint p 4.5 d for a distance of 1.5 times the width of plate from the butting
surface
( ) .
Possible Failure in Bearing Bolts

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Shear of bolts
Bearing of bolts
Bearing of plate
Cracking of plate(tension)
Block shear failure
1. Shear Strength of Bearing Bolts

Design shear strength of bolts
=
= Partial safety factor for the material of the bolt 1.25
Nominal shear strength of bolts
,
=
+
= Ultimate tensile strength of the bolt

= Number of shear planes intercepting the bolt at its thread (root) not section area
= Number of shear planes intercepting the bolt at shank not section area
= Not section area, at thread
= Area of shank of the bolt
Page 104
Reduction Factors for Shear Capacity Of Bolts

a. Reduction factor for long joint (
If joint length 15d then
= 1.075
0.005
=Subjected to 0.75
1.0
b. Reduction factor is grip length is large

If
5 , then
is applied
= sum of thickness of plates jointed .
8
=
3 +
c. Reduction factor is packing plates are used
6
= 10.0125
=
2. Bearing capacity of bolts (
=
Where
= Design bearing strength of bolts
= Nominal bearing strength of bolts
= Partial safety factor for the material of bolt = 1.25
Where,
= 2.5 +
is smaller of
0.25
1.0
= diameter of bolt and hole

= end & pitch distances
, = ultimate tensile stress of the bolt & plate
= summation of thicknesses of connected members
Efficiency of a joint
=
Strength of solid plate is generally lesser in yielding than in rupture
i.e., strength of solid plate = strength in yielding
Eccentric connections
1. When load is lying in the plane of bolts force in any bolt due to eccentricity
. .
=
Page 105
Where
= Distance of ith bolt from the C.G of bolts
= Force due to moment in the ith bolt.
acts perpendicular to the radial distance of that bolt and makes an angle
vertical shear force
p
Direct shear force f =
n
Net force in ith bolt
= F + F
+ 2F F
with the direct
cos
The farthest bolt is subjected to maximum force

2. When load is lying perpendicular to the plane of bolts
Bolts are subjected tension plus shear
Tensile force in any bolt

Where,
M =
p. e
1+[
T
V
then check ( ) + ( ) 1.0
T
V
Page 106
Shear Capacity of HSFG Bolts

=
= Coefficient of friction (called slip factor)
= Number of effective interface offering frictional resistance to the slip
= 1.0 for fasteners in clearness holes
= 0.85 for fasteners in oversized and short slotted holes and for long slotted holes loaded
perpendicular to
the slot
= 0.70 for fasteners in long slotted holes loaded parallel to the slot
F = Minimum bolt tension at installation
=
= Net area of bolt at thread = 0.78 d

f
= Proof stress = 0.70f
Design step resistance
= 1.10 for service load design

=1.25 if the step resistance is designed at ultimate load
For commonly used HSFG bolts (grade 88), yield stress f

f = 800 MPa
= 640 MPa(0.8
800) and
Prying Forces (Q)

To be applied to HSFG bolts connections subjected to tension due to flexibility of connected
plates
G = l 2l (T
+
f bt
)
27l l
+
Page 107
Where,
= 2 for non-pretension bolts
= 1 for pretensional bolts
= 1.5
b = effective width of flange per pair of bolts
Welded Connections
Types of Welded Joints
1. Butt weld
2. Fillet weld
3. Slot weld and plug weld
C D = toe of weld
C, D = leg size of weld
B = throat thickness of weld
= root of weld
CB = 45 standard filled weld or 30 , 60
Fillet weld
1. Size of fillet weld (s) smaller of two leg:- (root to toe)
(a) Minimum size:
Thickness of thicker part
S
1) Upto 10mm
3mm
2) 10mm 20mm
5mm
3) 20mm 30mm
6mm
4) 30mm 50mm
8mm in first run and 10mm minimum
(b) Maximum size: 1.5mm less than the thinner member
Page 108
2. Maximum throat thickness 0.7 times the thickness of the thinner plate.
3. Effective length
= overall length 2 weld size
Only effective length is shown on the drawing and the addition length (2 x weld size) is
provided by the welder
Effective length 4x weld size.
4. Overlap
lap
5
Where t = thickness of thinner plate
5. Intermittent fillet weld
Length 4 x weld size or 40mm whichever is more
Length clear spacing of intermittent weld shall be 12t for compression joints and 16t for
tensile joints,
where t is the thickness of thinner plate
Design Stress in Welds
1) Butt Welds: Butt welds are treated as parent metal with a thickness equal to throat
thickness and the stress shall not exceed than permitted in the metal.
2) Fillet weld, sbt or plug welds.
(It is based on its throat area)
F =
Where, f = smaller of the ultimate stress of the weld or of the parent metal.
= 1.25 for shap welds.

= 1.5 for field welds
Reduction in design stress for long joints
If the length of welded joint l > 150t, where t is throat thickness, design capacity is reduced
by the factor B
= 1.2
1.0
Eccentric Connections
1. Plane of moment is the same as the plane of welds.
direct shear
X
q =(
maximum shear stress due to moment
Page 109
q =
Where
I
= distance of the extreme weld from the C.G of the ground

= polar moment of inertia = I
+I
Total shear stress = q + q + 2q q Cos

2. Moment at Right Angle to The Plane at Weld
In this case, the weld is subjected to combined axial and shear stress.
As per IS 800 : 2007 recommends that the equivalent stress shall satisfyf =
f + 3q
Where, f = axial stress, direct or due to bending

q = shear stress due to shear force or tension
P
e
h
Direct shear stress q =

Bending stress f =
.
(
Equivalent stress f = Fa + 3q
Design of Tension Members

Tension member are called as tie members. Angle sections are mostly used tension members
Permissible Stress
Lowest of the following
a) Design strength due to yielding of gross section Tdg
b) Rupture of critical cross section Tdn
c) The block shear Tdh
1. Strength Due to Yielding of Gross Section
T =
Where, fy = yield stress of the material
Ag = gross area of cross section
r = 1.1 partial safety factor for yielding
2. Design Strength Due to Rupture of Critical Section
T
Page 110
Where, An is the net effective area at critical section

i) For plates
a) Aligned bolts
f
= (b - nd )t
d
n bolts in a line
t = thickness of the plate
b) Staggered bolts
= (b - nd )t +
Additional term giving more strength to the joint
ii) For angles
T
g
S
( contribution of outstanding leg is less so a factor )

t
wi
b =w
+ wi
- t of the connected leg
Where, b ==wnet
area
= gross area of the out standing leg
= 1.4 0.076 . / . /
0.7
Where, L = length of the end connection that is the distance between the outer most
bolt in the end
joint measured along the load direction or length of weld along the load
direction.
3. Design strength due to block shear
When failure occurs along a path such that one face fails in shear and the perpendicular face
fails in tension this failure is called black shear failure.
f
Shear failure along 1 2 and 3 - 4

Tension failure along 2 3
IS 800 : 2007 recommendations for Block shear

Strength T
Or T
Where,
=
.
&
&
+
= minimum gross and net shear area (1 2 & 3 4)
= minimum gross and the area in tension (2 3)
Page 111
Lug Angle
When the length of splice required for any tension member comes act be fairly large, an extra
and short length of an angle section is used. This angle is called lug angle
Recommendation of IS 800: 2007
1. The connection of the lug angle should start in advance of the member and terminate at the
end of the member.
2. Minimum two bolts or equivalent weld should used for attaching lug angle to the gusset
plate
3. If the main member is an angle
a) The whole area of the member shall be taken as the effective rather then net effective
section (i.e with reduction for outstanding leg area) The whole area of the member is the
gross area minus deduction for bolt holes.
b) The strength of lug angles and fastener connecting lug angle to the gusset plate should be
at least 20% more than the force in outstanding leg
c) The strength of the fastener connecting lug angle and main member shall be at least 40%
more than the force carried by the outstanding leg.
4. If the main member is channel
a) The strength of fasteners connecting lug angle to the gusset should be at least 10% more
than the force in outstanding leg
b) The strength of fasteners connecting lug angle to main member shall be at least 20%
more than the force in outstanding leg
Net Area in Tension
Net area of any section = Gross Area Area for the holes
For angles the gross width shall be the sum of the width of the legs less the thickness
The hole diameter is 1.5 mm in excess if nominal diameter of rivet is 24 mm
The hole diameter is 2 mm in excess if nominal diameter of rivet
24 mm
The area of a leg of an angle =
Thickness of angle
.Length of leg
Thickness of leg/
The area of a web or a tee = Thickness of web (Depth Thickness of flange)

In general, the net effective width (b ) can be calculated by the following equation:
b
=b
id + j . /
(1.1)
where,
b = width of the section
g
g
g
g
P
d
p
p = staggered pitch
g = gauge
i = no. of rivet holes
j = no. of zigzags or inclined lines
Page 112
Net Effective section for Angles and Tees

Case I
Single Angles in Tension, connected by one leg only
Net effective area = a + k b
(1.2)
where,
a = net sectional area of the connected leg
b = area of the outstanding leg
k =
Case II
Pair of Angles back to back (or a single Tee) in Tension, connected by only one leg of each angle
(or by the flange of a tee) to the same side of the gusset
Net effective area = a + k b
(1.3)
where,
a = net area of the connected legs (or flange of the tee)
b = area of the outstanding leg (or web of the tee)
k =
Case III
Double Angles or Tees in Tension, placed back to back and connected to both side of the gusset
plate or to both sides of a part of a rolled section
Net effective area = Gross area
Deduction for holes
(1.4)
3. Plastic Analysis of Beams and Frames

Notations
f : Yield stress of material
: Ultimate stress
: Stress corresponding to working load
: Maximum permissible stress in axial compression using actual length as effective length
: Effective cross section of the member
P : Yield strength of axially loaded section
Page 113
Assumptions
Plane section normal to the axis of bending remains plane after bending
The stress-strain relationship is idealized to consist of two straight lines as shown
There is no axial load on beam
Shear strains are neglected
The deformations are assumed to be small so that slope of beam is given by its tangent at
any point
Shape Factor
Under plastic condition ,neutral axis divides the section into two equal areas
Plastic moment is equal to yield stress multiplied by the sum of moments of areas in
tension and compression zones about the neutral axis
The ratio of plastic moment to yield moment is called the Shape Factor (f). It is also the
ratio of plastic modulus to elastic modulus
Hence, f =
=
The Shape Factor depends only on the geometry of the section
Load Factor
The Load Factor ( ) is the ratio of ultimate collapse load and working load
Hence, =
=f
Factor of Safety
Compression Member
Design of Compression Member
A structural member which is subjected to compressive force along its axis is called a
compression member
If the net end moments are zero, the compression member is required to resist load acting
concentric to the original longitude axis of the member and is termed axially loaded column
or simply column.
If the net end moment are not zero the member will be subject to an axial load and bending
moment along its length. Such member are called beam columns, otherwise an axially loaded
column
Possible failure modes
1. Local buckling: Failure occurs by buckling of one or more individual plate elements eg:
flange or web with no overall deflection in the direction normal to applied load.
The failure mode may be presented by selecting suitable width to thickness ratios of
components plates.
Page 114
2. Squashing: When the length is relatively small (stocky column) and its component plate
elements are prevented from local buckling then the column will be able to attain its full
strength or squash load (yield stress X area of cross section).
3. Overall flexural buckling: This mode of failure normally controls the design of most
compression member. In this mode failure of the member. In this mode, failure of the
member occurs by excessive deflection in the plane of the weaker principal axis.
4. Torsional and flexural torsional bucking :Torsional bucking failure occurs by twisting
about the shear center in the longitudinal axis. A combination of flexure and twisting
called flexural torsional buckling is also possible
Torsional buckling is a possible mode of failure for point symmetric section.
Flexural torsional buckling must be checked for open section that is singly symmetric
and for section that have no symmetry
Behavior of compression member
1. Short compression member: For very short compression member the failure stress will
equal the yield stress and no buckling will occur for short column 88.85
2. Long compression member: For these compression member the Euler formula predicts
the strength of long compression member very well where the axial buckling stress
remain below proportional limit such compression member will buckle elastically
3. Intermediate length compression member: For intermediate length member some fiber
would have yielded and some fiber will still be elastic. This compression member will fail
both by yielding and buckling and their behavior is said to be inelastic.
Effective length of compression member
=
Where k = 1.0 for column with both ends pinned

k = 0.5 for columns with both ends fixed
k = 0.707 for columns with one end fixed and the other end pinned
k = 2.0 for columns with one end fixed and the other end free
k 1.0 for columns partially restrained at each end and
k 2.0 for columns with one end restrained and the other end rotation partially
restrained
Maximum slenderness ratio of compression member
Types of member
1. Carrying loads resulting from dead load and superimposed loads
2. Carrying loads resulting from wind and seismic loads only provided the
deformation of such a member does not adversely affect the stress is any part
of structure
3. Normally acting as a tie in a roof truss or a bracing system but subject to
180
250
350
Page 115
possible reversal of stress resulting from the action or seismic force

4. Lacking bars in columns
5. Elements (components) in built up sections
145
50
Built up compression members

For large loads and for efficient use of material built up columns (also called as combined
columns or open web columns) are often used. They are generally made up of two or more
individual section such as angle channel or I section and properly connected along their
length by lacing or battening so that they act together as a single unit
Lacings
1) The radius of gyration of the combined column about the axis perpendicular to the plane of
lacing should be greater than the radius of gyration about the axis parallel to plane of racing
2) Lacing should be uniform throughout the length of column.
3) Single and double laced system should not be provided on the opposite sides of the same
member similarly lacings and battens should not be provided on opposite sides of same
member
4) Simple laced system on opposite sides of the main component shall be in the same direction
viewed from either side so that one is shadow of the other.
5) The lacing shall be designed to resist a total transverse shear V t at any point in the member
equal to 2.5% of the axial force in the member and this shear be divided among the lacing
system in parallel planes
6) The lacing in additional should be designed to resist any shear due to bending moment or
rate load or member
7) The slenderness ratio of lacing should not exceed 145
8) The effective length shall be taken as the length between inner and bolts/rivets of the bar
for simple lacing and 0.7 times the length for double lacing effectively connected at
intersection.
For welded Bars, the effective length taken as 0.7 times the distance between the inner ends
of the welds connecting the single bars to the member.
9) The minimum width of the lacing bar shall no be less than approximately three time the
diameter of the connecting bell/rivet the thickness shall not be than 140th of the effective
length for single lacing and 160th for double lacing
10) The spacing of lacing bars shall be such that maximum slenderness ratio of the component
of the main member between two consecutive lacing connection is not greater than 50 or
0.7 times the most unfavorable slenderness ration of the combined column.
11) When welded lacing bars overlap the main member the amount of lap should be not less
than four times thickness of the bar and the welding is to be provided along each side of the
bar for the full length of lap
Where lacing bars are fitted between main member they should be connected by filet welds
on each side or by full penetration butt weld.
12) Where lacing bars are not lapped to form the connection to the components of member they
shall be so connected that there is no appreciable interruption in triangulated system.
13) Plates shall be provided at the ends of laced compression member and shall be designed as
batters.
14) Flats angle channels or tube may be used as lacings.
Page 116
15) Lacing bars whether in double or single shear shall be inclined at an angle of 40 0 to 700 to
the axis of the built up member.
16) The effective slenderness ration . / of the laced column shall be taken as 1.05 times . /,
where . / is the maximum actual slenderness ratio of the column to account for shear
defamation effects.
Battens
Rules for Design Of Battens
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The number of battens shall be such that the member is divided into not less than three
bays
Battens shall be designed to resist simultaneously longitudinal shear Vb = Vt
and moment M =
2
Where = transverse shear force
= distance between centre to centre of battens longitudinally
= number of parallel planes of battens
= minimum transverse distance between the centroids of the bolts / rivet group /
welding
connecting the batten to the main member
When plates are used for battens the effective depth between the end bolts / rivets or welds
shall not be less than twice the width of one member in the plane of battens nor less than
three quarters of the perpendicular distance between centroids of the main member for
intermediate battens and not less than the perpendicular distance between the centroids of
main member for end battens.
The thickness of battens plates shall not be less than 150th of the distance between the
inner most connecting transverse belts / rivets or welds.
The effective slenderness ratio of b attended column shall be taken as 1.10 time ( )o,
where ( )o is the maximum actual slenderness ratio of the column to a count for shear
deformation effects
Plastic Analysis
Classification of structural analysis
The structural analysis can be classified into two groups
(i) Elastic analysis
(ii) Plastic analysis and Limit analysis
The simple plastic theory takes the advantage of the ductility of steel and a key parameter is
redistribution of moments
(i) When bending moment at critical section is less that yield moment then beam behaves
elastically (M <M )
Page 117
Stress
Distribution
Cross
section
M
M
Fully elastic
M <M
(ii) When bending moments (M | at critical section reaches the value M then yielding
gradually spreads in to the web fibers (M = M )
E
M
M
Initial yielding
M <M
(iii) When bending moment M reaches the maximum moment carrying capacity (M ) of
the structure, then practically all the fibers at the section of maximum moment have
fielded and the section is fully plastic (M =M ). at this stage deformation increase
rapidly without no increase in load and beam is wear collapse
Elastic zone
Neligible
M
M =M
The load corresponding to stage (iii) is known as limit load or collapse load or ultimate load. It
is sometimes represented as P, where is the load factor and P is working load. The
corresponding moment is known as ultimate moment or plastic moment M
During the formation of the plastic moment, a small elastic zone is left is the mid depth of the
section. Even through the stress is less than the yield value in the elastic zone at the
centre the distribution is idealized into rectangular stress blocks for purpose of derivations
of equations.
The load factor can be expressed as
Page 118
l=
The saving of material achieved by designing according to plastic theory instead of elastic
theory is given by
% Savings in materials = 01
1 x 100
Plastic Sections Modulus
Plastic N.A
Z =
Z =
.y + y
y + y
Shape Factor
Shape factor ( ) =
Where Z is elastic section modulus.

Load factor ( ) =
= F.O.S x Shape factor

= F. S x
Characteristics of plastic hinges
(i) Plastic hinge is formed at sections, where the moments are maximum
(ii) Plastic hinges is a zone of yielding due to flexure
(iii) Its length depends on geometry and loading but in most of the analytical work it is
assumed that all plastic rotations occur at a point.
(iv) Plastic hinge is also called rusty hinge or friction hinge
(v) Where two members meet, a hinge will be form in the member whose capacity is less.
Where three or more members meet, plastic hinge will be formed in all members.
(vi) Plastic hinges are reached first at sections subjected to greater curvature (bending
moment)
(vii) Formation of plastic hinges allows a subsequent redistribution of moment until M is
reached at each critical section
(viii) At those section where plastic hinges are formed, the member acts as if it were hinged
except with a constant restraining moment M
(ix) The total number of plastic hinges required at collapse mechanism is equal to number of
static indeterminacy plus one.
Page 119
Length of Plastic Hinge ( )

It is the length of the beam over which the moment is greater than the yield moment (M )
(a) For simply supported beam carrying concentrated load, length of plastic hinge is given
by
L = (For rectangular section)
= (For I section)
L = L 01
1
(b) For simply support beam carrying udl, length of plastic hinge is given by
L = L 1
Where is shape factor and L is total length of beam
The length of plastic hinge depends on loading and geometry
Fundamental Conditions of Plastic Analysis
1. Condition of statically equilibrium
2. The plastic moment Mp must not exceed anywhere in structure
3. At ultimate load, there must be just enough plastic hinges that a mechanism is formed
Plastic Hinges
Minimum no. of plastic hinges p required to reduce a structure of degree of indeterminacy equal
to i into a mechanism is i+1
Theorem of Plastic Analysis
There are two fundamental theorems in plastic analysis to find out load factor ( ):
1. Statically Method or Safe Theorem (Lower Bound Theorem)
2. Mechanism Method or Kinematic or Unsafe Theorem (Upper Bound Theorem)
Independent Mechanism
No. of Independent Mechanism = No. of Plastic Hinges Degree of Redundancy
Possible Mechanism
1. Beam Mechanism
2. Panel Mechanism
3. Gable Mechanism
4. Combined Mechanism
Plastic Design
Page 120
Load Factor for different load as per IS 800:1984

Load
Load Factor ( )
Dead Load
1.7
Live Load
1.7
Dead Load + Wind or Earthquake
1.7
Dead Load + Imposed Load + Wind or Earthquake
1.3
Beams
Moment capacity of beam, M = z
Tension Member
Load capacity of tension member, P = 0.85
Strut
Load capacity of strut carrying axial load only, P = 1.7
Beam-Column
Maximum moment capacity acting in beam-column when P 0.15P
M
=M
Maximum moment capacity acting in beam-column when P

M
= 1.18
(1
0.15P
Shear
Maximum shear capacity of beam or beam-column, V = 0.55
Analysis and Design of Compression Member

Notations
f
n
E
l
r
f
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Yield stress of steel

