Resources

What are aggregates?

Introduction
Aggregates are all around us, in our roads, houses,
schools and hospitals. They are also used to filter
our water and cleanse emissions from power
stations. Aggregate comes in a variety of forms,
each with its own characteristics and properties,
and these determine its many uses.
Basic definition
Essentially aggregates can refer to any granular
material formed from a natural rock substance. It is
usually further defined either:

by its source: primary, secondary, recycled

by its geology: limestone, granite, sand and
gravel, etc

by its grading: coarse, fine

by its end use: concrete aggregates, etc.

Primary aggregates
These are materials extracted directly from the
ground in quarries or pits. They can be either sand
and gravel, or hard rock.
Hard rock deposits are quarried from a fresh face
and broken by mechanical means into aggregate.
Geologically they can be igneous rocks such
as granite or basalt;sedimentary rocks such
as limestone or sandstone; ormetamorphic rocks
such as quartzite. As aggregates, they are often
referred to as crushed rock or by their individual
geological names. Explosives will need to be used
to break the rock face into pieces and often the rock
will pass through several stages of crushing and
screening to create the final product.

Hard rock quarry.

Sand and gravel can be of any geological origin, but
it has already been broken into pieces by the
natural processes of weathering, transported by
water or ice, and then deposited in a loose form.
Gravel can still be in large pieces, which will need
crushing, and usually all the material will need to be
washed to remove fine clay particles.
Marine aggregates are sand and gravel dredged
from the sea floor in permitted areas of the UK
continental shelf. Further processing is again used
to crush, screen and wash the material to provide
the required products. Under the European
Standards for Aggregates, primary aggregates are
also known as 'natural aggregates'.
Secondary aggregates
In many parts of the aggregate industry this term is
used interchangeably with 'recycled' aggregates.
However, secondary aggregates can be more
correctly defined as aggregates produced as a byproduct of other mining or quarrying activities such
as china clay waste, slatewaste and colliery spoil,
or as a by-product of other industrial processes, e.g.
blast furnace slag, incineratorash, or the ash from
coal-fired power stations. Under the European
Standards, mineral wastes are included in the
definition of 'natural aggregates', whereas the
aggregates derived from industrial processes are
defined as 'manufactured aggregates'.

Recycled aggregates are materials produced by the

recycling of construction and demolition waste.
They can be crushed concrete, bricks or glass,
asphalt planings (ie the surface layers of roads
removed during roadworks) or spent rail ballast.
Processing includes crushing and screening, as
with primary aggregates, but also the removal of
metal, plastic or wood waste. In some locations top
soil is produced as a by-product of this processing.

Sand and gravel quarry.

Resources
Crushed rock aggregates
Higher quality aggregates are required for
demanding applications, such as in road
pavements and in concrete. This is
commonly derived from hard, dense and
cemented sedimentary rock (most
limestones and certain sandstones) and the
tougher, crystalline, igneous rocks.
A variety of rocks are, when crushed, suitable for
use as aggregates. Their technical suitability for
different aggregate applications depends on their
physical characteristics, such as crushing strength,
porosity and resistance to impact, abrasion and
polishing. Lower quality aggregates may be
acceptable for other applications, such as
constructional fill. Higher quality aggregates are
required for demanding applications, such as in
road pavements and in concrete. This is commonly
derived from hard, dense and cemented
sedimentary rock (most limestones and certain
sandstones) and the tougher, crystalline, igneous
rocks.
Limestone

Limestone quarry.

Igneous and metamorphic rocks

Limestones are commonly thickly bedded,
consistent deposits, which are structurally
simple and can be quarried extensively and
economically.
Limestones are sedimentary rocks composed
mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). With an
increase in magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) content
they grade into dolomite. Most limestones and
dolomites are hard and durable and useful for
aggregate. They are common rock types and
consequently are widely extracted for aggregate
materials. Chalk is a form of fine-grained limestone
but is soft and porous and generally unsuitable for
aggregate use.

Igneous rocks produce strong aggregates

with a degree of skid resistance and are
hence suitable for many road surfacing
applications
Igneous rocks are particularly important in areas
where other aggregate materials such as crushed
limestone or natural gravels are not widespread.
Roadstone is the largest consumer of igneous rock
in Britain. Igneous rocks tend to produce strong
aggregates with a degree of skid resistance and are
hence suitable for many road surfacing applications
as well as for use in the lower parts of the road
pavement.
Sandstones
The suitability of a sandstone for aggregate
use mainly depends on its strength, porosity
and durability. These qualities are related to
mode of formation and geological history.