Imperfection index, taken as 1.4
Modulus of elasticity of steel, taken as 2 10
Slenderness ratio
Appropriate radius of gyration of member
Effective cross section area of member
Elastic critical stress in compression
Maximum permissible stress in axial compression
Definition
Structural member carrying axial compression without bending is called a compression
member
Structural member carrying compressive load in truss are called struts
The vertical compression members in buildings are called columns, posts or stanchions
Compression member of a crane is called boom
The main compression member in roof truss are called rafters
Page 121
Buckling
The sudden bending of column under unstable equilibrium is called buckling of column
At a particular load, the column buckles under slightest disturbances, the particular load is
the buckling or critical load of column
Allowable Stress for Steel in Compression
= 0.6
; where, f
[
and =
Axial Load of Compression Member
The maximum load (P) in axial compression is given by, P =
The main compression member in roof truss are called rafters
Effective Area of Strut
The effective area in case of struts is equal to the gross area of section
For empty holes, full deduction of hole area is done
For holes filled with black bolts, 25% reduction of hole area is made
Effective Length of Strut

The following notation can be used for better understanding:
Fixed End
Effectively held in position and restrained against rotation
Hinged End
Effectively held in position but not restrained against rotation
Free End
Not held in position and not restrained against rotation
Degree of Restraint
Effective Length
1.
2.
3.
4.
0.65L
0.80L
1.00L
1.20L
Both end fixed

One end fixed & other end hinged
Both end hinged
One end fixed and other end restrained
against rotation but not held in position
5. One end fixed and other end partially restrained
6. One end hinged and other end restrained
1.50L
2.00L
Page 122
Maximum Slenderness Ratio

Component with Loading
1.
2.
3.
4.
Maximum
Compression member carrying dead and superimposed load

Compression member carrying load due to wind and seismic
250
Tension member under reversal of stress due to wind & seismic 350
Tension member
400
180
Tacking Rivets
Spacing of tacking rivets should not exceed 600mm
For compression member connected back to back, the slenderness ratio of each member
should not greater than 40 nor 0.6 times the most unfavorable slenderness ratio of the
whole strut
Build-up Compression Member
Lacing
General Specification
1. The compression member comprising two main components laced, should have a radius of
gyration about the axis perpendicular to the plane of the lacing not less than the radius of
gyration at right angles to that axis
2. In laced system, cross members perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the strut should not
be used
3. The single laced systems on opposite sides of the main components should preferably be in
the same direction so that one be the shadow of the other
4. Laced members should be provided with tie plates at ends of lacing system and at points
where the lacing system are interrupted
Design Specification
1. The angle between the lacing bars and the axis of the member is kept between 40 and 70
2. Slenderness ratio . / for the lacing bar 145, where,
l =
length between inner end rivets for single lacing
= 0.7 times length between inner end rivets for double lacing
= 0.7 times length between inner ends of weld for welded lacing
3. For flat bar of width b and thickness t,
40 for single lacing
60 for double lacing
Page 123
4. For lacing system,
50 or 0.7 times most unfavorable slenderness ratio of the whole strut
where, L = Distance between the centre of consecutive connection of

laced bars
r = Radius of gyration of compression member
5. The lacing members should be designed to resist a transverse shear, V = 2.5 of axial force
in the member
6. Minimum width of lacing bar is approximately 3 times the nominal rivet diameter
7. The overlap in welded connection lap joint 4t of bar or member whichever is less
Batten
General Specification
1. The compression member composed of two main components battened, should have a
radius of gyration about the axis perpendicular to the plane of the batten not less than the
radius of gyration at right angles to that axis
2. The number of batten should be such that the number is divided into at least three parts
longitudinally
3. The effective length of battened column should be increased by 10%
Design Specification
1. For battened compression member
If
0.8 , then . /
50 or 0.7
If
0.8
, then . /
40 or 0.6 . /
whichever is less
whichever is less
Where,
L
= effective length of battened compression member
= radius of gyration of buildup section about an axis perpendicular to plane of
= radius of gyration of buildup section about an axis parallel to plane of battens
= spacing of battens
= minimum radius of gyration of component
battens
2. If d is the effective width of batten and a is the centroid distance of member then
d . / a for intermediate battens
a for end battens
3. For flat bar of width b and thickness t,

40 for single lacing
60 for double lacing
Page 124
4. Thickness of battens, t
where l is the distance between innermost connecting lines of
rivets or welds
5. Batten should be designed to carry bending moment and shear arising from transverse
shear, V = 2.5 of axial force in the member
6. Moment in batten plate, M =
and longitudinal shear, V =
where, N is the no. of
parallel planes of batten and S = Minimum transverse distance between cg of rivet group or
weld
7. The overlap in welded connection lap joint 4t of bar or member whichever is less
Beams
Introduction
The load transfer by a beam is primarily by bending and shear. ny structural member could
be considered as a beam if the loads cause bending of the member.
Classification of Beam
1. Floor Beams: A major beam of a floor system usually supporting joints in building, a
transverse beamin bridge floors.
2. Girder: Girders are the same as floor beams. Also a major beam in any structure. Floor beams
are often referred to as girders.
3. Girt: A horizontal member fastened to and spanning between peripheral columns of an
industrial buildings used to support wall cladding such as corrugated metal sheeting.
4. Joist: A beam supporting floor construction but not a major beam
5. Lintels: Beam members used to carry all loads over wall openings for doors, windows etc.
6. Purlin: A roof beam, usually supported by root trusses.
7. Laffer: A root beam, usually supporting purlins
8. Spandrels: Exterior beams at the floor level of buildings, which carry a part of the floor load
and the exterior wall.
9. Stringers: Members used in bridges parallel to the traffic to carry the deck slab they will be
connected by transverse floor beams.
Beam Types
Type Of Beam
Angles
Optimum span
range (m)
3-6
Relled I section
Castellated beams
Plate girders
1-30
6-60
10-100
Box girders
15-200
Open web joints

Trusses
4-40
10-100
Application
For lightly loaded beams such as purlin and sheeting
rail
Most frequently used as a beam
Long spans and light loads
Long spans with heavy
loads such as bridge grinders
Long spans and heavy loads
Such as bridge girders
Fabricated for larges span, using angles or tubes as
chords and round bars for web diagonals
Long spans and moderate loads such as industrial
roofing
Page 125
Main Failure Modes of Hot Rolled Beams

1) Category I Excessive bending triggering collapse
2) Category II - Lateral torsional buckling of long beams which are not suitably braced in the
lateral direction
3) Category III Failure by local buckling of a flange in compression or web due to shear or web
under compression due to concentrated loads.
4) Category IV Local failure by
(a) shear yield of web.
(b) Local crushing of web and
(c) Buckling of thin flanges
Effective Length
The concept of effective length of the compression flange incorporates the various types of
support conditions.
Conditions at supports
Effective length
1. Compression flanges at the end unrestrained
L*
against lateral bending (Free toratate is plan)
2. Compression Flange partially restrained against
0.85L*
lateral bending (partially free to rotate in plane at
the bearing)
3. Compression flange restrained fully against lateral
0.7L*
bending (rotation fully restrained in plan)
Design for Shear
The factored design shear force V in a beam due to external actions should satisfy
V V
Where V , the design strength is given by V =
The nominal shear strength of a cross section V may be governed by plastic shear resistance
or the strength of the web governed by shear buckling. The nominal plastic shear resistance
under pure shear is given by V = V where
= V =
is the shear area and f is the yield strength of web. The shear area may be calculated as
given in table 1 for different cross sections.
Note: Fastener holes need not be accounted for in the plastic design shear strength calculation
provided that
Y
n . /.
Y
0.9
Page 126
If
does not satisfy the above condition, the effective shear area may be taken as that
satisfying the above limit. Block shear failure criteria may be verified at the end connections.
Table 1 Shear areas
Section
Shear area
b
t
htw
t
b
tw
h
htw
tf
tw
a) Built-up
htw, dtw
tf
2btf
tf
b) Built- up sections or rolled (minor axis bending)
b
Ah/(b+h)
Page 127
c) Rectangular hollow section

h
b
Ab/(bth)
d) Rectangular hollow section (loaded parallel to width)

2
e) Circular hollow section
A
f) Plates and solids bar
Web Buckling and Web Crippling
A heavy load or reaction concentrated on a short length produces a region of high compressive
stresses in the vertical elements of the web either under the load or at the support. Away from
the loading point, stresses are spread widely. But just under a load or above a reaction point
they may cause web failures such as web buckling as shown in figure and web crippling or web
crushing
Web Buckling
Web Crippling
(a)
Local Buckling of the web
(b)
Design Procedure For Channel / I-section purlins
Various steps involved in the design are as follows
1. The span of the purlin is taken as the centre to create distance of adjacent trusses.
2. The gravity loads P, due to sheeting and line load, and the load H due to wind are
computed. The components of these loads in the direction perpendicular and parallel to
the sheeting are determined. These loads are multiplied with partial safety factor Y for
loads (See table 4 of code) for the various loads combination
Page 128
3. The maximum bending moment (M and M ) and shear forces (F and F ) using the
factored loads are determined.
4. The required value of plastic section modulus of the section may be determined by using
the following equations.
Z = Mz
F + 2.5 . / [M
F ]
Where,
= Partial safety factor for material = 1.1
d = depth of the trial section
b =breadth of the trial section
M andM are the factored bending moments about z and axis
f = yield stress of steel
5. Check for the section classification (table 2 of code)
6. Check for the shear capacity of the section for both the Z and y axis (for purlins shear
capacity will always be high and may not govern the design)
f
VdZ =
(3 )
f
Vdy =
(3
And
= ht
Avy = 2b t
Where h is the height, t is the thickness of web b - breadth of flange and t is the
thickness of the flange of I-channel section, respectively.
7. Compute the design capacity of the section is both the axis.
f
F
1.2 Z
Md =Z
Md = Z
8. Check for local capacity by using the interaction equations .
/+(
) 1.0
Simplified Method For Design Of Angle Purlins

As per IS 800-2007, angle purlins should be designed, For biaxial bending. However IS 8001984 and present British code permit design of angle purlins by assuming that load normal
to sheeting is resisted by purlin and load parallel to sheeting is resisted by sheeting provided
the following conditions are fulfilled
Design Of Grillage Beams
Let the length of grillage beam be L and length of plate in this direction be a maximum
moment occurs at centre of beam carries a total load p.
(
)
M= x x - x x =
Maximum shear occurs at distance a from the centre of the beam and its value is
(
)
F= .
/=
The grillage beams should be designed for the above moment and shear. It should be
checked for web crippling.
Page 129
Bending Strength of a Laterally Supported Beam

If d / f 67. IS 800- 2007 considers two cases one with design shear less than 0.6V and
other with design shear strength more then 0.6V where is design shear strength, when
d/ > 67, buckling of web is likely to take place.
(a) If V 0.6 V
The design bending strength M shall be taken as
M = Z f x
1.2Z f x
for simply supported beam shear
1.5Z
Where
for cantilever beam
= 1.0 plastic and compact sections

= for semi- compact sections.
Z , Z = plastic and elastic section modulus of the cross section, respectively.

(b) If V > 0.6V
In such cases, M = Mdn
Where M = design bending strength height shear this reduced value is recommended to
account for the effect of higher shear on the bending strength of section Md is to be
calculated as given below (clause 9.2.2 in IS 800: 2007)
a) Plastic or compact section
M = M | (M
M ) 1.2 Z f x
Where
=.
1/
M = plastic design moment of the wholes section

V = Factored applied shear force
V = Design shear strength
M = Plastic design strength of the area of cross section excluding the shear area,
considering partial safety factor
b) Semi compact section.
M =
Shear Strength of a Laterally Unsupported Beam
The design shear strength of a section is given by (clause 8.4 of IS 800:2007)
V =
Where
= Shear area and can be taken as shown in table shear area
The shear are may be calculated as given below
Notations
f
M
V
n
E
I
:
:
:
:
:
:
y
D
:
:
Yield stress of steel (MPa)

Bending moment at any section
Shear force at any section
Imperfection index, taken as 1.4
Moment of inertia of section about centroidal axis perpendicular to plane
of bending
Distance of fibre from neutral axis (N.A.) of bending
Overall depth of beam
Page 130
T
r
d
t
b
l
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
f
c ,c
k ,k
:
:
:
:
Mean thickness of beam

Radius of gyration of section about its axis of minimum length
Depth of web
Thickness of web
Width of any section where stress is to be calculated
Effective laterally unsupported length of member
Ratio of minimum section to maximum section of total area of both
flanges
Ratio of I of compression flange to I of whole section
Elastic critical stress in bending
The lesser and greater distances from section N.A. to the extreme fibres
Coefficient depends on and [refer table of IS:800-1984]
Bending Stress
Bending stress in compression or tension is given by,
Allowable Bending Stress
Permissible bending stress in tension, = 0.66f

Permissible bending stress in compression for laterally restrained beam, = 0.66f
Permissible bending stress in compression for laterally unrestrained beam,
= 0.6
[
where,
= k (X + k
Y) ; Y =
.
( )
The calculated f is to be increased by 20% if
MPa and X = Y1 +
2 and
85
Effective Length of Compression Flange
For simply supported beam of span L with each end restrained against torsion, the effective
length
Lateral Bending
Effective Length
Unrestrained
0.85L
Partially restrained
0.75L
Fully restrained
0.50L
Note : The above values to be increased by 20% if the beam is not restrained against torsion
For cantilever beam of projected length L, effective length is given by
Page 131
Support End
Free End
Effective Length
Build-in
Unrestrained
0.85L
Build-in
Restrained against torsion
0.75L
Build-in
Restrained against torsion
0.50L
and lateral deflection

Continuous and unrestrained
Free at end
3.0L
Free at end
2.0L
Free at end
1.0L
against torsion
Continuous and partially

restrained against torsion
Continuous and fully

restrained against torsion
Shear Stress
Shear stress is given by, =
where, y = Moment of area about N.A. of the section of the part of the section beyond the
fibre where
shear stress is to be calculated
Average shear stress is given by,
Allowable shear stress is given by

when
85,
= 0.45f &
when
, where, d = depth of beam

= 0.4f
85, stiffeners are provided and
depends on dimension of panel
Deflection
Allowable deflection for simply supported beam should not exceed
Allowable deflection for cantilever beam should not exceed
Page 132
Web Crippling
For intermediate concentrated load
For end support
where,
)
)
0.75
0.75
= Concentrated load on beam

= End reaction at support
= Bearing length
= Depth of root of the fillet from the top of the flange
Web Buckling
where, = +Length of stiff portion of bearing+Thickness of compression flange for simply

supported beam
= +Length of stiff portion of bearing+Thickness of compression flange for continuous beam
over bearing
= Permissible axial compression stress for slenderness ratio of
where,
is given by the clear depth of web between root fillets
Buildup Beam
Symmetrically Buildup Beam
Area of each cover plate is given by,
, where
= Section modulus of top section
= Section modulus of primary I beam

= Depth of beam
Un-symmetrically Buildup Beam
Area of each cover plate is given by,
. (
Connecting rivets for Buildup Beam

Pitch of the rivets,
, where
= No. of row of rivets

= Width of plate
= Thickness of plate
= Depth of primary beam
= Rivet value
Page 133
Unsymmetrical Bending of Purlins
If
is the angle of major principal axis with horizontal axis(
then,
Condition of simplified analysis of purlins

Slope of the roof 30 to horizontal
Depth of angle section
Width of other leg
Bending moment in purlins =
where,
=Span of purlin
=UDl on purlin including wind and minimum SIDL of 0.75
Gantry Girder
Deflection of gantry girder is given by
Loading type
Deflection
Manually operated crane

Electric operated crane of upto 50
Electric operated crane of over 50
Other moving load
*
= Span of crane runaway girder
3. Plate Girder
Notations
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Yield stress of steel (MPa)

Bending moment at any section (kNm)
Shear force at any section
Modulus of elasticity of steel, taken as 2 10 (MPa)
Transverse force to be taken by stiffeners (kN)
Number of row of rivets
Pitch of rivets
Rivet value
Total load applied on girder (kN)
Overall depth of beam (mm)
Outstand of stiffener (mm)
Maximum thickness of compression flange
Page 134
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Area of flange plates

Gross area of web
Depth of web
Thickness of web
Span length of plate girder
Permissible bending stress in tension
Permissible bending stress in compression
Weight and Economic Depth of Plate Girder

If web area is assumed to share some part of applied bending moment, the economic depth
of the section is given by,
= 1.1
If web area is not assumed to share any part of applied bending moment, the economic depth
of the section is given by,
Actual depth is usually taken 10
less than the depth given by above equations
In short girder, where a uniform flange section without curtailment is adopted, the economic
depth of the section is given by,
= 1.21
The self weight of girder to start with, may be assumed as,
Design of Web
Average shear stress in the web,
where,
= 0.4
for unstiffened web and
= as per cl. 6.4.2 of
800
1984 depending on
ratio for stiffened web
Web Stiffeners
800
1984 recommends the provision of web stiffeners as follows

Condition
1.
2.
3.
Provision of Web Stiffeners
85
No Stiffener
200
Vertical Stiffener
250
Vertical Stiffener + Horizontal Stiffener t
from
Vertical Stiffener + Horizontal Stiffener at
from
compression flange
4.
400
compression flange
+ Horizontal stiffener at N.A.
Page 135
where,
is given by
1. For vertically stiffened web without horizontal stiffeners

= The clear distance between flange angles and where there are no flange angles, the clear
distance between flanges ignoring fillets
2. For vertically stiffened web with horizontal stiffeners
= The clear distance between the tension flange and horizontal stiffeners
3. Where tongue plates having a thickness of not less than twice the thickness of web plates used
= The depth of girder between the flange sum of depths of tongue plates or 8 sum of
thicknesses of tongue plates, whichever is less and is given by
=2
clear distance from compression flange to the N.A.
Note: In no case the grater clear dimension of web panel should exceed 270
clear dimension exceed 180
nor the lesser
Vertical Stiffeners
Spacing of Stiffeners
The spacing of stiffeners should be kept between 0.33 to 1.5 where is defined as
earlier when no horizontal stiffener is provided
The spacing of stiffeners should be kept between 0.33 to 1.5 where is the clear
distance between horizontal stiffener and tension flange ignoring fillets when horizontal
stiffener is provided
Moment of Inertia of Stiffeners

.
The moment of inertia of stiffener angle,

; where, = Minimum required
thickness of web and = Maximum permitted clear distance between vertical stiffener for
thickness
Increase in moment of inertia due to moment
Increase in moment of inertia due to lateral load or shear
=
=
Horizontal Stiffeners
Moment of Inertia of Stiffeners
The moment of inertia of first horizontal stiffener at

of distance between compression
flange and neutral axis, 4
;
The moment of inertia of second horizontal stiffener at . .,
where, = Minimum required thickness of web and = Actual distance between vertical
stiffener
Page 136
Connection of Web Stiffeners
Stiffeners are designed to withstand a shearing force
Load Bearing Stiffeners
The moment of inertia of stiffeners,
; where,
= End Reaction
Design of Flange
Tension Flange
Area of tension flange,
Compression Flange
Area of compression flange,
Permissible Bending Stress
The maximum compressive stress, calculated on gross flange area,
The maximum tensile stress, calculated on net flange area,
Curtailment of Flange Plates

The length to be curtailed of the plate,
where
= no. of plates to be curtailed counting 1, 2, 3 ... from outer plate
Riveted Connection
Connection between flange plates and flange angles
The rivets in between are designed to resist horizontal shear force at flange plate level, the pitch
of rivet is given by,
Connection between flange angle and web plates

The pitch of rivet is given by,
=
(
Page 137
4. Column Bases
Slab Base
The thickness of a rectangular slab base as per IS:800-1984, is given by

=
where,
= The slab thickness (mm)
= The pressure or loading on the underside if the base
(MPa)
= The grater projection of the plate beyond the column
(mm)
= The lesser projection of the plate beyond the column
(mm)
= The permissible bending stress in slab bases =
185 (MPa)
The thickness of a square slab base plate under a solid round column as per IS:800-1984,
= 10
where,
= The thickness of plate (mm)
= The total axial load (kN)
= The length of the side of cap or base (mm)
= The diameter of the reduced end of the column
(mm)
185 (MPa)
= The permissible bending stress in slab bases =
The cap or base plate should not be less 1.5(
+ 75) mm in length or diameter
Gusseted Base
The thickness of base plate in case of gusseted base is less than slab base as the bearing area of
column on base plate increased by gusset plates
Page 138
Grillage Foundation: (As per IS: 800-1962)
Concrete cover for grillage base is 100

A minimum clear spacing of 75
is kept between the flanges of beams for proper
placing of concrete
Permissible stresses in grillage beams encased in concrete is increased by 33 (50
when the effect of wind, seismic or erection is considered)
Consider a tier of grillage beam having a length and carrying a load of over a central
length
The maximum bending moment at the middle of the beam,
=
The maximum shear force at the edge of the load,
The bearing pressure on the web at the root of fillet should not exceed the safe bearing
pressure,
i.e.
1.33
189
; where
= no. of beams in tier
6. Beam-Column and Beam-Column Connections

Notations:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
,
,
x, y
l, b, t
M, P
x
Yield stress of steel

Slenderness ratio
Appropriate radius of gyration of member
Effective cross section area of member
Elastic critical stress in compression
Calculated average axial compressive stress
Permissible stress in axial compression
Calculated bending compressive stress in extreme fiber
Permissible bending compressive stress
Represents x-x and y-y axis
Length, width and thickness of base plate
Represents moment and axial force on base plate
Distance of extreme compression fibre of base plate from N.A.
Permissible stress of concrete
Beam-Column
Member subjected to axial compression and bending needs to satisfy the following equation:
,
where, f
,
,
,
.
1.0 ;
and =
Page 139
If the ratio
+
is less than 0.15 then following equation needs to satisfy:

,
1.0
The value of coefficient C is given by

Condition
a) Member in frame where side away is not prevented
b) Side sway prevented, members not subjected to transverse
load between their supports in the plane of bending
c) Side sway prevented, members loaded transversely
i.
Ends of member restrained against rotation
ii.
Ends not restrained against rotation
Value of
0.85
0.6 0.4
0.4
0.85
1.00
Eccentrically Loaded Base Plate
Criteria for base plate to not take any tension by anchor bolts
The thickness of base plate is found by the following equation

M=
Length and width of base plate can be found by the following equations
i. P =
ii.
185
In case of tension in base plate, the value of tension and size of anchor bolts can be found by
the following equations
i. P + T =
ii.
M = T .n
/+P.
5. Connections- Simple and Eccentric

Bolt & Rivet Connection
Some Definitions
Lap joints: The plates are to be connected overlapping each other.
Butt joints: A cover plate is provided to connect the plates.
Gross diameter of rivet
=Nominal diameter of rivet + 1.5 mm ( Upto nominal diameter of 24 mm)
=Nominal diameter of rivet + 2 mm (Nominal diameter of greater than 24 mm)
Minimum pitch distance = 2.5 times the diameter of rivet hole.
Maximum pitch distance for
Any two adjacent rivets = 32t or 300mm whichever is less
Rivets lying in parallel to the force in the member:
i)
In tension = 16t or 200 mm whichever is less
ii)
In compression = 12t or 200 mm whichever is less
Maximum edge distance = 12t

Page 140
Where, t = thickness of thinner outside plate.

=(
) 0.5
Strength of joints (Rivet value) is minimum of three

Strength of plate against tearing tf x (p-d) x t
Strength of rivet against single shear vf x ( 4) x d2
Strength of rivet against double shear 2 x vf x ( 4) x d2
Strength of rivet against bearing pf x d x t
Where,
d = gross diameter of rivet
p = pitch of rivet
Stresses have usual notations.
Unions empirical formula d = 6t
Weld Connection
Minimum size of fillet weld should not be less than 3 mm or nor more than the thickness
of the thinner part.
Maximum size of fillet weld
Equals to the thickness of the plate when the plate thickness is less than 6 mm.
Equals to at least 1.5 mm less than the edge thickness when the plate thickness is
more than 6 mm
Should not exceed th of the thickness of the section at the toe where weld is
applied to the rounded toe of the rolled section.
Effective length of fillet weld= overall length 2 x size of weld
Effective throat thickness = K x Size of weld and should not be less than 3 mm.
Where, k = cos( 2) , = angle between fusion faces.
For side fillet,
Length of weld should not be less than width of plate
Width of plate should not be greater than 16 times effective throat thickness
Lap length should not be less than 5 times lower thickness of plate.
Page 141
Part 3: Geotechnical Engineering

3.1 Soil Mechanics
Classification
On basis of transport agency
Alluvial soil: soil by cumming water

Lacustrine soil: lakes
Marine soil: sea water
Special Classification
Loess Windblown silt.

Bentonite Volcanic ash
Muck Organic matter
Talus Action of gravity
Maul Marine Origin
Black soil contains montmorellonite responsible for swelling.
Properties of Soil
1. Water content =
2. Void ratio, e =
3. Porosity, =
x 100%
x 100%
x 100%
4. Degree of saturation, S = (
5. Air content, aC =
Page 142
6. % air voids =
x 100
7. Relative compaction or density under =

ID =
8. Specific gravity, Gm =
9.
or e =
10. e =
When w: Water content
(
11.
12.
sat
13.
14. ` =
15. d =
16.
=(
)=
where
Bulk unit weight
Saturated unit weight
Dry unit weight
Specific gravity of solids by Pycnometer
G=
If perosine is used against water
G=*
+xK
Where,
w
Weight of dry sample
Page 143
Weight of pycnometer + soil +water
Weight of pycnometer + water
Method for in-situ weight determination

a. Core cutter method
b. Sand replacement method
c. Water displacement method
1. Sieve analysis (for coarse grained soils)
Coarse sieve analysis = 63, 20, 10 & 4.75 mm
Fine sieve analysis = 2mm, 1mm, 600, 425, 300, 212, 150 &275 m
2. Sedimentation analysis
For fine grained soils < 75 m
Strokes law is used
(
Where
V
Terminal velocity (m/s)

Viscosity [in absolute of power]
Particle size in mm
If
is the effective reading of hydrometer, then
Where,
(h
t
)
Reading of hydrometer
V
Volume and of bulb of hydrometer
Cross sectional area of jar
Page 144
Fraction retained on 4-75mm sieve is called gravel fraction which is subjected to wave
stieve analyst.
finer
0.002mm
Clay Siet
0.075mm
80
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse

Sand
Gravel
300
Cobble Boulder
US 200 sieve = 0.075mm

US 4 sieve = 4.75mm
Consistency of soil
1. Liquid limit (w ) The minimum water content at which the soil is still in liquid state
2. Plastic limit (w ) It is the minimum water content after which, the soil starts
crumbling
3. Shrinkage limit (w ) Maximum water content after which reduction in water content
well not cause shrinkage of the soil mass
Shrinkage limit w
Where, w
(w
Water content of orginal sample of volume v
Plasticity index
Liquidity index (IL) =

Consistency index( ) =
Flow index ( ) =
Where, w w
water contents corresponding n
n blows respectively
Page 145
Toughness index (It) =

Sensitivity =
SR =
Where, V1 = Volume of soil mass at water content, W1%
V2 = Volume of soil mass at water content W2%
Vd = Volume of dry solids
W1& W2 = Water Content.
Activity =
Relative density =
A line, IP = 0.73 (WL 20%)
f soils
is above A low, soil is more clayly
f soils
is belowAline, it is ML, OL or MH or ML.
Well graded gravels, Cu> 4; CC to where Cu =
., called as GW
CC =
Gravel with fines, GM & GC for gravel with silt and gravel with clay respectively.
Sand: SW C to
Cu> 6.
Soil structure and clay minerals

For same void ratio, W.C. of clay > W.C. of sand.
Clay minerals
Kaolinite, mont morillonite, illite
Mont morillonite has large specific area and dwelling.
Illite has potassium in adjacent places.
Page 146
Soil Compaction
=(
=
=
standard proctor test: Weight of hammer = 2.6 Kg.
modified proctor test: Weight of hammer = 4.9 Kg
ratio of energy in modified to standard proctor test is 4.5
embankments are compacted on higher side of OMC.
dam embankments are also on lower side of O.M.C. but dam cores are compacted on higher side
to ensure high permeability
Factors Effecting Compaction.
1. Type of soil,
is maximum for GW and minimum for CH.
2. Water content
3. Method of compaction
4. Amount of compactive method.
Capillary and Permeability
1. Seepage Velocity v
ki where K is permeability constant
i= hydraulic gradient
V x A = KiA
Discharge q = K i A
Pi = x z x
i
z
iz
Quick condition
ic =
Page 147
Where R is permeability of soil, i is hydraulic gradient and A is area (cross-section), z is

vertical height of sample.
R is given by, R =
xCx
Determination of coefficient of permeability

1. Empirical methods
Where
m is the grain size (in an) occurring with great frequency
2. Allen Hazen formula

Allen Hazen gave R = C
Where D10 = is in cm
C = 100.
3. Laboratory Methods
a. Constant head permeability test
Overhead Tank
Supply
Overflow
Air Value
L
L
Soil Specimen
Soil Specimen
Bottom Tank
Measuring Jar
Figure: Constant Head Test

q=KiA
q = Q/t
= Ki A
K= x x
Page 148
b. Falling Head Permeability Test

Funnel
;
Time t1
dh
Stand
Pipe
Time t2
h1
h
h2
Figure Falling Head Test

If
a
cross sectional area of stand p
length of the sample
h h
t
initial and final head
time clasped to fall the head h to h
R=
log 10
c. Capillary permeability test.
(h0)2
Q
(h0)1
StopperA
Dry Soil
Spring
Stopper
Screen
Air Vent
hc
Figure Capillarity Permeability Test

Page 149
)=
Average permeability parallel to the bedding planes

.
Kx =
Average permeability perpendicular to bedding planes

Kx =
Deflection of flow lines at interface of dissimilar soil
Governing equation is
Seepage through the body of a dam
L
C
0.3L
D
Directrix
P(x,y)
H
y
F
A
G H
Q
s
Figure :Casagrandes Method of determining phreatic line in a dam with horizontal drainage
filter
Page 150
Discharge q
Where
Permeability
s
Where,
Head of water
Distance of arbitarary orgin of phreatic line as shown in figure
Well hydraulics
1. Unconfined aquifer : also called as non artisan aquifer ( upuitsThoery)
Ground Level
r2
r1
Initial water table
s2
s1
Cone of
depreciation
H
h1
h2
(x, y)
Cone of
depreciation
y
x
q=KiA
q=Kx
q
x 2 x y
h )
log ( )
log
h )
( )
In artisan aquifer case/confined aquifer(Thiem equation )

q=Rx
x 2 x b
Where, b= is depth of confined strata

q
2bk(
h)
log ( )
2. 2 bk(
log
h)
( )
Page 151
Field determination of K and T: Pumping out test:

K=
for unconfined aquifer (Using Dupuit equation)
and
q
r
log ( ) in confined equation (using Thiem equation)
h)
r
2b(
Recuperation test in open well

q = KH
also q =
log10( )
.
Ax( )H=
log10( ) m3/m4
Quantity is called as specific yield.
Seepage Analysis
iC =
where iC is critical gradient for upflow condition (quick condition)
Velocity pointed is such that
= u and
Kx
+ Ky
= v.
= 0.
Stream function is such that

=u
=v
=0
Flow across flow net is

q=KxHx
Where,
x
Total hydraulic head causing flow
Total number of flow channels in the flow net
Page 152
Total number of potential drops in complete flow net
Width and length of the field
ield -> The portion enclosed between two successive equipotential lines and
successive flow lines
Stress Distribution in Soil

Boussinesys Solution for Point Load
z =
( )
where,
z is vertical stress at depth z
Q is load
z is vertical depth
r is radial depth.
Maximum vertical stress occurs for
Where,
r
z
Line load
2q
[
z
]
( )
Where,
q
Load intensity,
Horizontal offset of the point from line load
Strip load
Where
sin
Angle made by the width of the strip at the point
Page 153
Circular Load
q[
]
(
Where, a
Radius of the circular load
Boussinesys theory for rectangular loading

z =
)(
[(
where m = ,
tan
]]
n=
Consolidation of Soil
Compression index, CC =
CC = 0.007 (WL 10%) for remoulded clay
CC = 0.009 (WL 10%) for field clay
Coefficient of compressively, a
m
Where m is coefficient of volume change.

m
Coefficient of consolidation, C =
Where, K is permeability m is coefficient of volume change
is density of water.
Consultation Settlement
Any time to during consolidation
m
dz
Ultimate or final settlement

m ( )
Degree of consolidation
(U )
Page 154
Time factor
C t
d
Where, t
d
time
drainage path
For single d
[Thickness of drainage layer]
For double drainage d

Tv = (
)if U < 60%
Tv = 1.7813 0.9332 log10 (100 U%) if U% > 60%

Methods to determine CV are
1. Square root of time method
2. Logarithm of time fitting method.
Calculation of void ratio and co-efficient of volume change
Height of solids method
Change in void ratio method.
Change in void ratio ratio

e
e
(
e)
Height of solid =
Md: Mass of dried speciment
: Density of water
A: Area of speciment.
Shear Strength
Defined f() as a linear function
Mohr envelops: Shear capacity of a soil is a function of normal stress acting on it
S
f()
Columb envelope
S
tan
The effective stress principle

f
tan
Page 155
Also
cos 2
sin 2
for plane to be most critical,
= 450 +
is the angle of failure plane with the horizontal

Where3 1= Normal stresses
1 Normal stresses on plane inclined at to 3 1.
C and are not fundamental properties of soil.
Measurement of shear strength
1.
2.
3.
4.
Direct shear test

Triaxial test
Unconfined compression test
Vane shear test
Depending upon drainage conditions

a. Undrained test or quick test
b. Consolidation undrained test
c. Drained test
In undrained stress, no drainage of water is allowed.
In drained test, drainage is permitted throughout the test during application of normal and
shear stress.
In consolidated undrained test, drainage is permitted under initially applied normal stress
only and full softening is allowed to take place.
1. Direct shear test, failure plain is pre-determined and less control on drainage is possible.
2. Triaxial test
d = 1 3 is called as deviator stress in triaxial compression test.
Pore pressure during triaxial compression test is measured.

or (
tan (
)
cos
2C Tan (
(
) sin
Above equation is modified in the form

Page 156
) tan
Modified failure envelope is plotted between (1`3`) and (1
3`).
n modified envelope sin ` = tan

C` =
The calculation of deviator stress must be done on the basis of the changed area of cross
section at failure or during any stage of the test.
The area A at failure or at any impotent is given by
Additional axial load
A
evitor stress
A2 =
for computation of stress at any point
is angle of failure plane with horizontal

3. Unconfined compression test
In unconfined compression test, 2
3= 0 and
1 = 2 Cu tan (45 + )
This test is used for saturated clays for which
4. Vane shear test

Vane shear test is used to determine undrained shear strength of cohesive soil.
(d
)
(
d
2
(2rdr ) r
d
)
If only the bottom end partakes in the shearing

T
d
)
2
Skemptons Pore Pressure Perimeter

If C
Compressibility of soil skeleton

Change in pore pressure
Page 157
Increase in the principle stresses
2u)
u=
* (
u = B*
U
=B
A(
)+
+
A=
Shear strength of cohesive soils:
a. Undrained test on saturated cohesive soil:
Diameter of total stress and effective stress diameter remains same.
For saturated soil B = 1
A varies with OCR.
Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils
1. Undrained Test on Saturated Cohesive Soil
The undrained test is carried out on undistributed sample of clay, silt and peat to
determine the strength of the natural ground. It is also carried out on remoulded
samples of clay to measure it sensitivity.
Mohr stress circles for undrained test on saturated cohesive soil

2. Undrained Test on Partly Saturated Cohesive
In the case of earth embankments, which are compacted at optimum water content, the
soil remains partly saturated and it is necessary to conduct undrained test to determine
the shear parameters of the soil. This test is also sometimes applied to undisturbed
samples of soil taken from existing rolled fills or trail sections.
Page 158
Mohr stress circles for undrained test on partly saturated Soil

3. Consolidated Undrained Test on Saturated Cohesive Soil
The consolidated undrained test is carried out on undisturbed sample of clay, silt and
pear, on remoulded sample of clay and silt, and on redeposited samples of cohensionless
soils such as sand and gravel. The consolidated-undrained tests are performed by two
methods:(i) The moulded specimens are first consolidated under the same cell pressure
and then sheared under undrained conditions with different cell pressure by increasing
the axial stress. (ii) The remoulded specimens are sheared under a cell pressure equal to
the consolidation pressure.
Consolidated Undrained tests on saturated clay

4. Consolidation Underained on Partly Saturated Cohesive Soil
Consolidated undrained test are required to determine the shear parameters of
undisturbed samples or of compacted sample of earth fill where the soil is partly
saturated. The test may also be conducted to examine the effect on C and of flooding
foundation strata and earth fill materials, by applying back pressure to the pore space to
ensure full saturation.
Page 159
Failure envelopes for drained test
Page 160
Part 3: Geotechnical Engineering

3.2 Foundation Engineering
Surface Investigation
Area ratio for sampler =
Inner clearance =
x 100%
Outer clearance =
x 100%
x 100%
Where, D2 is outer diameter of cutting edge.

D1: Inner diameter of cutting edge
D3: Inner diameter of sample tube
D4: Outer diameter of sample tube.
Area ratio should be as low as possible
Sounding tests are used to measure penetrative resistance.
For SPT, first 150mm settlement is taken as redundant
If N>15 in SPT, corrected Ne = N + (N 15)
In SPT, dilation correction is

Ne = N *
Where is effective overall under pressure.
In cone penetration method, resistance profile for first 8cm of penetration is recorded.
In electrical reactivity method, resistivity = 2D R

Where R = Resistance
D = Spacing between electrodes.
Earth Pressure
In active state, retaining wall moves away from the soil wedge.
Page 161
Active pressure =
vertical pressure
Where,
=
tan (
sin
sin
= Co-efficient of earth pressure
In passive state, retaining wall moves towards the soil wedge and resistance acts downward.
K P=
, = tan (
KP: Coefficient of earth pressure (passive) for C = 0 soil.

When the wall is at rest
K0=
K0: Coefficient of earth pressure at rest.
In no submerged condition pressure active, Pa = x x H2
In submerged condition, Pa =
x H2 + x
x H2
Back fill with uniform surcharge

Total active pressure
=
Where q is the surcharge
In code of surcharge, total active pressure =
Back fill with sloping surface

*
Ka = Cos
KP = Cos
Page 162
If back fill is submerged, P =
In case of cohesive backfill
where P1 = x Ka x r x H2
Pa = rH2 Cot22- 2C Cot H

PP = rH2 Tan22 + 2C tan
Where = (
In active case, cohesive soil should be able to withstand the depth of
Depth of tension crack =
angle =
tan .
tan .
- where is angle of indication of Pa and normal of wall.
Stability of Slopes
Types of Slopes
Infinite Slope
A representing the boundary surface of a semi infinite soil mass and having soil properties
uniform at every depth
Finite slope: A slope of limited extended
Factor of safety
Where
= Shear strength
=Shear stress acting on the soil
For cohesive soil & non cohesive soil generation formula for factor of safety is
FC =
If water table / seepage is not present.
For C = 0 (i.e., for cohesion loss soils)

FC =
If seepage is parallel to the slope

FC =
Page 163
If submergence in a certain portion of slope
If seepage is parallel to the slope

C
cos i sin i
tan
tan i
Again for cohesion less soils C= 0

=
tan
tan i
If the slope is submerged

=
cos i tan
cos i sin i
For cohesion less soils

=
tan
tan
i. e. , same as in dry state
If su mergence in a certain potential

Where
+ tan
*
tan
Z = Total height of slope

h = Height of slope above
i = Angle of slope
= Angle of internal friction
C = Cohesion of soil
Critical height
of any slope can be found by putting
for as applicable
and
in then the formula
E.g.: critical height of a submerged slope of cohesive soils

=
tan
Stability number =
tan
cos
= Sn
= FC
Where
is called the mobilized cohesion
Page 164
= Sn
Depth factor , Df =
Where,
FC =
H = Height of slope
D = Depth of soil between slope and hard strata.
for
= soil.
Where , x = Distance of centroid of slip circle from centre of rotation

r = Radius of slip circle.
For C -
soil.
FC =
Where N is sum of normal components of weight is with respect to tangent of slip circle T
is sum of tangent components of weight along slip circles.
Culman method assumes wedge / planar failure.
Swedish method assumes circular failure.
Types of Foundation
Raft footing
Allowable differential settlement = 65 to 100mm on clay.
On sand : 40 to 65mm.
Definitions
1. Bearing Capacity
The load or pressure developed under the foundation without introducing any damaging
movement in foundation and in the supported structure, is called bearing capacity of solid.
2. Gross Pressure Intensity
It is the total pressure at the base due to weight of the super structure
3. Net Pressure Intensity
It is defined as the different in intensities of the gross pressure after the construction of the
structure and the original over burden pressure
If D is the Depth of footing
q =q-=qrD
Page 165
4. Ultimate Bearing Capacity

It is the minimum gross pressure intensity at the base of foundation at which the soil fails in
shear.
5. Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnf)
It is the minimum net pressure intensity causing shear failure of soil
q =q +
6. Net Safe bearing Capacity
The net safe bearing capacity is the net ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety
F
q =
7. Safe bearing Capacity
The maximum pressure which the soil can carry safely without rest of shear failure is called
safe bearing capacity
q = q + rD =
+ rD
Types of failure of foundations
General shear failure occurs in stiff soils.
Local shear failure soil with single compressibility and sands.
Footings at very shallow depth in loose sand are susceptible to punching failure.
Angle of zone III in Terzaghi analysis is 450 with horizontal.
For a strip footing

qf = CNC +
Nq + 0.5 r BNr
For bearing capacity factor
=
and
depends only
a
2 cos (
Page 166
where a = e
=(
=
tan
2
(
cos
= passive earth pressure coefficient dependent on

are also given in standard tables
For qs = (
Where
=
) cot
Where
,
( .
. r
r )+
Terzaghiseqn for local shear failure.