Sandstones are sedimentary rocks consisting of

sand-sized particles composed predominantly of
quartz, but with variable amounts of feldspar and
rock fragments set in a fine-grained matrix or
mineral cement. Compositional differences, both of
Igneous rock quarry.
the sand grains and the matrix, give rise to different
rock names under the general heading of
In Great Britain, limestone (including dolomite)
'sandstone.' The suitability of a sandstone for
provides 54% of the crushed rock aggregate
produced. Limestones of Carboniferous age are the aggregate use mainly depends on its strength,
porosity and durability. These qualities are related to
major source of limestone aggregate and they
mode of formation and geological history. Thus the
represent the largest resources of good-quality
mineralogical composition, grain size, degree of
aggregate in Britain. These limestones are
grain sorting, nature and degree of cementation,
commonly thickly bedded, consistent deposits,
degree of compaction andweathering state are
which are structurally simple and can be quarried
fundamental rock properties which directly affect the
extensively and economically. They typically
end-use performance of the sandstone and its
produce aggregates that are strong and durable,
economic potential. Individual sandstone units also
with low water absorption suitable for roadstone
vary in thickness and lateral extent.
(sub-base and road-base layers) and concreting
aggregate.
Many types of sandstone are too porous and weak
to be used other than as sources of constructional
fill. In general, older more indurated sandstones
(subjected totectonic compression), exhibit higher

strengths and are suitable for more demanding

aggregate uses, such as in concrete and
particularly as roadstone. Some sandstones also
have a high polishing and abrasion resistance and
are particularly valued for road surfacing where they
provide resistance to skidding.

Sandstone quarry.

Coarse Aggregate(Gravel)
Classification of Coarse Aggregate

Uncrushed gravel or stone which is the result of natural disintegration and

crushed gravel or stone are usually called the Coarse Aggregates. As
mentioned earlier, coarse aggregates are stones that are retained on 4.75mm
sieve. Nearly all natural aggregates originate from bed rocks. There are three
kinds of rocks, namely, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. In such, many
properties of aggregate depend on the properties of the parent rock itself.
Coarse aggregates are classified into two main groups: (i) single-size aggregate
and (ii) graded aggregate. Single-size aggregate is based on a nominal size
specification. It contains about 85 to 100 percent of the material which passes
through that specified size of the sieve and zero to 25% of which is retained in
the next lower sieve. A graded aggregate contains more than one single-size
aggregate.

Size of Coarse Aggregate

Size of the gravel affects several aspects: mainly strength & workability. The use
of largest maximum size of aggregate practicable to handle under a given set of
conditions could be used. Using the largest possible maximum size will result in:
(a) reduction of the cement content
(b) reduction in water requirement
(c) reduction of drying shrinkage
While choosing the maximum size of aggregate it should not be greater than
one-fourth of the minimum thickness of the structural member. Also it is restricted

to 5mm less than the minimum clear distance between the main rebars or 5mm
less than the minimum cover to the reinforcement.

Shape of Coarse Aggregate

Shape of three dimensional irregular bodies as coarse aggregate is difficult to

describe; but is the vital property affecting the workability of fresh concrete and
also its strength and durability. The characteristic of parent rock from which
coarse aggregates have been produced and also the type of crusher used for
crushing influence the shape of coarse aggregates. Rounded, Angular, Flaky,
Elongated and Irregular are some types on shapes of coarse aggregates.
Rounded particles are fully water-worn or completely shaped by attrition. Angular
particles possess well-defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planar
faces. Flaky particles have thickness small relative to the other two dimensions.
Elongated particles are usually angular of which the length is considerably larger
than the other two dimensions. Irregular particles are naturally irregular, partly
shaped by attrition and having rounded edges.
At a given water-cement ratio, rounded aggregates demands lower cement
content because of its least surface area for a given volume which is called
specific surface area. The higher cement demand in case of angular
aggregates is offset to some extent by the higher strength and durability because
of better interlocking. Flat surfaced particles such as flaky & elongated ones,
having a larger specific surface area makes very poor concrete. Water demand
and cement requirement for a given strength is higher for such particles.
Presence of such particles is highly objectionable in a good concrete.
Angularity Number

Another aspect of the shapes of aggregates is its angularity that affects the

degree of packing of particles. One of the methods of expressing the angularity

qualitatively is by a figure called Angularity Number. This is based on the
percentage voids in the aggregate after compaction in a specified manner.
A quantity of single sized aggregate is filled into metal cylinder of 3 litres capacity.
The aggregates are compacted in a standard manner and the percentage of void
is found out. The void can be found out by pouring water to the cylinder to bring
the level of water up to the brim. If the void is 33 percent the angularity of such
aggregate is considered zero. If the void is 44 percent the angularity number of
such aggregate is considered 11. In other words, if the angularity number is zero,
the solid volume of the aggregate is 67 percent and if the angularity number is
11, the solid volume of the aggregate is 56 percent. The normal aggregates with
an angularity number ranging 0 to 11 are considered to make suitable concrete.
The angularity number zero represents the most practicable rounded aggregates
and the angularity number 11 indicates the most angular aggregates that could
be tolerated for making concrete not so unduly harsh and uneconomical.
The angularity number is the index that gives the interlocking of aggregate in the
concrete. Interlocking of the aggregate is inversely proportional to the flakiness
index or the elongation index.