2
(C = C) and tan
2
= tan
qu = CNC +
Nq` + r BNr`.
Guidelines for Local Shear Failure
Condition for Shear Failure
(i) Stress strain test (l- soil)
General shear failure low strain < %
Local shear failure strain of
to 2 %
(ii) Angle of shear resistance
>
, general shear failure
<2 , local shear failure
(iii)
Penetration test
: general shear failure
: local shear failure
(iv)Plate load test

Shape of the load settlement curve decides whether it is general shear failure or local
shear failure
(v) Density Index
I > 70, General shear failure
I < 20, Local shear failure
Page 167
or friction cohesive soil

qf = 1.3CNC + qnq + 0.3 NrBr for circular footing
For square footing, qf = 1.3 CNC + qNq + 0.4 rBNr
For rectangular footing, qf = 1.0 CNC*(
For local failure (or local shear).
)+ + qNq + 0.5 rBNr*
.2 +
Cn = C
Tan
= Tan
m.
Nq = Tan2(
NC = (Nq
Effect of water table on bearing capacity is taken by, RW1& RW2
qf = CNC + qNq x RW1 + 0.5 Nr x B x r2 x RW2.
RW1 = 0.5 *
RW2 = 0.5 *
Where
)r Tan .
Cot .
ZW1 = Depth of water table from surface or ground level.

ZW2 = Depth of water table from base of footing.
Max RW1& Max RW2 = 1
Effect of size of plate in settlement on granular. soil:

Where
=*
.
.
: Settlement of footing
: Settlement of plots.
For clayey soil
=* +
Total settlement of footing is

S = Si + SC + SS
Where, Instantaneous settlement, Si = *
+ x IwqB
Page 168
= Poison ratio
Es = Modulus of elasticity
Iw = 0.88 1.70, 0.88 for rigid circular footing and 1.70 for rigid rectangular footing.
B = Least dimension of footing.
SC = H x CC log10(
CC : 0.009 (WL 10)

L0 : Initial void ratio
C : Coefficient / correction factor depending upon geometry of footing and history of loading
on clay.
Es : *
CC = 0.007 (WL 10) for remoulded sample.

Pile Foundation
Pile driving is done by drop hammer, single acting hammer, double acting hammer and
vibratory hammer.
Dynamic formulae
Engineering news formulae
1. Drop hammer, Qa =
Where S : final set per blow.
C : 2.5 cm for drop hammer.
2. Single acting steam hammer
Qa =
3. Double acting steam hammer

Qa =
a = area of piston
p = pressure of steam.
Page 169
Hileys formulae
Qf =
nb =
if W > iP
nb =
+ if W < iP.
In case of submerged loose soil equitation may take place due to dynamic load.
Use of dynamic formulae for clay is meaningless.
Static formulae
Qmp = Rf + RP.
= As rf + Aprp.
rf: Average spin function
rp: Point function
As: Surface area
Ap: Point area.
For cohesive Clay

rf = C (or mC
rp = 9Cp
Qmp = mCAp + 9CpAp.
For non cohesive soil

rf =
Tan
rz
rp = 0.3 rBNrq [for circular]

rp = rBNrq [for rectangular]
In clayey soil, group efficiency of function piles may be less than sum of individual
efficiencies of pile.
In end bearing piles, group efficiency = n x individual efficiency

Where, n = number of piles.
Page 170
Converse labre formula.

g = 1 -
= Tan1( )
where, m: number of piles in a row
n: number of rows.
d: diameter of pile
s: spacing (C/C) between 2 piles.
Settlement of pile group in clay

=
logi(
where, H = height of clay strata

e = initial void ratio
One third height of pile will also contribute in load transfer.
Angle of load dispersion may be assumed to be 300.

Qu =Ap x NC x Cb + Aa + NC x Ca
Ca x As
Ca As.
Ap : Cross section area of pile stem at soil.
NC: Bearing capacity factor = 1
CP: Cohesion at tos of pile
Aa =
Ca` = Average cohesion of soil around underream drills.
As` = Surface area of cylinder curricumscriling under-reams.
Ca = Average cohesion of soil along pile stems.
Cu =
, where Du is dia. of underream, D is diameter of stem.
for clayey soil.
Page 171
Water Resource Engg
Part 4: Water Resource Engineering

4.1 Fluid Mechanics
Continuum Flow
Two factors which are important is determining the validity of continuum model.
(i) The distance between molecules
(ii) Elapsed time between collision
Knudsen Number: ( )
=
= Molecular mean free path
L = Characteristics length
(i) Continuum (
) No slip condition
(ii) Slip flow (
< n
)
(iii) Transition flow (
< n
)
(iv) Free molecular flow (Kn > 10)
Common temperature scale
F
C
C
Compressible and Incompressible Fluids
Compressible Fluid Variable density
Incompressible Fluid Constant density
Variation of viscosity with temperature
Liquids
Gases
Viscosity
Temperature
Page 172
Water Resource Engg
Rheelogical Diagram
Thixotropic
Ideal Plastic
Shear yield
stress stress
Non Newtonian (Pseduo plastic)

Newtonian
Dilatant
(Velocity gradient)
Ideal Fluid
Based on property of viscosity, fluids may be classified

(i) Ideal Fluid
(ii) Real fluid Shear stress are induced when fluid is in motion, which possesses viscosity
(iii)
Newtonain fluid Which follows (Newton law) e.g.; Air, water
(iv)Non-Newtonian fluid Which does not follows Newton law e.g.; Paints, Ink. Gel,
Emulsion
Flow Patterns
1. Stream line A line so that tangent at any point represents the velocity vector at a given
instant
2. Path line : Actual path traversed by a given fluid particle
3. Streak line : Locus of particles passed through a prescribed point
4. Time line : Set of fluid particles that form a line at a given instant
5. Dilatants fluids: Dynamic viscosity increases with rate of shear e.g. Butter, Printing ink
6. Pseudo plastic : Dynamic viscosity decreases as shear rate increases e.g. clay, Milk,
Cement, Colloidal solution
7. Plastic fluid : Begins to flow after reaching a yield value of shear stress
(
8. Thixotrope fluids : Dynamic viscosity decreases with time when shearing forces are
applied e.g. Jelly
9. Rhepectic: increases with time
10. Viscoelastic: Behaves like Newtonian fluid, but of shear stress changes suddenly it
behaves as a plastic
Surface Tension
Cohesion Enables liquid to resist tensile stress.
Adhesion Enables liquid to adhere to another body.
Liquid Fluid interfaces
Liquid gas interfaces: Free surface
Liquid-liquid (immiscible) interface
Capillary
Page 173
Water Resource Engg
1) Cohesion < adhesion liquids wets solids, rises at point of contact

2) Cohesion > adhesion liquid surface depress at point of contact
Capillary rise in water and capillary fall in mercury
Capillary rise (h)
Surface tension
Wetting angle
Specific wt. of liquid
r = Radius of tube
Pascals Law
All points in a connected body of a constant density fluid at rest are under the same pressure
if they are at same depth below liquid surface
Absolute and gauge Pressure
Gauge Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure
Vacuum = negative gauge

pressure
Absolute
pressure
Atmospheric
pressure
Absolute pressure
Absolute zero
Gauge pressure Positive if above atmospheric pressure

Negative if below atmospheric pressure
p
The atmospheric pressure head in 760 mn if Hg or 10.33 of water

Atmospheric pressure at sea level at 15 C is 1013N cm
Measurement of Pressure
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Barometer
Bourdon gauge
Pressure transducer
Piezometer column
Simple nanometer
Page 174
Water Resource Engg
For on a Horizontal Plane Area

F hA
Where
force on the plane area = volume of prism area
Location of forces on a horizontal (Centre of Pressure)
y
PA
hA
xp
Y p = x d A, X = y d A
Forces on a Inclined Surface
F
Ah
h=y+
Sin
y = Centre of gravity
Ig = Moment of interia about C.G
Force on vertical plane
doffed line
Force,
Page 175
Water Resource Engg
Forces on curved surface

Water Surface
dfy
df
dfx
B
F = Fx
Fy
Tan
f
force on vertical projection of the current area

= weight of liquid supported by the curved surface upto free surface of liquid
The direction of Fy will be taken in upward direction

Archimedes Principle: An immersed body is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of fluid
it displaces.
Buoyant Force > Gravity force object float.
The apparent wt of an object in a liquid is gravitational force (weight) minus the buoyant
force (w - FB)
Ship sinks until weight of water displaced by underwater volume is equal to weight of ship
If a body floats at surface of separation between two immiscible liquids
Then F
Where
v
,
v
volumes of parts of the body immersed in the liquids of density
G
B
Page 176
Water Resource Engg
Metacentre
M
Angle of heel
G
Z
Of angle too large, M moves off centre lines Metacentric height (G-M)
1) Determine size of righting / upsetting arm (For < s < 7)
2) Large GM > large righting arm (stiff)
3) Small GM > Small righting arm (tender)
Relationship between G and M
1) G under M : Ship is stable
2) G = M ship neutral
3) G over M : Ship unstable
Metacentre
stability curves
Plot Gz (Righting arm) v angle of heel

Ships G does not change as angle changes
Ships B always at centre of underwater portion of hull
Ships underwater portion of hull changes as heel angles changes
GZ changes as angle charges
( )
1.
2.
3.
4.
Time Period of Oscillation

T
K = Radius of gyrations
Page 177
Water Resource Engg
GM = Metacentric height
Liquid Jar subjected to uniform linear horizontal acceleration
a) Vertical Pressure distribution
P h
b) Horizontal pressure distribution in direction of accelerated motions
Tan
P
h and P
ax
hda
pda
h
P da
P da
Liquid jar subjected to uniform vertical acceleration
Upward acceleration
hda
h
Pda
h(
If the tank is accelerated downwards

P h(
)
If a = g then P =0 pressure will be atmospheric at all points
Acceleration of a fluid mars along a slope
(a) Acceleration up the slope
Tan
= Inclination of liquid surface with horizontal
(b) Acceleration down the slope
Tan =
Pressure variation along a stream line (i.e tangential direction)
+
=C
V = tangential velocity
Page 178
Water Resource Engg
ds
P + dp
Pressure variation in a radial direction
=P
Here V is a function of r.
Forced Vortex
Fluid is made to move in a curved path under the action of an external force
Rise in the level at the ends
falls in level at centre
P + dP
rP
dr
Free Vortex
V r = C i.e. product of velocity and radial distance constant

Ex Vortex motion of water in a shallow wash basin discharge through a central hole at
bottom
Steady and unsteady flow
Steady flow:( )
= 0, ( )
Unsteady flow
, ,
, ,
= 0, ( )
, ,
=0
Page 179
( )
, ( )
, ,
, ,
, ( )
Water Resource Engg
, ,
Uniform and Non-uniform flow

Uniform flow = ( ) = 0
Non uniform flow= ( )
Mach Number = Ma
Ma = V/C
It is a good indicator of whether or not compressibility affects are important
Ma < 0.3 : Incompressible
Ma < 1 : Subsonic
Ma = 1 : Sonic
Ma > 1 : Super sonic
Ma > 5 : Hyper sonic
Rotational and Irrotational flow
Rotational flow
Type of flow in which fluid particles while flowing along streamlines rotate about their own
axis
Irrotational flow
The fluid particles while flowing along streamlines do not rotate about their own that type of
flow
Acceleration field
a =
+u
+v
+w
In vector form
a =
D)V
+ (V
Local acceleration It is zero for steady flow

Advective acceleration u
+V
+w
It accounts for the effect on the fluid particle moving to a new location
Total derivative operator
is called material derivation
Vorticity and Rotationality
Vorticity vector is defined as the curl of velocity vector = x V

Vorticity is equal to twice the angular velocity of a fluid particles
=
Circulation: The line integral of the velocity around a closed contour is called circulation
Circulation = v cos ds
Continuity equation: The equation based on the principle of conservation of mars is called
continuity equations
For compressible flow
A V = A V
Page 180
Water Resource Engg
For Incompressible flow, =

A V =A V
ie
Velocity Potential
If is some function of x and y in two dimensional flow, such that
U= ,V= is called velocity potential function
Here u and v are the velocity components is x and y directions
Slope of equipotential line
Stream Function:
u
and V =
V = x
The different between the stream F values at two points gives the volumetric flow rate or
(Volumetric flow)
|
|
Flow net in Isotropic soil
Q = KH ( )
q = rate of flow or seepage per unit width (L T)
k = Hydraulic conductivity (L T)
N = No. of flow lines
N = No. of potential drops.
Flow through pipes
<
<
<
>
Turnbulent
Major losses
I. Loss of energy (or heads) due to friction
1. Darcy weisbach formula
Where f
f
(for laminar)
(for turbulent)
2. Chezys formula
v
CRs where s
h
L
II. Minor energy losses

1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
Page 181
Water Resource Engg
Where,
are velocities of section 1 and 2
2. Due to sudden contraction

[
(Lused if
not given )
Where, is the velocity at vena contracta of smaller pipe
3. Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe
v
h
g
4. At the exit
Where v is the velocity in the smaller pipe

5. Due to an obstruction in pipe
v
A
h
[
]
g c (A a)
A a projected areas of pipe and obstruction perpendicular to the direction of flow
6. Due to bend in pipe
v
h
coefficient of bend
g
7. For pipes connected in series
*
8. For pipes connected in parallel

h
h
h
f L V
f L V
f L V
ie
gd
gd
gd
Equivalent pipe
A pipe if suitable diameter so, that it has same head loss and length is equal to the sum of
different pipes connected.
Bernollis Theorem
This theorem states that
In a steady continues flow of a friction less incompressible fluid, the sum of the potential
head, the pressure head and the kinetic head in the same at all points.
Application of Bernoullis theorem (Flow measurement)
Measurement of flow rate ventuirmeter orifice meter
Measurement of velocity Pitot static tube
Page 182
Water Resource Engg
Eulers equation of motion

( )
( )
i.e. Total change in energy per unit mass is zero

The Venturi meter
Q=C
gh
C = Discharge coefficient
(for calculation purpose)
f(R )
A
V
P
A
V
P
Velocity at throat is assumed to be constant

Converging cone angle
Because of the cone and the graded reduction in the area, there is no vena-contract.
There will be no change in the in the result whether the venture meter is horizontal vertical
or inclined
Where, h It is the difference in level between two piezometer at 1 and 2 in venture meter.
The momentum equation
The net force acting on a fluid mars is equal to change in momentum of flow per unit time
in that direction
The orifice meter
The is kept 0.5 times the diameter of pipe generally though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8
times
[
Then
Here
)
(
) ]
for calculations
In this method, pressure loss is minimum
Page 183
Water Resource Engg
The Pitot tube
or, V
gy (theoretically)
V
C gy (practically)
Pitot tubes are called prandti tubes
Its readings for gases are extremely small
Force exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Pipe Bend
V sin
V
(1)
V cos
P A
F
F
P A
F = Q (V
V cos ) + P A - P A Cos
F = Q ( V Sin) - P A Sin
F = F
Fy , tan
Page 184
Water Resource Engg
Flow over a Rectangular Sharp Crested Weir or Notch

Water Surface
Nappe
Crestor
Z sill
Q = C g LH
If velocity of approach
A = C g L [(H ha)
ha ]
If there are end contractions
= C g (L
n H) [(H ha)
ha
Bazins Formula
m g LH
m
Flow over a triangular weir

Vnotch weir or triangular (V-notch)
Water surface
Q = C g tan H
If velocity of approach is to be taken into account
Q = C g tan [(H ha)
ha ]
Cipolletti weir (or Notch)
Slopping sides Horizontal to 4 vertical
Q/2 =
Q = 1.842 *(H
Time Required Empting A Reservoir with Rectangular Weir

Page 185
t=
Water Resource Engg
Criteria to Classify Weirs

1. Thin plate weir
H
B<
>
B
2. Narrow crested weir
H B
H
3. Broad crested weir
H B
H
Submerged Weir
[,
) *
Submergence Ratio
Proportional Weir or Sutroweir

A weir designed in such a shape for which
To design it
Boundary Layer Flow
In the boundary layer
tan
exist so extents shear stress.
But outside boundary layer
= 0, velocity is constant no. shear stress
Page 186
Water Resource Engg

Boundary layer
Tubulent
Laminar boundary
layer
E
Laminar sublayer
A
B
Leading edge
Re = 5 x
5x
Transistor zone
for laminar in plate

for turbulent
Laminar sublayer ( )
( )
=u
Displacement thickness ( *)
* (
) dy
Momentum thickness ()
= (
) dy
Energy thickness ( )
=
+dy
Drag force on a flat plate due to boundary layer
= V on karmar momentum integral equations

Fo
b dx
Local coefficient of drag C * =

Average coefficient of drag, C =
Effect of Pressure Gradient on Boundary layer separation
C
B
Pressure distribution
<0
>0
P min
< 0 due to increase in velocity The entire boundary layer move forward.
Page 187
Water Resource Engg
> 0 decrease of velocity

Location of separation point:
1. If ( )
is negative, flow has separated
2. If ( )
= 0, flow is on verge of separation
3. If ( )
is positive, the flow will not separate or flow will remains attached with
surface
Flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe
x 2rdx
R
(P+
x) r
P. r x r dx (P
n) r = 0
D
y
Velocity distribution
Shear stress
distribution
(a) Velocity distribution
[R
r ]
Umax = Uavg =
.R
=
)P
= 2.0
(b) Drop of pressure for a given length (L) of pipe
= h = 32
Page 188
Water Resource Engg
P - P = drop of pressure
Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel plates
(
y) n x
D
(P +
Px y
n) y x
1
x
x
Velocity distribution
U=-
[ty - y ]
Umax = -
Uavg = -
Umax
Uavg
Drop of pressure head for a given length
h =
Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machinery

Flow in Open Channels
Laminar Flow and Turbulent flow
Re
to
Laminar
Re > 2000
Turbulent.
Re
Transitional
to
Subcritical, Critical & Super Critical Flow

Fr = 1, Critical flow.
Page 189
Water Resource Engg
Fr > 1, Super critical flow.

Fr < 1, Sub critical flow.
Section Factor (Z)
Z = A D = ( )
D = Hydraulic depth.
To measure velocity distribution in a channel
(a) Pitot tube.
(b) Current meter.
- Cut Type
- Screw or Propeller type.
Velocity Distribution Curve Along A Vertical Line Of Channel Section

y
V0.2
d = 0.6
y0
V0.6 =Vavg
V0.8
..
Uniform Flow in Channels

A uniform flow will be developed if the resistance is balanced by gravity forces.
0
RS0
R = Hydraulic Radius.
So = Slope of channel Bottom.
Unsteady Uniform Flow is practically non existent.
Turbulent uniform flow is most encountered.
Uniform Flow Formulae

Chezy Formula
0 = v2
The Gangwillet Kutter Formula
Page 190
C=
(
*
Water Resource Engg
)
*
C=
Stickler formula
n=
Most economical Section or Most Efficient Section
1. Rectangular Channel Section
2. Trapezoidal channel section
y
Q
zy
zy
Top width
x (one of the slopping sides of channel)
R
Z
or
0.
3. Triangular channel section
y
Q
Page 191
Water Resource Engg
4. Most economical or most efficient circular channel section
A=
P
r (
Sin )
Bhy Chezys
AC RS
discharge is maximum when ( ) is maximum.

(
( )=
=0
80 (approx.)
By Mannings formula
will be maximum when ( ) is maximum.
200
8D
Conditions of Maximum When Velocity of Flow Through a Circular Channel Section

By Chezy
Mean velocity of flow maximum when (
) is maximum
Page 192

( )
Water Resource Engg
(approximately).
y = 0.81 D
R = 0.30D.
Open channel section for constant velocity at all depths of flow
For an ordinary channel section with an increase in depth of flow, the velocity is
considerably increased.
y = R loge x + (x
R )
y=0
y = R loge (x
x=R
C
x
R )
R log R
Q = AV = CA RS = KS
Where, K = CAR
K is known as Conveyance.
Q = AV = KS
Specific energy and specific energy curve

Specific energy, E = y +
E = EP + EK
y=E
S < Sc
Y > Yc
Upper Limb
Flow
depth
y(n)
y
yc
Lower Limb
v/pg
S> Sc, y < yc

E
Page 193
Water Resource Engg
yC (Critical depth):- Specific energy is minimum.

yC = ( )
For Rectangular section.
VC = y VC critical velocity.
Emin =
Critical flow condition

A
T
Critical Flow in Channel Sections of Other Shapes

(i)
Triangular channel section

yC = (
y
(ii)
)
E
Parabolic Channel Section

y
yC = (
(iii)
Trapezoidal channel section

( )=
(
(
)
)(
Some of the devices commonly used for measuring the discharge through channel based
on critical flow theory are
(i) Venture flume.
(ii) Standing wave flume.
(iii) Parshall flume.
Page 194
Water Resource Engg
Measuring Flumes
At critical state of flow the relationship between the depth of flow and discharge is
definite and is independent of the channel roughness and other uncontrollable factors.
Momentum Principle and Its Application
Whenever there is an unknown energy loss between any two sections under
consideration, the result is a change in the linear momentum of flow.
ZA
F=
F Specific momentum, specific force, force function or momentum function.
y2
y1 & y2 are sequent

depths or conjugate
depths
y0
y1
Energy equation contains a term for internal loss, where as the momentum equation
contains a term for external resistance.
Hydraulic Jumps
When a stroting flow (Fr > 1) meets a quiescent flow (Fr < 1).
Sequent depth
Rectangular sections.
[
8F ]
If Fr2 is very small. Then

Fr
Fr
This expression is valid only when Fr2 is very small and Fr <
Energy Loss
E = E1 E2
Page 195
E=
Water Resource Engg
*(
)
[
y y (y
)]
y )
Hydraulic jumps.
Gradually Valid Flow

Energy Equation for Gradually Varied Flow
Energy eqn for Gradually varied flow

1
y1
z1
Sw
hf
2
y2
S0
L
Patum
Z2
Kinetic Energy correction factor

Typically
With obstructions >
x=
Standard Step Method

if x > , section ( ) is downstream of ( )
if x < , Section ( ) is upstream of ( )
Types of Channel Slopes
A mild slope on which uniform flow is subcritical
A steep slope on which uniform flow is critical.
yn > yC mild slope
Page 196
Water Resource Engg
yn < yC Steep slope

yn = yC critical slope
Classification of Slopes Become
mild slope
S 0 < SC
steep slope
S 0 > SC
critical slope
S 0 = SC
horizontal slope S0 = 0
adverse slope S0 < 0
Fr
= S0
)
(
If mannings equation is used
If Chezys equation is used
( )
(
(
S0 > 0 Sustainabler
S0
Unsustainable
Zone 1
M1
NDL
y0
yc
= > 0.
y will increase in flow direction.
Page 197
as y y0
y
S f S0
Fr
Water Resource Engg
Sf
S0
Zone 2
yn > y > yc
NDL
CDL
y0
yc
Zone 3
yn > yc > y.
NDL
y0
CDL
yc
Bresses Method
Applicable only to wide rectangular channels.
Impact of Jet
Force exerted by the jet on a stationary flat vertical Plate:V
V
Plate
V
mass of fluid before striking plate, m
Fx
aV
av2
Page 198
Water Resource Engg
Force exerted by a jet on stationary inclined flat plate

V Sin
Fx
90
Fn
Then mass of water per striking the plate
aV
Force of jet in the direction normal to plate
Fn
(V Sin )
V Sin
Force of jet in the direction parallel to plate = 0.