Surface Texture of Coarse Aggregates

Surface texture of the aggregates is the property of its surface that classifies it
into polished or dull, smooth or rough. Surface texture depends on the hardness,
grain size and pore characteristics of the parent material and degree to which
forces acting on the particle surface have smoothed or roughened it. Hard,
dense, fine-grained materials will generally have smooth fracture surfaces.
Rough particles have higher surface area due to its roughness hence require
more cement paste content for a given workability. Experiments have shown that
rough textured aggregates develops higher bond strength in tension than smooth
textured aggregate for a given water-cement ratio. As surface smoothness
increases, contact area decreases, hence a highly polished particle will have less
bonding area with cement-paste than a rough particle of the same volume. A

smooth particle however will require a thinner layer of paste to lubricate its
movements with respect to other aggregate particles. It will, therefore, permit
denser packing for equal workability and hence, will require lower cement-paste
content than rough particles; hence an economical one.
Generally, texture characteristics which permit no penetration of the surface of
the particles by the paste are not conducive to good bond, and hence softer,
porous and mineralogically heterogeneous particles result in a better bond.

Strength of Coarse Aggregates

Strength of coarse aggregates is difficult to measure. While we talk about the

strength of coarse aggregates it refers to the crushing strength of the aggregate
itself.
However, the required information on strength of coarse aggregates can be
obtained from indirect tests: crushing strength of prepared rock samples, crushed
value of bulk aggregate, and performance of aggregate in concrete. Tests on
prepared rock samples are little used, but the average value of crushing strength
of such samples is about 200 MPa, although many excellent aggregates range in
strength down to 80 MPa. It should be observed that the required aggregate
strength is considerably higher than the normal range of concrete strength
because the actual stresses at the points of contact of individual particles may be
far in excess of the nominal applied compressive stress.
On the other hand, aggregate of moderate or low strength and modulus of
elasticity can be valuable in preserving the integrity of concrete, because volume
changes under the applied load lead to lower stress in the cement-paste when
the aggregate is compressible. Whereas a rigid aggregate might lead to cracking
of the surrounding cement-paste.
Gradation of Coarse Aggregates

Coarse aggregates used in concrete making contain aggregates of various sizes.

This particle size distribution of the coarse aggregates is termed as Gradation.
The sieve analysis is conducted to determine this particle size distribution.
Grading pattern is assessed by sieving a sample successively through all the
sieves mounted one over the other in order of size, with larger sieve on the top.
The material retained on each sieve after shaking represents the fraction of
aggregate coarser than the sieve in question and finer than the sieve above.
Proper gradation of coarse aggregates is one of the most important factors in
producing workable concrete. Proper gradation ensures that a sample of
aggregates contains all standard fractions of aggregate in required proportion
such that the sample contains minimum voids. A sample of the well graded
aggregate containing minimum voids will require minimum paste to fill up the
voids in the aggregates. Minimum paste means less quantity of cement and less
quantity of water; leading to increased economy, higher strength, lower shrinkage
& greater durability. The workability is improved when there is an excess of paste
above that required to fill the voids in the sand, and also an excess of mortar
(sand plus cement) above that required to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate
because the fine material lubricates the larger particles.
Cement-paste or the Matrix that links together the coarse aggregates is weaker
than the aggregates. It is this matrix that is vulnerable to all ills of concrete. It is
more permeable and is susceptible to deterioration by the attack of aggressive
chemicals. Therefore lesser the quantity of such weak link in concrete, the better
will be the concrete. This objective can be achieved by having well graded
aggregates.

As shown in Fig-2, there are three typical range categories of aggregate

grading:

Well graded : Well-graded aggregate has a gradation of particle size that fairly
evenly spans the size from the finest to the coarsest. A slice of a core of wellgraded aggregate concrete shows a packed field of many different particle sizes.
It is characterized by the S- shaped in gradation curve.

 Poor graded : Poor-graded aggregate is characterized by small variation in

size. It contains aggregate particles that are almost of the same size. This means
that the particles pack together, leaving relatively large voids in the concrete. It is
also called uniform-graded. It is characterized by steep curve.
Gap graded : Gap-graded aggregate consists of aggregate particles in which
some intermediate size particles are missing. A core slice of gap-graded, or skip
grade, concrete shows a field of small sized- aggregate interspersed with slightly
isolated, large aggregate pieces embedded in a small sized aggregate. It is
characterized by a gradation curve with a hump in between.