Fx
av2 Sin2
Fy
av2 Sin2 Cos
Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Curved Plate

V Sin
V
N Cos
Fixed curved
plate
Leaving velocity in the direction of jet flow = V Cos (180 )

Fx
aV [V
Fy
aV [ V Sin ]
For
of jet
Fx
( V Cos ]
av (
V Cos
Cos )
av2 Sin
, i e when vane becomes semicircle, then outlet tips will be parallel to the direction
av2 (
Cos )
av2.
Page 199
Water Resource Engg
Jet Strikes The Curved Plate at One End Tangentially when Plate is Symmetrical
V
V Cos
V Sin
Fy
Fx
V Sin
V
V Sin
Fx
av [v cos ) ]
av2 Cos
Fy
av [v sin v sin ]
Jet Strikes the Curved Plate at One End Tangentially When the Plate is Unsymmetrical
V
1
2
vix
V Cos 1, viy
V Sin 1 ,
vox = v Cos 2, voy = v Cos 2,

Fx
av [v cos
Fy
av [ v Sin
( v cos )]
( v Sin )]
av [Cos
Cos ]
av [Sin
Sin ]
Page 200
Water Resource Engg
Force Exerted by a Jet on a Hinged Plate
A1
B
Fn
Two forces are acting on the plate.

1. Force due to jet of water, normal to plate
Fn
av2 Sin `
2. Weight of plate, W.
Moment of force Fn about hinge = Fn x 0B.
av2 Sin (90 0) x 0B.
av2 Cos x
Moment of weight W, about hinge
av2 x
W x A Sin
e av x A = eav2 x
W x Sin
w x Sin
Sin
Force Exerted by a Jet On Flat Plate Moving with Uniform Velocity
(v u)
(v u)
Mass of water striking the plate per sec
a (V u)
[Initial final]
Fx
a (V u) [(V u) 0]
Page 201
Water Resource Engg
a (V u)2
As the plate is moving, so the work will be done by jet on plate.
For the stationary plate, the work done is zero.
Work done = Fx. u
au (V u)2
Forces on the Inclined Plate Moving in The Direction of Jet
(v u)
Fx
90
Fn
(v u)
Mass of water striking per second

Fn
a(V u).
a (V u) [(V u) Sin 0]
a (V u)2 Sin
Fx = Fn Sin (90 )
a(V u)2 Sin2
Fy = Fn Sin (90 )
a (V u) Sin Cos
Work done = Fx.u.
Force On the Curved Plate Moving In Direction of Jet
(V u)
(V u) Sin
(V u) Cos
V
Page 202
Fx
Water Resource Engg
a (V u) [(V u) (v u) Cos ]
a (V u)2 [
Cos ]
Work done = Fx.u.

au(V u)2 [
Cos ]
K0E0 per second of jet

= aV3
Efficiency of jet n =
=
) (
(v
u) (
Cos )
For efficiency to be maximum

= 0 V = u and V = 34
(i)
When u = V, W.D. Per second Hence n = 0.
(ii)
When u = V , n max =
=
( ) (
Cos )
Cos2
For semi circular vane,

n max =
= 0.597 = 60%.
Curved Vanes on Wheel

Mass of jet striking vane
aV
V
Force on the jet
aV (V u) [
u
aV [(V u) ((V u) Cos )]
Cos ]
Work done by the jet on plate per second = Fx u = eaV (V u) [

K0 E0 per second of jet =
Cos ] u
av3
Efficiency of jet,
Page 203
n=
(V
)(
Water Resource Engg
u)(
Cos )
For efficiency to be maximum

V = 2u.
=0
Hence,
nmax =
= (
n
(
(
)
)
Cos )
Cos )
(
(i)
For
Cos )
0
i.e. for semicircular vane
nmax = 0.50 = 50.

(ii)
For
, nmax = x 2 = 1 or 100%
Force Exerted By a Jet Of Water On An Un Symmetrical Moving Curved Vane
vw
u2
V
v2
v1
u1
Note
(i ) Angles are measured from negative direction of motion for turbines and positive
direction of motion
for pumps.
Page 204
Water Resource Engg
(ii) Angles measuring anti-clock wise direction are taken as positive and these in
clockwise are
negative.
As the jet strikes tangentially, the loss of energy due to impact of jet will be zero.
Effective velocity of jet at (1) = V1 u = Vr1
If the vane is smooth u1 = u2 = u & Vr1 = Vr2
(i)
For <
Vr2 Cos
(u + V
Fx = ea V [(V
u)
= ea V [V
(ii)
For
(iii)
{ (u
(u
a V [(V
u)
aV [(V
a V [
In general, Fx
Work done
)}]
as V
( u)]
For = 900, V Cos = (u

Fx
V ]
V Cos
Fx
will be positive
u){ (u
will be positive.
aV V
V ) as V will be negative.
V )}]
V ]
a V [
V ]
au V [V
V ]
Change in K.E. of jet issued = * Pa V (V )

=
Efficiency,
(
(
)
)
(V u
=
Pa (V ) +
V u )
(V
V )
Rapidly Varied Flow

Rapidly varied flow has vary pronounced curvature of steam lines.
Separation zone can be one or here.
Classification of star hydraulic jump
Page 205
Water Resource Engg
1) Pre jump F1 < 1.0

2) Undular jump 1.0 < F1 < 1.7
Sequent depth ratio is very small,
3) Weak jump 1.7 < F1 < 2.5,
=0
is about 5%
4) Oscillating jump 2.5 < F1 < 4.5

= 4.5%
5) Steady jump 4.5 < F1 < 9.0
Ranges from 45% to 70%
6) Strong or choppy jump F1 > 9.0
> 70%
The pressures at the toe of the jump at d at the end of the jump fellow hydraulic pressure
distribution.
Velocity profile in the jump in Rectangular Channel
Reverse flow
xx
x
x
Forward flow
xx
x
yr
x y
1
x
maximum velocity
un
Boundary Layer
Region
8
Efficiency
The ratio of the specific energy after the jump to that before the jump is defined as the
efficiency of jump.
=
)
(
Page 206
Water Resource Engg
Turbines
Fluid Machines - Hydraulic Energy into mechanical energy.
Power generated by turbine, P
H Nm S
Water horse power to the turbine

W.H.R =
metric H.P
= 13.33QH mHP.
= 13.33 QH x 0.736
= 9.8QH [KW]
Types of Efficiencies
1. Leakage or volumetric efficiency
2. Hydraulic efficiency.
3. Mechanical efficiency
4. Overall efficiency
1. Leakage or Volumetric efficiency
v =
2. Hydraulic Efficiency
m =
m =
3. Mechanical Efficiency
m =
4. Overall Efficiency
O
m n v
Classification of Turbines
Page 207
Name
Pelton
Wheel
Francis
Turbine
Type
Type of
Energy
Impulse
Kinetic
Reaction
Turbine
Kinetic +
pressure.
Head
Discharge
Water Resource Engg
Direction of
flow
Specific Speed
High head > Low

250 to 1000
m
Tangential
to Runner
Low < 35
Simple 35 60
multiple jet
Medium
60m
150m
Radial flow
Medium 60 to
300
Medium
to
10W < 30 m
Mixed flow
High
Axial flow
High 300 to
1000
Pelton Wheel
Breaking Jet: To stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the
jet of water on the back of bucket with which the rotation of the runner is reserved. This jet
is called as Breaking jet.
Working Properties of Pelton wheel (Turbines)
1. Ideal velocity or theoretical velocity of jet is called sprouting velocity = gH
Actual velocity of jet V = CV gH
CV = 0.97 to 0.99
2. The maximum velocity of wheel
u = 0.5V
in actual practice
u = 0.46V
= 0.46 x 0.98 gH = 0.45 gH
= Ku gH
Here Ku
to 0.47.
3. Least diameter of jet,

d=[
4. Mean diameter of pelton wheel is called pitch dia
Page 208
Water Resource Engg
u=
(
D=
5. Jet Ratio = =
m
to
generally m = 12
6. No. of Buckets = ( ) + 15 or 5.4( )
7. Angle of deflected jet,
to 1700.
Cut in the bucket is provided so that the bucket exactly opposite the jet gets full jet
striking on it and is not intercepted by the lower portion of bucket that follows.
Velocity triangle of Pelton wheel
V1
Vr
Inlet Velocity triangle
V 1 = VW
u
(V
u)
Page 209
Water Resource Engg
Outer Velocity Trainable

V
V2
u2 = u
Fx
u2 = u
V
V negative
(V
V2
0
V
V
u2 = u
V2
V
0,
V +ve
V Cos )
Work Done = Fx u
u (V
u)(
u)(
Cos )
(V
u=
Cos )
Hence, Pmax = (
Cos )
Hydraulic efficiency, h =
)(
=2
)(
Cos )
=
Mechanical efficiency, m =
=
)(
Overall efficiency
h x m
for Pelton wheel

m
99%
h 8 90%
Page 210
Water Resource Engg
Synchronous Speed
The turbine should also run at constant speed N at all so adding conditions and turbines are
designed for this speed.
f=
f = 50 N =
P = No. of pairs of poles for generator.
Some other types of Impulse Turbine
(i) Double overhung pelton wheel turbine
Two pelton wheels are provided on a single shaft for high speed or greater power.
(ii) Multiple jet pelton turbine
The maximum number of jet so far used in some larger units is six.
The power of such wheel will be (n x P) where n is the number of jets and P is power due
to single jet.
Reaction Turbines
(i)
Radially outward flow reaction turbine
(ii) Radially inward flow reaction turbine.

(iii) Mixed flow reaction turbine: Similar to inward flow reaction turbine. The direction of
water is turned from radial at exit to axial at outlet.
(iv) Axial flow reach turbine: Water flows parallel to axis of rotation. The lower end of the
shaft is made larger to form the boss or the hub.
When the vanes are composite with boss the turbine is called Propeller turbine
When the vanes are adjustable the turbine is called a Kaplan Turbine.
Design of Francis Turbine Runner
(i)
Assume suitable values of H (8 to
(ii)
Obtain Q from P =
%)
O (80 to 90%).
( W)
Or
(HP)
Page 211
Water Resource Engg
(iii) Ratio of Runner width to runner diameter us disproved by n which varies from
0.45
to
(iv) Flow Ratio,
(v)
or V
gh
to
The area at inlet

runner.
V =
D1b1K1 assume, K1 = 0.95, K1 = Space occupied by the thickness of
(vi) u1 = gh
= 0.60 to 0.9, = Speed Ratio.
u1 =
(vii) Assume hydraulic efficiency
for Radial flow, H =
(viii) Guide blade angle at inlet - , the vane angle at inlet,
tan
Tan
(ix) For flow to be radial at exit of vanes,

tan =
Run Away Speed

When external load on the turbine drops to zero and if governing system also fails, then turbine
runner will race up and will attain.
This limiting speed of runner is called Runaway speed.
Pelton Turbine = 1.8 to 1.9 times normal speed.
Francis Turbine = 2 to 2.2 times normal speed.
Kaplas Turbine = 2.5 to 3.0 times normal speed.
Page 212
Water Resource Engg
Unit & quantities

1.
Unit speed, Nu =
2.
Unit discharge, Qu =
3.
Unit power, Pu =
Specific speed of a Turbine (NS)

The specific speed of a turbine is the speed at which the turbine will run when developing unit
power under a unit head.
NS =
Performance of Turbine
(i) Performance under unit head
Qu =
Pu =
Nu =
(ii) Performance of turbine of same type

Unit turbine which is a turbine having the runner diameter of 1m and operating wider a
head of 1m.
uu =
Nu = N
Similarly, Qu =
and Pu =
(iii) Performance of turbine of different types

Here an imaginary turbine called specific turbine is defined. This is a turbine which is
identical in shape, geometrical proportion, blade angle and gale opening etc. as actual
turbine but reduced to a size that Develop HP under unit head
NS =
Model Testing of Turbines

P = f1 (P, , , g, H, D, N)
Since velocity is very high, Re will be very large so that effect of viscosity can be ignored.
Page 213
Water Resource Engg
P = f2 (, , g, H, D, N)
= Flow or discharge number.
= Head number.
= Power Number.
Eliminated from head number and power number.
N = Non dimensional specific speed or shape number.
(
(
or (
) (
(
)
Cavitation in Turbines
Thomas cavitation Factor,
Ha = Atmospheric pressure head.

H = Vapour pressure head.
H = Section pressure head.
Rotodynamic Pumps
Pumps : Convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Rotodynamic pumps: The rotodynamic pumps increase the energy of fluid due to kinetic
energy, pressure
energy & centrifugal action.
The rotodynamic pumps can be

Page 214
(i)
Centrifugal (or radial) pumps.
(ii)
Propeller (or axial) pumps.
Water Resource Engg
(iii) Mixed flow pumps.

positive displacement pumps
(i)
Reciprocating type.
(ii)
Rotary type.
Suction: The pressure at inlet to the pump is generally suction or negative pressure and its value
is limited to avoid cavitations.
To reduce axial thrust, the suction is often branched into two parts and liquid is allowed to
center from both sides of impeller, pump is then called double suction pump.
(i) Static head (h)
h=hs + hd
V2/2g
hs
hd
H
h
hf
(ii) Friction head (hf)

hf = hfd + hfs
hfd = friction head in delivery
hfs = friction head in section.
(iii)Total Head(H)
H = h + hf +
(iv) Manometric head (Hm)
It is the head against which a pump in to work.
Hm = Hmd Hms
Page 215
Hs + Hms +
0 + Hmd +
= hd +
Hmd = hd +
Hm = hd +
= hd + h d
hd
(1)
h (c
hd
hd
hs
=h+h
Water Resource Engg
D)
(2)
hs
h
H
Note: While H is total energy, Hm is pressure energy only.
Efficiencies
(i) Manometric efficiency mo
mo=
x 100
(ii) Mechanical efficiency m

It is the ratio of available head at impulse to the energy given to impeller by the prime
moves.
Its values ranges from 95 to 98%
(iii)Volumetric efficiency v
v = (
) x 100
Where q is the leakage discharge.

v is about 97 98%
(iv) Overall efficiency O
O =
[In a dimensional form]
Pumps in series (multistage) and in parallel

(i) If the head to be developed is higher
Here two or more impeller is series. Such pumps are called multistage pumps.
Page 216
Water Resource Engg
In such a case the total head developed H is the sum of heads developed by individual
impellers Hi
H=
Where n is the number of impellers

(ii) If discharge regiment is large
When two or more pumps is parallel if Qi is the discharge is individual pump the total
discharge will be
Q=
Reciprocating Pumps
Main Parts of a Reciprocating Pump
Discharge through a Reciprocating Pump

Discharge of the pump per second,
Q = Discharge in one revolution x No. of revolution per second.
=
Weight of water delivered per second.
W
xgx
Work done by Reciprocating Pump
Page 217
Water Resource Engg
Work done per second = weight of water lifted per second x total height through which
water is lifted.
= W x (hs + hd)
Where (hs + hd) = Total height through which water is lifted.74
Weight, W
W=
Work done per second =
(hs + hd)
Power required to drive the pump in KW.

P=
(
Work done by simple acting reciprocating pump

Q=
Work done by double acting reciprocating pump
Q=
Slip of reciprocating pump
Slip = Qth Qact
Percentage slip =
=(
)x
x
= (1 Cd) x 100
Where Cd = coefficient of discharge (
C )
Page 218
Water Resource Engg
4.2 Hydrology
Hydrology deals with the occurrence distribution and movement of the water in earth, including
that in atmosphere and below the surface of earth
The hydrological cycle
Run off : The portion of HYDROLOGY precipitation which by a variety of paths above and
below the surface of earth reaches the stream channel.
The quantities of water going through various individual paths of the hydrological cycle can
be described by continuity equation known as water budget equation on hydrological
equation.
Water budget equation for a catchment/storage mass inflow mass outflow = change in mass
storage
PRGET
S Change in storage.
The area of land drawing into a stream or a water course at a given location is known as
catchment area / drainage area / drainage basin / watershed.
Infiltration does not occur in water budget as infiltration within a low to runoff purpose is a
fine to the ground water system.
Runoff co-efficient =
The average duration of a particle of water to pass through, a phase of the hydrological cycle
is known as residence time of that phase.
Page 219
Water Resource Engg
Precipitation denotes all forms of water that router that earth from the atmosphere. Eg.,
rainfall, hail, frost and dew
Forms of Precipitation
1. Rain 0.5 mm < drops size < 6 min
Light rain intensity 0 2.5 mm/hour
Moderate rain - intensity 2.5 7.5 mm/hour
Heavy rain - intensity > 7.5 mm/hour
When the rain fall exceeds 2.5 mm, the day is called a raining day
2. Snow consists of ice crystal average density 0.1 g/cm3
3. Drizzle fine sprinkles of drop size < 0.5 mm and intensity < 1mm/h
4. Glaze when rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold grounded at around
. The
water drops freeze form ice-coating which is called glaze
5. Sleet frozen rain drops formed when rain falls through air at subfreezing temperature
6. Hail lumps of ice with size > 8mm formed due to vertical movement of air current at
sub freezing temperature
Index of Wetness
Rainfall in a given
year at a given place
Average annual rainfall of
that place
60% index of wetness means rain deficiency of 40%
30 to 40% deficiency large deficiency

45 to 60% deficiency serious deficiency
>60% deficiency disastrous deficiency
Aridity index
An index used to define deficiency
AI
PET AET
PET
PET: Potential evapotranspiration

AET: Actual evapotranspiration (Amount of water consumed by the plant under existing
conditions)
Front Interface between two distinct air masses
Cyclone Large low phrase reign with wind when winds anticlockwise in northern
hemisphere pressure increases outwards.
Anti Cyclone Wind clockwise in northern.
Southwest monsoon (July September)
Summer (pre monsoon) (Mar May)
Page 220
Water Resource Engg
Post monsoon (Oct Mar).

Winter season (Dec Feb)
Non recording rain gauges: Symons gauge follows IS 4986 1968
Recording Gauge :Tipping Bucket type gives data on intensity of rainfall
Weighing Bucket type mass curve of rainfall.
Natural Sypson type (flow type) (IS: 5235 1969) Yelemeteroy Rain Gauges.
N=( )
Optimal number of stations
= Allowable degree of emos in estimate of mean rainfall
Cv = Coefficient of variation of rainfall values at existing m stations.
Cv =
P=
(P
m
)
P
( P )
Normal Rainfall: Is the average value of rainfall at a particular date, month or year over a
specified 30 year period.
If normal annual precipitation at various stations are within
arithmetic average periods.
Pn = [P1 + P2 + P3
% of normal annual at station x
Pn]
Else, normal ratio method

Pn =
Page 221
Water Resource Engg
Evapotranspiration
Formula for Evapotranspiration
1. Lake Evaporation : c
pan evaporation
pan coefficient
0.8 for ISI pan
0.7 for class A pan
2. Empirical formulae
Meyers formulae
e )*
k (e
E
e
e
v
k
Evaporation in mm/day
Saturated vapour pressure of air in mm of fly
Actual vapour pressure of air in mm of fly
Monthly mean wind velocity in km/h at about g about the ground
Coeffcient
0.36 (for large deep water)

0.50 (for small & shallow waters)
( )
Where v
is the velocity of air at a height h
Formulae for Evapotranspiration penmanns equation

AH
A
PET
Where
PET
Potential evaoptranspiration in mm/day
Slope of saturation vapour pressure
Temperature curve at the mean air temperature in mm of mercury per

Net radiation in mm of evaporable water per day
Psychrometric constant = 0.49 mm of mercury C.
Infiltration
Variation of infiltration capacity
with time
Page 222
Water Resource Engg
Cumulative infiltration capacity

f (t)dt
Hortons equation of infiltration

f
(f
f )
for
Infiltration capacity at any time t from the start of rainfall
f ,f
Infiltration capacity at t
and t
f is also called constant rate or ultimate infiltration capacity
Hydrograph
Page 223
Water Resource Engg
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rising limb AB
The crest segment BC
Falling limb CD
Lag time (T ): The time interval from the centre of mass of rainfall to the centre of mass of
hydrograph
5. T Time base
Factors Affecting Runoff
1. Characteristics of precipitation
A. Type of precipitation. E.g. rain snow etc..
B. Rain intensity
C. Duration of rainfall
D. Rainfall distribution
E. Soil moisture deficiency
F. Direction of prevailing storm
2. Characteristics of catchment
A. Shape Fan shaped catchments gives high peak and narrow hydrographs.
B. Size Peak discharge
where A is the area of catchment and n is a constant

. The time base for larger catchments will be larger.
C. Slope steeper slope, large
D. Drainage density Ratio of total channel length to the total drainage area
Larger drainage density results in pronounced peak discharge
E. Land use Vegetable cover reduces the peak flow
Snyders Method of Synthetic Hydrograph
(
1.
Where,
)
Basin log in hours
Basin length measure along the water course from the basin divide to the gauging
station in km.
Distance along the main water course from the gauging station to a point opposite
to the water centroid in km
A regional constant representing watershed slope and storage effects.
Modified Equation (Linsteys Equation)
(
Where,
and n are basin constants
Basin slope
Page 224
Standard duration
Water Resource Engg
hours of effective rain fall
Peak discharge of a unit hydrograph of standard duration

8c A
t
Where
A
Catchment area in km
A regional constant
If a non-standard rainfall duration
Modified basin lag
Modified peak discharge

8
Time base
(
is adopted instead of
, then
Width of unit hydrograph at 50% peak discharge

8
Width of 75% of
Where
Page 225
Water Resource Engg
4.3 Irrigation
Irrigation may be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land, in
accordance with the crop requirements.
Types of Irrigation
1. Surface irrigation
2. Sub-surface irrigation
1. Surface irrigation
a) Flow irrigation In which the water is supplied from a higher level to a lower level by
the action of gravity alone.
b) Lift irrigation If water is lifted up by external power input such as pumps and then
supplied
2. Sub-surface irrigation
a) Natural sub-irrigation Due to leakage from channels etc.
b) Artificial sub-irrigation When a system of open jointed drains is artificially laid below
the soil, the sub-surface irrigation is called artificial sub-irrigation
1. Free or Ordering Flooding
Also called wild flooding
Suitable for steep land
Sub sidy ditches are generally spaced at 20 to 50 meters.
Initial cost of land preparation is low and labour requirement are very usually high.
2. Border Flooding: In this method, the land is divided into a number of strips, separated by low
levees called borders.
The land areas confined in each strip of the order of 10 to 20 meters in width and 100 to
400 meters in length.
log (
)
Q = Discharge through supply ditch
y = Depth of water flowing over border strip
f = Rate of infiltration of soil
A = Area of land strip to be irrigated.
t = Time required to cover the given area
Page 226
Water Resource Engg
Supply
Channel
Area dA
covered
With
water in
time Df
Area A Covered
with water in
time t
Border
Strip
3. Check Flooding
Vertical interval of about 5 to 10 cm
The confined plot areas varies from 0.2 to 0.8 hectare
This method is suitable for more permeable soils as well as for less permeable soils.
Coenings
Ditch
Levees
along the
coenings
Connecting
Leaves
4. Basin flooding: This method is a special type of check flooding and is adopted specially for
orchard tress.
Suesidiary
Oitches
Enter A water from

bank hole or by a hose
syphon
Main Ditch
TREES
Basing
5. Furrow Irrigation method

Furrows vary from 8 to 30 cm deep and may be as much as 400 meters long.
Deep furrows are widely used for row crops.
Small shallow furrows called corrugations
Page 227
Forrow
Or Field
50WN
Crop
Water Resource Engg
50WN
Crop
6. Sprinkler Irrigation method

Water is applied to the soil is form of a spray through a network of pipes and pumps.
Used for all types of soil and for widely different topographies & slopes.
This is very costly method.
The conditions favoring the adoption of this method
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Topography is irregular
Gradient is steeper.
Soil is Excessively permeable
Seasonal water requirement is low
When the water is available with difficulty
Types
1. Permanent System piper are permanent buried
2. Semi permanent system not permanent
3. Portable system.
In semi-permanent system, the main lines are buried in ground, while laterals are
portable.
In portable System: The mains as well as laterals are portable.
Advantages of sprinkler irrigation
(i) Optimum quantity of water is used in this method.
(ii) Land leveling is not required.
(iii)
Avoid surface runoff.
(iv)Upto 80% efficiency can be achieved.
(v) Fertilizers can be uniformly applied, because they are mixed with irrigation water itself.
Limitations
(i)
(ii)
High winds may distort sprinkler pattern.

In areas of high temperature and high wind velocity, considerable evaporation lasses of
water may takes place.
Page 228
Water Resource Engg
(iii) They are not suited to crops requiring frequent and larger depth of irrigation, such as
paddy.
(iv) Initial cost is very high.
(v) It requires larger electrical power.
(vi) Constant supply of water is requires.
(vii) Heavy soil with poor intake cannot be irrigated efficiently.
Drip irrigation method: also called Trickle Irrigation
Latest field irrigation technique.

In this method water is slowly and directly applied to the root zone of plants thereby
minimizing the
losses by evaporation & percolation.
This system involves lying of a system of head, mains, sub mains, laterals and drop
nozzles.
Water oozes out of there small drip nozzles uniformly and at a very small rate, directly
into the plant roots area.
The head consists of a pump to lift water, so as to produce the desired pressure of about
2.5 atmospheres.
This method is however, being used for small nurseries, orchard, or gardens.
Crop Period or Base Period

The time between the first watering to its last watering
Duty and Delta of a crop
a) Duty: Area of land irrigation for full growth of a given crop by supply of a unit
discharge of water continuously during the entire base period of that crop.
b) Delta: The total depth of water (in cm) required by a crop to came to mutant
Relation between duty and delta
=
cm
Where delta (cm)
D Duty (ha/cumec)
B Base period (days)
Factors on which duty depends

1. Type of crop : Duty will be less for a crop requiring more water and vice versa
2. Climate and season: duty includes the water lost in evaporation and percolation, so duty
will be more in rainy season than in summer
3. Type of soil: Less for sandy soil, due to percolation
4. Efficiency of cultivation method: less for Less efficient cultivation method
Crop seasons and Indian agriculture

1. Rabi: 1st October to 31st march (wheat, barley, gram, linseed, mustard etc)
2. Kharif: 1st April to 30th September (Rice, Bajra, Jowar, Maize, Cotton, etc..)
Paleo irrigation: First watering to crops before
Kar watering : First watering
Page 229
Water Resource Engg
Irrigation Efficiencies
1. Efficiency of water conveyance ( ) =
x 100
Where, W = water delivered to the farm

W water delivered from the river or reserves
2. Efficiency of water application ( ) =
x 100
Where , W = water stored in the root zone during the irrigation
3. Efficiency of water storage ( ) =
x 100
Where, W as above
W = water needed in the root zone, prior to irrigation
4. Efficiency of water use ( ) =
x
Where, W =water used bentically or consumptively
W = water delivered
5. Water distribution efficiency ( )
=(
) x 100
D mean depth of water stored during irrigation
D = average of the absolute values of deviations from the mean
Consumptive Irrigation Requirement (CIR)
Amount of irrigation water required in order to meet the evapotranspiration needs of the
crop during its full growth
CIR Consumptive use effective rainfall
Net irrigation Requirements (NIR)
Amount of water required to meet the evapotranspiration need of the crop as well as
other needs, such as leaching
So, NIR = CIR + water lost as percolation in satisfying other needs, such as leaching
Soil- Moisture- Irrigation Relationship
Soil zone or root zone

Soil Moisture
W.T
Intermediate zone
Capillary zone
Ground water
Impervious strata
Moisture content (m.c)
Field capacity moisture

content
Optimum m.c
Available m.c or capillary water
Non available m.c or

hygroscopic water
Waiting point m.c
Time
1. Field capacity: The water which cant be easily drained by gravity So, field capacity is
the water content of a soil after tree gravity drainage has take place
Field capacity consists of two parts.
a) Capillary water: Water attached to the soil by surface tension against gravity and can
be extracted by plant by the action of capillarity
Page 230
Water Resource Engg
b) Hygroscopic water: The water attached to the soil by chemical bonds and is not
available to plants
Depth of water stored in the root zone will fill the soil upto field capacity
= xdxF
Where,
F = Field capacity m.c

D = Depth of root zone
r = Unit wt of water
r = Dry unit wt of soil
Permanent wilting point: The stage at which plant can longer extract sufficient water for
its growth and wilts up
Readily available moisture: That portion of available moisture which is most easily
extracted by the plants and is approximately 75 to 80% of the available moisture
Crop ratio =
Gross command area (GCA)
Total area lying between drainage boundaries which can be commended by a canal
system
Culturable command area (CCA)
The area on which corps can be grown satisfactorily
CCA = GCA unculturable area
Sediment transport and design of irrigation channels

Bed Formation (Practical aspect)
The channel bed may be distorted into various shapes by moving water, depending upon
the discharge or the velocity of water.
There will be different shape as the velocity is increasing.
When the velocity is gradually increased, then first of all a stage is reached, when the
sediment load comes just at point of motion. This stage is known as threshold stage of
motion.
1. After further increase in velocity after threshold stage of motion saw tooth ripples
saw tooth ripples.
2. After further increase in velocity after saw tooth ripples Dunes with ripples.
Ripples do not occur if the size of the bed particle is coarser than 0.6 m.
3. After Dunes with Ripples Dunes.
Flow condition is subcritical is Dunes & Dunes with Ripple.
Page 231
Water Resource Engg
4. Dunes Flat surface.
5. Further increase in velocity, results in formation of sand caves in association with

surface waves
6. As the velocity further increased so Froude no. F>1 flow is supercritical and the surface
waves become so steep that they break intermittently and move stream and move up
stream, although the sediment particles keep on moving down stream only.
Direction of movement of bed forms in this regime is opposite to that of dunes.
Average unit attractive force on the bed of a channel Z = r Rs

On the sides average Z = 0.75 r Rs
Where, R = (
)
S = Channel bed slope
Design of stable channels

1. ennedys Theory The sediments in the channel are supported by eddies. If the velocity
is sufficient to generate these eddies, silting will be avoided, This critical velocity V =
C y
Where C and C are constants depending upon silt charge
C = 0.55, C = 0.64
V = 0.55 y
Page 232
Water Resource Engg
Lateral a factor depending upon the type of soil was introduced, called critical
velocity ratio (CVR)
Hence, V
my
m CVR
Design Procedures
1) Calculate critical velocity V
2) Determine dimensions of the channel section
3) Calculate actual velocity by using any of the following formula
i)
utters Formula V
ii) Minnings Formula V

iii) Chezys Formula V
2.
+ Rs
C RS
Laceys Theory
He introduced the concept of initial regime and final regime (true regime) and said that a
channel which is under initial regime is not a channel in true regime. He is also argued
that eddies are produced from sides also and not only from bottom
Design Produced For Laceys Theory

1. Calculate velocity from V = (
(m/s)
Where, f = Silt factor = 1.76 D

Dmm = Average particle size in mm
G = Discharge in cumecs
2. Find hydraulic mean depth (R)
R= ( )
Laceys regime scour depth
R = 1.35 ( )
Where q = discharge per unit width
3. Compute are of the channel section
A=
4. Compute wetted perimeter: P = 4.75
5. Determine slope :- S =
Diversion head works
Constructed across a canal to divert the water, e.g. weir and barrages
Layout of a diversion head works
Page 233
Guide
bank
Marginal bund
joined to high contours
River flow
Divide
roes
Off-taking canal
Water Resource Engg
Under sluice
portion
Normal weir portion i.e
weir proper
Weir divided into bays

with piers
Fish ladder
Types of weir
i) Masonry weir with vertical drop
ii) Rock-fill weirs sloping aprons
iii) Concrete weir sloping glacis (modern weir)
River Training Works

These are required near the weir site in order to ensure a smooth and axial flow of water
and thus to prevent the river from outflanking
The river training works required on a canal head works
i) Guide banks
ii) Marginal bunds
iii) Spurs or groyne
Marginal bunds are provided on the upper side of the works in order to protect the area
from submergence due to rise in FSL
Canal Head Regulator

Provided at the head of the off taking canal to control the flow and hence is provided
with gates
Functions of Head Regulator
i) Regulates the supply of water entering the canal
ii) Control the entry of silt in the canal
iii) Prevents the river floods from entering the canal.
Silt control Devices

a) Silt excluders constructed on the bed of the river, upstream of the canal head
regular. It removes the silt before entering the off talking canal.
b) Silt extractor silt ejector:
Page 234
Water Resource Engg
Extracts the silt, already entered into the off taking canal and is d/s of the head
regulator
Theories of seepage and design of weirs and barrages
Failure of hydraulic structure, founded on pervious foundation
a) By piping (undermining)
b) By uplift : Lifting or cracking of the concrete or masonry floor due to seepages
pressure
BLIGHS Creep theory
Creep length = d + B + d
1) Safety against piping L = CH
L = Creep length
C Blighs creep coefficient
H = Total head of water retained by the weir
For no piping I
<
2) Safety against uplift pressure of pucca floor
Thickness at any section
T=
Where, h = ordinate of H.G.L above the surface of
G = sp gravity of concrete
talking a factor of safety = t
Khoslas Theory
The seepages takes place dong streamlines defined by
Critical exit gradient
G =
Where
=0
The three simple profiles which are used for determination of pressure and exit gradient
are
i) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line on upper side
or down side end
C
C
d
D
= 100-
= 100 -
D
= cos (
= cos
Where
ii) A straight horizontal floor with negligible with a sheet pile line at some
intermediate point
Page 235
= cos
= cos
( )
= cos
Where,
)
)
Where, =
Water Resource Engg
C
d
and =
iii) A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but without any vertical cutoffs
= (
)+
= 100 -
d
D
Empirical formulas by Bligh for design of weir

1. For weir proper portion
a) For weirs having crest shutters L = 2.21C
b) For weirs having crest shutters L 2.21C
c) For weirs having crest shutters L + L = 18C
d) For no crest shutters L
L = 18c
e) L =
Crest shutter if any
u/s talus
d/s talus
B
L
2. For under sluice portion

a) For under sluices having crest shutters
L = 3.87 C
d
L
and L + L = 27C
b) For under sluices having no crest shutters
Page 236
Water Resource Engg
L = 3.87 C
L + L = 27 C
Design Of Weir Wall
Top width B =
Bottom width (B) of weir wall should not be less than

B=
Spillways Energy Dissipaters and Spillway Gates

A spillway is a structure constructed at dam site, for effectively disposing the surplus
water from u/s to d/s
A spillway can be located either within the body of the dam or at one end of it or away
from it
Various Types of Spillway
a) Based on permanent features
1. Straight drop spillway or over fall spillway
2. Over flow spillway or ogee spillway
3. Chute spillway or trough spillway or open channel
4. Side channel spillway
5. Shaft spillway
6. Siphon spillway
b) Based on utility
1. Main spillway
2. Emergency
1. Straight drop or over fall spillway
Characteristics
Constructed on small bends or on arch dam
Ventilation of nappe is required
Fatigue of surface occurs due to cavitations
Serious erosion is caused d s if no apron is provided
Tree over fall
under gate
Underside of the
nappe to be
ventilated
2. Agee spillway or overflow:

Least suitable for earthen dams
General equation for the profile of spillway for vertical u s face x
= H
y where
H = dessignal head including velocity head x and y are co-ordinates with origin at crest
c
Discharge Q = C L H
Where, L = Effective length of spillway crest
Page 237
Water Resource Engg
C = Co-efficient of discharge
H = Total head over the crest (including the velocity head)
Designed head
Under nappe
Lower nappe
Sharp crested
weir
3. Chute Spillway or the trough spillway

Can be adopted on gravity and earthen dams e g Bhakra dam
Normal pord level
Tile drains surrounded

gravels
Page 238
Water Resource Engg
4. Side channel spillway

Suitable for earth or rock fill dams in narrow canyons and for other places where
directed flew is not possible
Reservior
Spillway
dam
Chate
channel
d/s
river
5. Shaft Spillway
Can be used where, inadequate space is there for other spillways
Control lein
Vertical pipe
Called shaft
Horizontal tunnel
Water joining the

river d/s
Page 239
Water Resource Engg
6. Syphon Spillway
Instead of allowing water to spill over the crest of a dam or weir, the surplus water is
discharge by a syphon spillway consisting of one or more siphon units
Air vent
Normal pool
level
Tail water
level
Syphon inlet
Two types of Syphon Spillway

1) Saddle siphon spillway
2) Volute syphon spillway
Discharge through saddle spillway
Q = C A gh [C
g usually]
Where A = Area of cross section at crown

H = Operating head
Canal fall
When available natural ground slope steeper than the designed bed slope of the channel
canal falls are to be provided at certain intervals.
Requirement for design of a fall
1. Velocity of approach should be minimum
2. Should be able to adapt the variation of water level in the canal
3. Should be safe against erosion, piping and uplift
Types of Falls
1. Ogee fall
Not used now, due to drawdown
E.g. Ganga canal (olden days)
Page 240
Water Resource Engg
Draw down
Water surface
U/s bed
Rubble masonry
2. Rapid Falls
Long slopes concreted or stone pitched so uneconomical
3. Trapezoidal notch falls

Draw down eliminated
Discharge can also be measured
Cross section
4. Well type or siphon well drop u/s W.L

Better suited, when drops required are high but discharge is low
U/S W.L
Soil
d/s W.L
Slump well
Page 241
Water Resource Engg
5. Sarda Type Fall or vertical Drop type

Economic
Simple construct
No clear hydraulic jump
Cant be flumed
U/S H.F.L
D/S H.F.L
Floor of water
cushion
Stone
pitching
D/S bed
Stone
pitching
Cistern
6. Straight Glacis Fall

U/s H.F.L
d/s H.F.L
A Straight glacis is provided

Can be flumed or unfulmed
Hydraulic jump occurs on glacis
METHODS OF IRRIGATION
ii)Sub-surface irrigation
i)Surface irrigation
1.Flooding
i)Wild Flooding
a)Free flooding
2.Furrow method
iii) Sprinkler
irrigation
3.Contour farming
ii)Controlled flooding
b)Contour
laterals
c)Border d)Checks or
strip
Flooding
e) Basin
floodin
g
f)Zig-Zag
method
Page 242
Environmental Engg
Part 5: Environmental Engineering

5.1 Water Quality & Standards
Maximum daily consumption = 1.8 x Average daily demand.

Maximum hourly consumption = 2.7 x Annual average hourly demand.
Unit processes for water treatment, Aeration Screening Sedimentation Disinfection
Softening Filtration
Sources of Municipal Water Supply

1. Surface Source
-
Ponds & lakes

Streams and rivers
Storage reservoir
2. Subsurface Source
Characteristics of water
1. Physical characteristics
i. Turbidity: Due to suspended matters like clay, silt etc. measured on silica scale
Measure by: Turbidity meters
A. Jackson turbid meter : Used to measure high turbidity.Longer the light path lower
is the turbidity
10.8 cm 200 JTU
21.5 cm 100 JTU
B. Nephelometer: Used for turbidity of range o to 1 ppm
Units NTU: Nephelometer turbidity unit FTU for mazin turbidity unit
I.S value for drinking water is 10-25 NTU
ii. Colour: Due to decaying vegetation or some inorganic colored soil. Algae etc.
Measured by: Platinum cobalt method
Permissible limit: 5 to 20 ppm
5 to 25 cobalt unit
iii. Taste and odour: Due to dissolved organic matter or inorganic salts, dissolved gasses
Measured by: osmoscope
Units: Taste FTN (Flavor threshold number)
Odour: TON (threshold odour number)
Permissible limit : 1 to 3 FTN
iv. Temperature: At high temperature C
and some other volatile gases are expelled
loading to decrease in palatability (taste) desirable limit 5 to 12
v. Specific conductivity: Due to dissolved ions
Measured by :Dionic water tester
Page 243
Environmental Engg
Chemical Characteristics
1. PH
Due to bicarbonates of ca and Mg and carbonates (
), hydroxides (OH) of ca, Mg, K,
Na.
Measured by: potentiometers, colorimetric method
Units: Measured on
scale
Desirable limit: 6.5 to 8.5
2. Hardness
Due to bicarbonates & carbonates (temporary hardness), Non-carbonates (permanent
hardness)
Measured by: EDTA test (Ethyl diamine tetra acetic acid)
Units: of C C
Hardness
Temporary due to carbonate and bi carbonates of calcium and magnesium
Permanent due to presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.
Total hardness = Ca2+ (mg/L) x
Hardness limits
+ Mg2 (mg/L) x
If hardness 75 ppm: Soft water
If hardness b/w 75 200 ppm: Moderate water.
If hardness > 200 ppm: Hard water.
Total hardness (TH) = carbonate hardness (CH) + non carbonate hardness (NCH)
-
If TH> alkalinity then CH = Alkalinity
If TH < alkalinity then CH = TH
Alkalinity measured in mg/l of CaCO3

HC
com ining weight of CaC

com ining weight HC
com ining weight of CaC

com ining weight C
Chloride: Content detected by AgNO3 solution with KMnO4 as indicator.
Permissible limit 250 mg/L

Nitrogen content
Different forms
1. Free ammonia: Indicates the presence of un-decomposed organic matter limit < 0.15
ppm
Page 244
Environmental Engg
2. Albuminoid nitrogen: Indicates that decomposition of organic matter has started.

Limit.< 0.3 mg/L
3. Nitrites: Indicates presence of partly decomposition organic matter. Permissible: Nil
4. Nitrates: Indicates fully oxidized organic matter, permissible limit < 45 ppm
Total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) = free ammonia + organic nitrogen
Bacterial and Microscopic Characteristics
1. Aerobic Bacteria Required oxygen survival
2. Anaerobic Bacteria Do not required dissolve
3. Facultative Bacteria Can survive with or without
Through some species of bacteria it may be helpful in cleaning of water but other
pathogenic bacteria are harmful
The presence of pathogenic bacteria can be tested by counting presence of coil forms
Measurement of Coliform
Filter the water through 30 pore size and cultivate the coloness and count the number.
MPN: Most Probable Number.
Page 245
Environmental Engg
5.2 Water Supply and Its Treatment
Type of Water Demand

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Domestic water demand (55 to 60% of total water demand)

Industrial water demand (50 lpcdlitre per capita/day)
Institutional and commercial water demand (20 lpcd)
Demand for public uses (10 lcpd)
Fire demand (11 lpcd)
When population exceeds 50,000
Then water required
Where V is in kilo litre and P is in thousand

Kuichling & formula: Q = 3182 where P is population in thousand.
Variation in Demands
1. Maximum daily demand
average daily demand
2. Maximum hourly demand
average hourly demand
3. Maximum hourly demand in summer
average hourly demand
We can obtain these values using Goodrichs formulas
Where P = percent of annual average demand for the time t in days
Population Fore Casting
1. Geometric Increase method
Pn = PO[
Where r = r1 x r2 x r3 xrn.
2. Average (arithmetic) method
P = PO + nx.
3. Incremental increase method
n n
nx
y
A combination of arithmetic increase method and geometric method the average of increase
in population is found from arithmetic method and is added to the average of net
incremental increase
4. Decreasing method
D
[
][
] [
nD
Where is the rate of decrease in population growth rate .

Page 246
Environmental Engg
Basic units for surface water treatment
Raw Water
Screening
PST
Disinfection
Filtration
SST
Coagulation
Flocculation
1. Screen: Velocity through screen < 0.8 to 1m/sec

2. Sedimentation: The velocity of flowing water is reduced nearly to zero and the sediments in
water are allowed to settle by gravity
Settling velocity, Vs =
(G 1)
Important Formulae Pertaining to Sedimentation
Surface overflow rate =
Settling velocity Vs =
Where t =
% of particle that can be removed in sedimentation tank =
x 100%
Where, V` = Velocity of settling from slopes law

V = H/t
3. Coagulation and Flocculation is generally done by addition of Al3+ and Fe
4. Filtration: Help in removing color, adour, turbidity and pathogenic bacteria
a. The slow sand gravity filter
b. The rapid sand gravity filter
Page 247
Environmental Engg
Comparison of Slow Sand and Rapid Sand Filters

Items
Slow sand filter
Rapid gravity filters
1) Pre treatment
Effluent either from plain

sedimentation tank or raw water
without any treatment are generally
fed into them and coagulation is not
at all required
Coagulation flocculation and

sedimentation is a must
2) Base material
The gravel base supports the sand. It
varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and
30 to 75 cm in depth
3) Filter sand
4) Size of each unit
5) Rate of filtration
The effective size of filter sand

ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and
uniformity coefficient between 1.8
to 2.5 or 3.0
The grain size distribution is
generally uniform throughout the
depth of filter media except that top
10 to 15 cm may be laid of finer
variety
The gravel base support the

sand and also distributes the
wash water uniformly on the
surface of sand. It varies from 3
to 40 mm in size and its depth
is slightly more than i.e. about
60 to 90 cm
The effective size of the filter

sand rages between 0.35 to
0.55 and uniformity coefficient
between 1.2 to 1.8
The sand in layers with smallest
grain size at top and corset
grain size at the bottom
6) Efficiency
7) Post treatment
8) Method of cleaning
Large such as (30m 60m) the area

varying from 100 to 200 sq. m or
more.
Small, such as 100 to 200 liters per

hour per sq.m of filter are (50 to 60
ML/Ha/day)
Very efficient in removing bacteria
(98 to 99%) but less efficient in
removing color turbidity removal is
upto 50 ppm
Small, such as 5m 8m. The

are varying from 10 to 80 sq.m
Large such as 3000 to 6000

liters per hour per sq.m of filter
are (1500 to 3000 ML/Ha/day)
Less efficient (80 to 90%) very
efficient in color removal
Page 248
Almost pure water is obtained. It

may be disinfected slightly
Scrapping and removing the top 1.5

to 3 cm thick layer and washing
down by 0.2 to 0.6% of total filtered
water is required.
Environmental Engg
Disinfection is must
Backwashing with or without

compressed air large amount (1
to 5%) of total filtered water is
needed for washing in every 1
to 3 days.
5. Disinfection: To remove harmful bacteria left after filtration methods

a. Boiling
b. Treatment with excess lime kills bacteria but increases alkalinity.Hence recarbonation is
required
c. Treatment with ozone:
(nascentoxygen) kills bacteria

d. Chlorination: Dose forms hypochlorous acid which kills bacteria
Break point chlorination: The point beyond which all the chlorine added will appear as free
chlorine is called break point chlorination DPD test is used for determination of breakpoint.
Residual chlorine
Super chlorination: Addition of 5 15mg/l of chlorine
A
Applied chlorine
6. Aeration: Water is brought in contact with atmospheric air to promote exchange of gases
between water and air.
C
H Sand other volatile substances importing taste and odour to water are easily expelled
Page 249
Environmental Engg
7. Water softening
i. Removal of temporary hardness
a. Boiling
b. By adding lime
ii. Removal of permanent hardness
a. Lime soda process
b. Zeolite process
c. Demineralization process
a. Lime soda process
- Lime Ca H and soda A C
are added
- We get CaC and H o seperated
- Economical and better for excessively hard water
- But large quantity of slued is produced and requires recarbonation
b. Zeolite process
- Zeolite is a complex compound of Al, silica and soda
- Achieving almost zero hardness is possible
- But cannot be adopted for highly turbid water
c. Demineralization
- Similar to zeolite process but the metallic ions in this method are replaced by
hydrogens ions rather than y sodium ions in zeolite process
- Water obtained is free from minerals and quality is almost same as distilled water
Layout of Water Distribution Network
Layout of Distribution Network
The distribution pipe are generally laid the road pavement, and such their layout
generally follow the layout of the roads
We can also develop the pavement duct along the road
There are in general four different type of pipe network are
There are four types of system for distribution of water
1) Dead end system
2) Grid iron system
3) Ring system
4) Radial system.
Dead end system
It is suitable for old town and cities having no definite pattern of road
Advantage
1) Relatively cheap
2) Determination of discharge and pressure easier to due to less number of values
Page 250
Environmental Engg
Disadvantage
1) Due to many dead end stagnation of water
Grid iron system

It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout where the water mains and branch are laid
in rectangle
Advantage
1) Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends.
2) In the cases of breakdown in some section water is available from some other directions.
Disadvantage
3) Extra circulation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on all
branches.
Page 251
Environmental Engg
Ring system
The supply mainly is laid the peripheral road and sub mains branch out from the mains
Thus this system also follows the grid iron system with the flow patter similar in
character to that of dead end system
So determination of the pipe size is so easy
Advantages
Water can be supplied to any point from at least two direction
Main pipe
M
M
Sub
mains
S
M
S
M
Page 252
Environmental Engg
Radial System
The area is divided into different zones
The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept in the idle if each zone the
supply pipes are radially laid ending towards the periphery
Advantage
It gives quick service
Circulation of pipe size is easy
Page 253
Environmental Engg
5.3 Waste Water Treatment

Aerobic Decomposition:
In presence of facultative bacteria and aerobic bacteria

Anaerobic Decomposition
1. Nitrogenous organic matter
: N2
H2
2. Carbonaous organic matter
Co2 + Heat
Heat
Note: Organic acids including alcohol are converted to CH4, Co2, etc.
Total solids: 1000 Kg of sewage contains 0.45 Kg of total solids.
Properly oxidized sewage has pH around 7.3
Humans excrete about 6gm of chloride / person / day.
High chloride in waste water indicate presence of sewage water.
Nitrogen Content
Free ammonia indicates first stage
Nitrate indicates last stage.
Fats, oil and grease are soluble in either.
Sulphides, sulphates and H2S: Sulphide compounds are oxidized to So42 which is
unolyctionble when aerobic decomposition takes place but results in formation of H2S, CH4,
Co2 when decomposed aerobically.
Dissolved oxygen
Ensure atleast 4 ppm of D.O. in it for survival of fish and other spaces.
B.O.D. or biological oxygen demand gives the amount of active organic matter whereas C.O.D
(Chemical Oxygen Demand) gives total oxygen demand.
B.O.D5: B.O.D at end of 5 days at 200C.

B.O.D5 = D.O. consumed at end of five days x dilution factors.
Dilution factor =
First stage demand is carbonaceous demand and last stage demand is nitrogenous demand.
Page 254
Environmental Engg
= RLt
Lt : oxygen equivalent of carbonaceous oxidiable organic matter present in sewage after t
days.
Loge = Kt
Log10 = 0.439Kt
Log10 = KDt
Where, Lt = Organic matter left after t days.
B.O.D after t days is yt = L Lt = L L
BOD5 is 6 % approximately of total B
Total organic carbon =
D at t
= 2.66 TOC (for glucose)
Ratio is important factor for wastewater
BOD5 = 20 mg/l permissible limit. F
Total oxygen demand is amount of oxygen required to burn organic substances and some
minor inorganic substances.
Primary, secondary and tertiary treatment of wastewater.
Preliminary treatment reduces BOD by 15.50%
Primary treatment: Removes large suspended organic solids.
Page 255
Environmental Engg
Biological treatment
Primary
treatment
Raw waste Screening & Grit

water
removal
1. Floating
2. Sedimentation
1. Activated sludge
2. Tricking filter
3. Anaerobic lagoons
Primary
treatment
(biological)
Sedimentat
ion
Tertiary
treatment
Final effluent
Disposal
Sludes
digestion
Page 256
Environmental Engg
5.4 Air Pollution

Components
1. Emission sources IC engines, burning of coal and oil
2. Transmitting mediaAtmosphere
3. Receptor People, plants, animals
Receptor/ medium remediation not possible/ difficult so control at source is best suited
Categories of air pollutions
1. Primary pollutants: Emitted directly from the sources
2. Secondary pollutants: Formed in the atmosphere by physical/chemical/biological
interactions among primary pollutants and normal atmospheric constituents
General classification of the gaseous air pollutants

Class
Primary
Secondary
Sulphur containing Compounds
SO2, H2S, Etc
SO3, H2SO4, MSO4
Nitrogen containing Compounds
NO, NH3, Etc
NO2, MNO2
Oxides of carbon
CO, CO2, etc
None
Halogen None
HCL, HF
One
CO2 is normally not considered as pollutant, but increased concentration

worldwide is the basis for the concern regarding its eventual effects.
Another Classifications
1. Gaseous pollution
2. Particulate pollution
a. Dust: Formed by mechanical is integration of material crushing grinding etc.
- Fine dust < 100m dia
- Coarse dust >100m dia
b. Smoke: By condensation of supersaturated vapor composed of materials of low vapor
pressure in relatively high concentration
c. Fumes: Particles formed by condensation, sublimation size < 1
d. Mist: Suspension of the liquid droplets formed by condensation of vapor size < 10 m
Page 257
Environmental Engg
Particulate Matter and Its Effect
Particles less than 0.1 m undergo random motion (Brownian motion resulting from
collision with individual molecules)
Particles between 0.1 to 1 m have settling velocities in still air.
Particles larger than 1 m have significant but small settling velocities.
Particles above 20 m have large settling velocities and are removed from air by gravity
and other inertial forces.
Consequently these particles are airborne for less time.
Particulates serve as condensation nuclei and influence the formation of clouds, rain and
snow.
Visibility: Resulting from absorption and scattering of light by airborne liquid and solid
materials.
Carbon dioxide, water vapor and ozone change the absorption and transmission
characteristics of the atmosphere.
Reduction in the visibility not only is unpleasing to an individual, but also may have
strong psychological effects.
In addition some safety hazards arise due to reduction in visibility at airports, on

highways, etc.
Effect on Materials: Particles get deposited on painted surface, clothing, curtains, etc.
particulate matter can cause damage by intrinsic corrosiveness or by the action of

corrosive chemicals absorbed/adsorbed by inert particles into the atmosphere.
hygroscopic particles commonly found in atmosphere can corrode metal surfaces
Effect on the Vegetation and Animal Health: Very little is known of the effects of
particulate matter in general on vegetation.
However, some specific substances cause damage to the plants. For example, the fluoride
containing particles damage the plants.
Polluted vegetation may cause diseases in animals, for example, animal fluorosis through
vegetation, arsenic poisoning in animals through vegetation.
Effects on human Health: Particulate matter enter through respiratory system, deposit in
the respiratory tract and damage respiratory organs.
Particulate matter may exert a toxic effect in one or more of the following three ways.
Page 258
Environmental Engg
Effects of gaseous air pollutants
Carbon Monoxide: Colorless and odorless gas.
It is very stable and has a lifetime of 2-4 months in the atmosphere.
CO is removed from atmosphere by soil fungi and CO is oxidized to CO2, though at a very
slow rate.
No significant material damage or effect on the plants or vegetation.
The combination of O2 with hemoglobin leads to oxyhemoglobin, O2Hb.
Hemoglobin has a affinity for CO that is approximately 210 times of its affinity for O2.
100 ppm CO Many people experience dizziness, headache.
Cigarette smoke contains about 400-500 ppm CO, % of COHb in blood increases as the
number of cigarettes smoked per day.
Zone of atmosphere
Mixing depths and inversion
The vertical extent to which the mixing takes place varies diurnally, from season to
season, and is also affected by topographical features.
The greater the vertical extent, the larger the volume of atmosphere available for
dispersion of the pollutants.
Page 259
Environmental Engg
The depth of the mixing layer is known as the Mean Mixing Depth. Atmospheric
conditions influence the way thermal plumes behave.
Behaviour of plumes under different conditions
Case 1- Looping: This occurs when n > 1.4 and atmospheric conditions are unstable
Case 2 Coning: This occurs when n is between 1 and 1.4 and atmospheric conditions
are unstable
Case 3 Fanning: This occurs when n < 1 and inversion takes place
Case 4 Lofting: This occurs when the inversion layer lies below the stack height
Case 5 Fumigation: This occurs when the inversion layer lies above the stack height
Case 6 Trapping: This occurs when double inversion layers occur
Case 7: Neutral: This occurs when n = 1 and atmospheric conditions are stable
DALR
Turbulent air
WARM SEASONS WITH CLEAR SKIES
ELR(n>1.4)
UNSTABLE
LOOPING
TC
NIGHT TIME WITH CLOUDY & WET CLIMATE
ELR(n:1-1.4)
STABLE
Moderate wind
Axis of plume
DALR
CONING
TC
Plan
ELR(n<1) Light wind

INVERSION
NIGHT TIME AND EARLY MORNING

FANNING
Elevation
TC
EVENING TIME IN CLEAR SKIES
Moderate wind
RADIATION
INVERSION
BELOW STACK
LOFTING
TC
INVERSION
ABOVE
STACK
LATE MORNING TO EARLY AFTERNOON

IN CLEAR SKIES MONTLY OF SUMMER
Light to moderate wind
Z
FUMIGATION
TC
Page 260

DALR
Light to moderate
wind
ELR (subsidence
inversion)
Environmental Engg
ANY TIME OF THE DAY IN ANY SEASON
TRAPPING
TC
DALR
Light wind
ELR (n-1.4)
Z
CLEAR SKIES IN NEUTRAL ATMOSHPERE
Neutral atmosphere
SEUTRAL PLUME
TC
Looping
DALR
Lofting
ELR
Fanning
Lofting
Fumigation
Trapping
Fanning
Control of air pollution

1.
2.
3.
4.
Setting chambers: Works by gravity

Inertial separators: Battles and lauvres are used to intercept the effluents path
Cyclones : Cyclonic action to separate dust particles
Filters:
Mechanical Shaker-Baghouse
Reserve-Air Baghouse
Reserve Jet-Baghouse
Filter cleaning methods

1. Online cleaning
I.
Automatically timed filter cleaning which allows for continuous, uninterrupted

dust collector operation for heavy dust operations.
Page 261
Environmental Engg
2. Offline cleaning
I.
II.
Filter cleaning accomplished during dust collector shut down.

Allows for maximum effectiveness in dislodging and disposing of dust.
3. On-demand cleaning
I.
Filter cleaning initiated automatically when the filter is fully loaded, as

determined by a specified drop in pressure across the media surface.
4. Reverse-pulse/Reverse-jet cleaning
I.
It delivers blasts of compressed air from the clean side of the filter to dislodge the
accumulated dust cake.
5. Impact/Rapper cleaning
I.
II.
In this high-velocity compressed air forced through a flexible tube results in a

random rapping of the filter to dislodge the dust cake.
Especially effective when the dust is extremely fine or sticky.
5. Electrostatic precipitators
6. Scrubbers or wet collectors
Solid waste
Solid waste in dry refuse and includes garbage ashes, rubbish, dust etc. Density varies from
300 gcm to 600 gcm
a. Garbage: Putrescible organic wastes e.g.: vegetable, pills, kitchen generated waste
b. Rubbish: Non putrescible wastes, e.g. rags, papers, broken glass & furniture, card boards
etc.
Transformation methods used for the management of solid waste
Transformation Processes used for the management of solid waste
Transformation
Process
Transformation means or method
Transformation or Principal
conversion Products
Physical
Component
Separation
Manual and/or mechanical separation
Individual components found in

commingled municipal waste
Page 262
Environmental Engg
Volume
reduction
Application of energy in the form of

force or pressure
The original waste reduced in

volume.
Size reduction
Application of energy in the form of

Shredding, grinding, or milling
The original waste components

altered in form and reduced in size.
Thermal oxidation
Carbon dioxide (C02), sulphur

dioxide (S02), other oxidation
products
Chemical
Combustion
A gas stream containing a verity of

gases, tar and or oil and a char
Pyrolysis
Destructive distillation
Gasification
Starved air combustion
A low-Btugas, Char containing

carbon, and pyrolytic oil
Aerobic biological conversion
Compost (humus-like material used

as a soil conditioner)
Anaerobic
digestion (lowor high-solids)
Anaerobic biological conversion
Methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (C02),

trace gases, digested humus or
sludge
Anaerobic
composting
(Occurs in
landfil)
Anaerobic biological conversion
Methane (CHJ, carbon dioxide (CH2),

digested waste
Biological
Aerobic
compositing
Various methods of refuse disposal

1. Sanitary land filling
The refuse is dumped into the low lying area and it is covered by good earth layer. The waste
gets stablised with 2 to 4 months by aerobic as well as anaerobic processes
Leachate: Liquid collected at bottom of a landfill
Land fill gas: 90% of the gas produced is CH and C
2. Incineration: Burning the wastes method C
tar charcoal etc may gets produced
3. Barging it out into the sea: At a considerable distance away from the coast
4. Pulverisation: Refuse is pulverized in grinding machine so as to reduce its volume
Page 263
Environmental Engg
5. Compositing : Can be done under aerobic or anaerobic conditions or both

a. Indore method: Uses manual turning of piled up mass (refuse + night soil) under aerobic
conditions. T stabilizes the material in shorter time and needs less space no odorous
gases produced, so environmental friendly
b. Bangalore method: Anaerobic, required longer time, larger space, produces adorous
gases,. But does, not involve any turning or handling of the mass hence more clean than
indoor method.
Evaluation of hazardous contaminant present
dc
dt
or ln
C
C
Where
C C
Concentration at time zero and T

Rate constant
Page 264
Transportation Engg
Part 6: Transportation Engineering

6.1 Highway Planning
Stopping sight distance is the minimum distance available to stop a vehicle travelling at
design speed safely without collision with any other obstruction.
IRC has recommended the height of eye level of driver as 1.2m and the height of object as
0.15m above the road surface for measuring the stopping sight distance.
Stopping distance of a vehicle is sum of lag distance and braking distance.

Lag distance = 0.278 vt.
Braking distance =
Design Speed: The design speed of roads depends upon class of road and terrain.
Terrain have been classified as plain, rolling, mountainous and steep depending on the cross
slope of the country as given.
Cross Slope (in %)
Terrain classification
0 10
Plain
10 25
Rolling
25 60
Mountainous
Greater than 60
Steep
Horizontal Curves: To avoid overturning and lateral skidding on a horizontal curve, the
centrifugal ratio ( ) should be less than and f.
Super Elevation: The transverse inclination the pavement surface is known as super elevation
and is denoted by e.
e+f=
IRC recommends that maximum limit of super elevation in plain and rolling terrain as 7% and
10% in hill roads.
Extra widening as curves is given by
e=
Page 265
Transportation Engg
Where, n = number of traffic lanes.

l = length of wheel base of longest vehicle.
v = design speed (in kmph).
R = radius of curve (in meters).
Length of Transition curve
The length of transition curve should be the maximum of three values derived based on
following three conditions.
(i)
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration to be developed gradually.
(ii)
Rate of introduction of the designed super elevation to be at reasonable rate.
(iii)
Minimum length as per IRC formula.
Length of transition curve as per first condition is given by

LS =
Where C =
m/Sec2 [0.5 < C < 0.8]
Length of transition curve as per second condition is given by.

LS =
(W + We) for pavement rotated about centre line.
= eN (W + We) for pavement rotated about inner edge.

Length of Transition curve as per IRC empirical formula is given by
LS =
=
for plain and rolling terrains

For mountainous and steep terrains.
Shift of transition curve, S =

Grade compensation on horizontal curve is given by grade compensation (in %) =
subject to maximum value of 75/R.
As per IRC the grade companion is not necessary for gradients flatter than 4%.
Page 266
Transportation Engg
Length of Summit Curve

For stopping side distance (SSD) can be calculated by using following formulae.
(i)
L=
when L > SSD.
Where,
N = deviation angle
S = Stopping sight distance
H = Height of eye level of driver above roadway surface.
h = Height of object above pavement surface.
As per IRC standard.
H = 1.2
h = 0.15
L=
(ii)
L = 2S
L = 2S
)
)
when L < SSD
Length of Summit curve: For safe overtaking sight distance (OSD) can be calculated by using
following formulae
(i)
L=
When L > S
As per IRC standard, H = 1.2

L=
(ii)
When L > S
2S =
2S =
When L < S
.
(Taking H = 1.2m).
Page 267
Transportation Engg
Length of Valley Curve

It is designed based on
(i)
Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration of 0.6 m/sec3 and
(ii)
Head light sight distance, and the higher of the two value is taken.
Length of transition curve, LS based on first condition is

LS= 0.19 (NV3)1/2
Total length of valley curve = L = 2LS
= 0.38 (NV3)1/2
Length of valley curve based on head light sight distance is calculated as:
L=
for L > SSD.
L = 2S
for L < SSD.
Traffic Capacity Studies

Traffic volume is the number of vehicles that are passing a given spot is a specified direction
and specified unit of time.
Traffic density is the number of vehicles occupy a unit length of lane at a given instant. It is
expressed as vehicles per kilometer.
Traffic capacity is the ability of a lane to accommodate traffic volume. It is a measure of
maximum number of vehicles in a lane can pass a given point in unit time.
Theoretical maximum capacity of simple lane given by
C=
Where, V = Speed in kmph
S = Average centre to centre spacing of vehicles.
C = Capacity is vehicle per hour.
It is also given by
C=
Where Ht = minimum time headway (in secs).
Page 268
Transportation Engg
The fundamental relationship, between traffic volume, density and speed is given by q = KVs
Where, q = average volume of vehicles passing a spot during a specified period of time.
VS = space mean speed (in kmph)
K = average density (in vehicles/km).
The maximum speed is called free mean speed and is denoted by VSf. The maximum density
occurs at zero speed and is called j am density which is denoted by kj. The maximum
capacity occurs when the speed is
qmax =
and density in .
Page 269
Transportation Engg
6.2 Highway Materials
Group Index of soil is used to classify the fine grained soils and for judging their suitability as
subgrade material.
GI = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd.
Where, q = Portion of material passing 0.074 mm sierve, greater than 35 and less than 75%.
It is expressed as whole number from 0 to 40.
b = Portion of material passing 0.074 mm sierve, greater than 5 and less than 35%. It
is expressed
as whole number from 0 to 20.
c = Value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than 60. It is expressed as a whole
number ranging from 0 to 20.
d = Value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and less than 30. It is expressed as a whole
number ranging from 0 to 20.
California Bearing Ratio test (CBR)

It is a penetration test used for evaluating the stability of soil sub grade and other flexible
pavement materials.
.
CBR (in %) =
Pavement thickness (t), can be determined using CBR value from the given formula.
t= *
Where, t = Pavement thickness (in cm)

P = Wheel load (in kg)
CBR = California Bearing Ratio (in %)
= Tyre pressure (in kg/cm2)
California resistance value method

The pavement thickness can be determined using this method as per following formula
T=
Page 270
Transportation Engg
Where, T = Total thickness of pavement (in cm).

K = 0.166
TI = Traffic index = 1.35 (EWL)0.11
R = Stabilometer resistance value.
C = Cohesion meter value.
Rigid Pavements
Radius of relative stiffness
l=*
Where, E = Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete (in kg/cm2)

= oisson ratio of concrete = 0.15
h = Slab thickness (in cm).
K = Sub grade modulus (in kg/cm3).
Equivalent radius of resisting section,
b = 1. a
0.
b=a
5h for a < 1.724h

for a > 1.724h.
Where, a = radius of wheel load distribution (in cm).

h = slab thickness (in cm).
Westergaards stress equation for wheel loads
Interior loading
Si =
* log
( )
1.0
( )
0. 5 +
Edge loading
Se =
* log
Corner loading
Sc =
[1
Page 271
Transportation Engg
Where, h = Slab thickness (in cm).

P = Wheel load (in kg).
a = Radius of wheel load distribution (in cm).
l = Radius of relative stiffness (in cm).
b = Radius of resisting section (in cm).
Si = Maximum stress at interior loading (in kg/cm2)
Se = Maximum stress at edge loading (in kg/cm2)
Sc = Maximum stress at corner loading (in kg/cm2).
Warping Stresses
St(i) =
St(e) =
or
St(c) =
whichever is higher
Where, St(i) = warping stress at interior (in kg/cm2)

St(e) = warping stress at exterior (in kg/cm2)
St(c) = warping stress at corner (in kg/cm2)
e = thermal coefficient of concrete per 0C
t = temperature difference between top and bottom of slab (in 0C)
Cx = coefficient based on
in desired direction
Cy = coefficient based on
in right angle to desired direction
= Poissons ratio of concrete taken as 0.15

a = radius of contact
l = radius of relative stiffness
Page 272
Transportation Engg
Frictional stresses
Sf =
Where, Sf = unit stress developed in cement concrete pavement (in Kg/cm2).
W = unit weight of concrete (in Kg/cm2).
f = coefficient of subgrade restraint (taken as 1.5).
L = slab length (in meters).
Spacing of contraction joints

LC =
x 104
Where, LC = spacing between contraction joints (in cm).

f = coefficient of friction (taken as 1.5).
W = unit weight of slab in kg/m3.
SC = allowable stress in tension in cement concrete (in Kg/cm2).
Spacing of contraction joints when reinforcements is provided is given by LC =
Where, As = total area of steel (in Kg/cm2 per meter width).

b = slab width (in meters).
h = slab thickness (in cm).
SS = allowable tensile stress in steel (in Kg/cm2).
Design of Tie bars
As =
Where, As = area of steel per meter length (in cm2).
b = distance between the joint and nearest free edge (in meter).
h = thickness of pavement (in cm).
SS = allowable working stress in tension for steel (in kg/cm2).
W = unit weight of cement concrete (in kg/cm3).
Page 273
Transportation Engg
Total length of tiebar,

Lt =
Where, SS = allowable stress in tension (in kg/cm2).
Sb = allowable bond stress in concrete. This is equal to 24.6 kg/cm2 in case of deformed
bears and 17.5 kg/cm2 in plain bars.
d = diameter of tie bar (in cm).
Page 274
Surveying
Part 7: Surveying
Determination Of Relation Position And Plotting By Means Of Different Type of Measurement
Plane: Curvature ignored
Surveying
Geodetic:Curvature of earth taken into account
Plane surveying Types
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Chain surveying
Compass surveying
Plane table surveying
Theodolite surveying
Tacheometric surveying
Triangulation surveying
Aerial surveying
Photogrammetric surveying
Map
R.F: Representative factor
Vernier scale: Least count-Difference between smallest division on main scale and the
smallest division on vernier scale.
Corrections
(
Levelling: Determination of relative attitudes of the point or elevation of a point w.r.t benchmark
Instrument used: Level, levelling staff, dumpy level
Part of dumpy level
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Levelling head
Telescope
Eye piece
Diaphragm screws
Focusing screws
Ray shade
Longitudinal/Attitude bubble tube
Bubble tube adjusting screws
Cross bubble tube
: 080-65700750, info@thegateacamy.com Copyright reserved. Web: www.thegateacademy.com
Page 275
Surveying
Technical term used

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Level surface: Surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth
Horizontal surface: Surface tangential to the level surface
Vertical line: Line perpendicular to the level line and the direction of plumb line
Datum: Reference to which vertical measurement are done
Mean Sea level
Reduced level: Height above or below the assumed datum
Line of sight: Line through the optical centre of the line and inter section of cross hair
Back sight: Dot observation made at the point of known elevation (used to obtain of instrument)
Fore sight: Sight taken at a point of unknown elevation
Classification of levelling
1. Simple levelling
2. Differential levelling (fly levelling or continuous levelling) instrument is set at different
points and successive elevation difference is calculated
Difference of elevation between points A and B =B.S. - F.S
R.L. of point B= R.L. of point A ( B.S. - F.S)
Booking and Reduction of level
(A) Rise and Fall method:- B.S. - F.S= Rise-Fall=Last R.L- First R.L
Check on intermediate sight is done as each is included in rise and fall calculation
(B) Height of collimation method:- B.S. - F.S= Last R.L- First R.L
No such check
Gradient of line: Can be calculated by diving the elevation by the total length
Classification of spirit levelling
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Differential levelling
Profile levelling like road
Check levelling
Cross sectional levelling
Precision
Reciprocal levelling : Elevation determined by two sets of reciprocal observations
Page 276
Surveying
Horizontal line
a1
Line A collimators
Level Lines
b1
True difference of level between A&B

(
) (
)
(
a2
Error is equal to the half of the difference of

the apparent differences of level
b2
Curvature and Refraction corrections

1. Curvature correction
(Approx)
=0.0785 d2metre
Curvature correction is negative and always subtracted from the staff reading
2. Correction for refraction
0.0785D2 (curvature)
Line of collimation
0.0112d2
(Refraction)
A
B
3. Combined correction for reparation curvature

0673 d2m(-ve) (d is in k.m)
Compass surveying
Direction measured by compass
Length measured by taping or chaining
Page 277
Surveying
Traverse: series of connected lines.

Types
1. Closed: Originates and terminates on same station
2. Open
Classification of traverses based on instrument used
1. Chain traversing or chain angles method
2. Compass traversing: Angular measurements by surveying compass
3. Plane table traversing: Plotted graphically on plane table using alidade
4. Theodolite traversing: Theodolite used.
5. Tacheometric traversing
Types of surveying compass
1. S
y
m
: Needle is of edge bar type and also acts as an index. Qradrantal
bearing system used. Graduated ring is attached to the box and not to need lesightin and
rading can be done simultaneously
2. Poismative compass: Needle in broad needle type but does not act as index. Graduated
ring attached to the needle graduation in W.C.B system. Sighting and reading can be done
simultaneously
Meridian: Reference from which angle is measured
Types
1. True meridian: Line passing through true north and south
2. Grid meridian
3. Magnetic meridian: Line passing through that point and magnetic north and south
Bearing: Angle between reference meridian and the line, measured clockwise.
Azimuth: Smaller angle of the line from the true meridian
Magnetic bearing: Angle made with the magnetic meridian
Designation of Bearings
1. Whole circle bearings: Azimuthal system clockwise direction numerical value vary from 00
to 3600
N
1
E
2
3
S
2. Quadrilateral bearing system: (Reduced Bearings) Numerical value between 00 to 900.

S
Measured from north or south, which is nearest
N
E
3
Page 278
Surveying
Fore and Back Bearings: Both expresses in W.C.B System and differ each other by 1800. The
measurement of bearing in the direction of survey is called fore bearing
Back bearing = fore bearing 1800
1
1+
Local attraction: Needle deflects due to local attraction like magnets, cable carrying current, iron,
ores, etc.
Error= observed back bearing-calculated back bearing
Magnetic declaration: Horizontal angle between true north and magnetic north
Theodolite:
Classification of theodolites
1. Transit theodolite : Telescope can be rotated through a complete revolution about its
horizontal axis in a vertical plane
2. Non-transit theodolite
3. Vernier theodolite
4. Glass arc theodolites
Parts of transit theodolite
1. Levelling head
2. Lower plate
3. Upper plate
4. Standards
5. Telescope
6. Vertical circle
7. Plumb bob
8. Tripod
Grades
1. Up grade or positive grade
2. Down grade or negative grade
Curves: Curve followed by highway or railway alignment is called a curve

Types of curves
1. Simple curve: Curve of single are of a circle

A
C
B
P
D
O
Page 279
Surveying
2. Compound curve: Two or more or is of difference circles with different rad

Q
P
A
B
R1
O1
R2
3. Reverse curves: Centre is on the opposite sides of the curve at turning point then in only
one common tangent
R1
O2
C
R2
O1
B1
Vertex
T1
Backward tangent
-Angle of deflection
T2
/2 /2
Forward tangent
R
Tangent length=R tan/2

Length of the long chord = T1T2=2T1E=2Rsin/2
Length of the curve, l=R(in radius)
)
(
Degree of curve: Defined w.r.t a fixed length of an arc of the curve or with respect to a fixed
length of a normal chord of the curve
1. Based on fixed length of an arc: Degree of curve in the central angle of the curve, that is
subtended by an arc of 30 in length
30m
00
Page 280
Surveying
2. Based on fixed length of a chord

15 m 15 m
1 1
Methods of curve ranging

1. Linear or chain and tape method
2. Angular or instrumental methods
Setting out curves

1. Chain and tape
i.
Offset from to long chord
O
= +(
)
( )
Offsets from the tangents

(a) perpendicular method
T2
T1
ii.
A
Q1
Ox
E
T2
T1
N
iii.
Successive bisections of chords

(
)
Or
=
=R(
2. Angular measurement methods

i. Offset from chord produced: Adopted when a theodolite is not available
ii. Ranking method of tangential deflection angles: Curve set out by the tangential angle.
iii. Deflection angles from the point of curve and point of tangency using two theodolites
Page 281
Surveying
B
j
j1
O2
C1
Tachometric surveying
Horizontal & vertical distance are determined by using instruments. Instruments used is
tachometer and it theodolite having diaphragm fitted with two additional wires fitted called
stadia hairs
Methods of tachometric measurement

1. Stadia hair method
i. Fixed hair method
ii. Movable hair method
2. Tangential method
3. Substance bar (movable hair)
1. Stadia hair method
i.
Distance and devotion formulae for horizontal sights by fixed hair method
(a) Horizontal distance of staff position
i
O
b
B
1
i
S
F
a
d
A
1
B
D
( )
Page 282
Surveying
(b) Elevation of the staff station: Elevation of the staff station= Elevation of the instrument
axis - Control hair reading
ii.
Distance and elevation formula for inclined sight by fixed hair method
a. For inclined sight with staff vertical
A1B1 = ABcos = Scos
Inclined distance OC
(
A1
A
S
B1
B
h
v
L
d
O
D
Elevation formula
(
Elevation of the staff station

R.L. of staff station= R.L. of line of horizontal sight V-h
Distance and elevation formulae for inclined sight with staff normal
Case 1: Line of sight at an angle of elevation
(a) Horizontal distance formula
L= KS+c
D= KScos +cos +hcos
(b) Elevation of the staff station
V= Lsin = (KS+c)
Page 283
Surveying
L
E1
B g
Case 2: Line of sight at an angle of depression

(a) Horizontal distance formula
D= (KS+c) cos -hsin
(b) Elevation of the staff station
V= (KS+C) sin
V
L
V
D
The telescope used in stadia theodolitis are of the following three types
1. Internal focusing telescope
2. External focusing telescope [Theodolite with this is known as stadia theodolite]
3. Internal focusing telescope fitted with an analytic lens (c=0) [tacheometer]
Substance theodolite (Movable hair method)
Staff intercept constant
Distance between stadia hairs variable
(
)
(
Page 284
Surveying
2. Tangential method
Distance are computed by observing vertical angles of two point at fixed known distance S
on the staff
S
B
-S
1
D
(1)
S
S
S
(2)
Similarly for other cases results can be obtained

3. Substance Bar method
D
S
Used where direct chaining becomes difficult

S
S
)
)
Page 285
Surveying
heory of Errors and Adjustment

1. Mistakes
2. Systematic errors
3. Accidental or random errors
True value: Free from all types of error
Observed value
True error= True value-observed value
Triangulation : Process of measuring the angles of a network of triangles
Principles of triangulation
If 3 angles and one side in known, remaining parameters can be obtained.
Classification of triangulation
1. Primary triangulation
2. Secondary triangulation
3. Tertiary or 3rd order triangulation or topotriangulation
Correction
1. Correction for standard length
L= measured length, l=Designed length
2. Correction for alignment

(
l2
l2
Always subtractive
If A&B are not indivisible, then
3. Correction for scope

(
)
A
Always subtractive
Page 286
4. Correction for tension

(
Surveying
Applied pull is more, tension correction is positive if less tension correction is negative
5. Sag correction
(
6. Reduction to M.S.L
Page 287
Reference Books
Reference Books
Mathematics
Higher Engineering Mathematics

By Dr. BS Grewal
Advance Engineering Mathematics

By Erwin Kreyszig
Advance Engineering Mathematics

By Dr. HK Dass
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
By K.R.Arora
Foundation Engineering
By P.C.Varghese
Principles of Foundation Engineering

By Braja M.Das
By Venkatamaiah. C
Transportation Engineering
Highway Engineering
By S.K.Khanna, C.E.G. Justo
Highway Engineering
By Rangwala
Principles and Practice of highway engineering

By L.R. Kadiyali
Surveying
Surveying
By Dr. B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Kr. Jain
Textbook of Surveying
By Venkatramaiah.C
Surveying
By A.R.Abhyankar, S.S.Rajput
Page 288
Reference Books
Water Supply Engineering Environmental Engineering (Volume 1)

By SK Garg
Noise Pollution
By Agarwal
By Ruth F.Weiner, Robin A.Matthews, P.Aarne Vesilind
Page 289

QRG Ce PDF

Cargado por

Información del documento

Descripción original:

Título original

Derechos de autor

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

QRG Ce PDF

Cargado por

Copyright:

QUICK REFRESHER GUIDE

Quick Refresher Guide

1.1 Linear Algebra

3.1 Soil Mechanics

Water Resource Engineering

5.1 Water Quality & Standards

6.1 Highway Planning

4.1 Fluid Mechanics

Quick Refresher Guide

ith row, jth column

1.1.1.1 Types of Matrices

single row ( or row vector)

1.1.1.3 Square Matrix

Same number of rows and columns.

1.1.1.4 Rectangular Matrix

1.1.1.5 Diagonal Matrix

Quick Refresher Guide

1.1.1.6 Unit Matrix (or Identity Matrix)

1.1.1.8 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices:

Skew Symmetric Matrix = - A

1.1.1.9 Triangular Matrix

Orthogonal Matrix: If A. A = I, then matrix A is said to be Orthogonal matrix.

Singular Matrix: If |A| = 0, then A is called a singular matrix.

= transpose of a conjugate of matrix A

Quick Refresher Guide

Note: In Hermitian matrix, diagonal elements

Skew Hermitian matrix:

Note: In Skew-Hermitian matrix , diagonal elements

either zero or Pure Imaginary

Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar:

Every element of the matrix gets multiplied by that scalar.

An n order determinant is an expression associated with n

If A = [a ] , Element a with ith row, jth column.

Quick Refresher Guide

Minors & Co-Factors:

The minor of an element in a determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting the

1.1.1.20 Properties of Determinants:

Determinant of a skew symmetric matrix (i.e. A =-A) of odd order is zero.

|A| must be non-zero (i.e. A must be non-singular).

Quick Refresher Guide

AC = AD , doesnt imply C = D ,even when A

21. If A is a square matrix of order n then (i) |adj A|=|A|

Quick Refresher Guide

If A is a non-singular matrix, then all the row/column vectors are independent.

Solution of linear System of Equations:

For the following system of equations A X = B

A= Coefficient Matrix, C = (A, B) = Augmented Matrix

one or more solution (i.e. unique or infinite solution)

Quick Refresher Guide

Solution using Cramers rule:

In the above method, it is assumed that

Characteristic Equation and Eigen Values:

Quick Refresher Guide

is an Eigen value of the matrix then ,

Properties of Eigen Vectors

Any quantity having n components is called a vector of order n.

Its linear combination is x + x + x + x = 0

Quick Refresher Guide

1.2 Probability and Distribution

Event: Outcome of an experiment is called event.

no. of ways favourable to A

no. of ways not favourable to A

Odds Against the Event =

Independent events A & B

Quick Refresher Guide