Fig-2 : Gradation of Aggregates, showing, Well-graded, Poorly graded &

Gap graded)

Poorly graded concretes generally require excessive amounts of cement paste to

fill the voids making them uneconomical. Gap-graded concretes fall in between
well-graded and poorly-graded in terms of performance and economy. Gap
graded is viable gradation, but not optimal.
Well-graded aggregates are tricky in proportion. The goal of aggregate
proportioning and sizing is to maximize the volume of aggregate in the concrete
while preserving the strength, workability and finishing. This balance the
proportions of each so there are just enough of each size to fill all the voids, while
preserving workability and cast-surface quality.

Some experiments have concluded that grading for maximum density gives the
highest strength, and that the grading curve of the best mixture resembles a
parabola. However such aggregates graded to maximum density gives a harsh
concrete that is very difficult in ordinary concreting. So the proportioning should
be based on the surface area of aggregates that is to be wetted. Other things
remaining same, it can be said that the concrete made from aggregate grading
having least surface area will require least water which will consequently be the
strongest.
Also it has been found that the surface area of the aggregates may vary widely
without causing much appreciable difference in the concrete strength and that
water required to produce a given consistency is dependent more on other
characteristics of aggregate than on surface area. Therefore fineness modulus
is also to be introduced for arriving at satisfactory grading. It was found that any
gradation curve of aggregate that gives the same fineness modulus will require
the same quantity of water to produce the mix of same plasticity and gives
concrete of the same strength. Aggregates having two different gradings can
have same fineness modulus. Fineness modulus is a measure of the degree of
coarseness or fineness of an aggregate sample.
Some of the practical grading requirements as per the ASTM (C33) for different
material ranges are given in table below:

Grading

Requirements

for

Coarse

Aggregates

(ASTM

C33)

Rounded or Angular Aggregates?

Several aspects of the aggregates need to be investigated while arriving

conclusion to this simple looking question. Surface texture of the aggregate
particle also plays a significant role on this.
Generally angular aggregate particles have rough texture and round aggregate
particles are smooth textured. From the bonding point of view it seems that
smooth textured rounded particles form a poor bond with cement paste. But the
smooth looking surface of rounded particles is also rough enough at the
microscopic level and the cement-gel that forms a bond with aggregate surfaces
also has particle sizes in the level of microns. Both, surface and the cement-gel
reacts at the sub-microscopic level; hence the theory that smooth surfaced
particles yield poor concrete is not fully justified.
Angular aggregates have higher specific surface area than smooth rounded
aggregate. With a greater specific surface area the angular aggregate may show
higher bond strength than rounded aggregates. Also, angular aggregates exhibit
a better interlocking effect in concrete that contributes in strength of concrete.
Higher specific surface area of angular aggregates with rough texture demands
more water for a given workability than rounded aggregates. From this point of
view for a given water-cement ratio, rounded aggregates give higher strength.
Superimposing all these facts, it can be concluded that:
For water-cement ratio below 0.4 the use of crushed aggregate has resulted in
strength up to 38 percent higher than the rounded aggregate. With an increase in
water-cement ratio the influence of roughness of surface of the aggregate gets
reduced and at a water-cement ratio of 0.65, no difference in strength of concrete
made with angular aggregate or rounded aggregate has been observed.

Strength of Concrete

Concrete being a composite material that constitutes basically of cement paste

and gravel; has complex property in terms of its strength too. Strength of
concrete is dependent on so many factors and minor variation in one of these

may cause variation in its strength. The strength of concrete is mainly dependent
on:
Water to Cement ratio
Degree of Hydration
Aggregate Cement Ratio
Grading, Surface texture, Shape, Strength and Stiffness of aggregate
Maximum Size of aggregate used
Age of Curing
Water to Cement ratio

The most important factor determining the strength of concrete is the water to
cement ratio. It is the ratio of weight of mixing water (free water available for the
reaction with cement) to that of cement in the mixture. Cement needs water of
about 38% by weight for complete hydration. But since the complete hydration is
a long term process, and under practical conditions, the period of concrete
mixing and casting being short, the cement combines with only 23% of water.
If only 23% of water is added while mixing, the concrete wont be workable
because the water-cement ratio of 0.23 will be too less. So additional water will
be required for workability. This water in excess of 23% by weight will evaporate
on drying of concrete, creating voids in it due to trapping of air bubbles insides,
thereby reducing the strength of concrete.
Assuming full compaction, and at a given age and normal temperature, strength
of concrete can be taken to be inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio.
This is so called the Abrams law.
Abrams law is a special case of a general rule formulated empirically by Feret:

S = strength of concrete
K = a constant
c, w & a = volume of cement, water & air respectively

Degree of Hydration

Generally, strength of concrete is expressed as a function of water-cement ratio.

But actually, strength at any water-cement ratio depends upon the degree of
hydration of cement. Strength of the concrete is dependent on solid products of
hydration of cement to the space available for formation of this product:
gel/space ratio. The conventional relation between strength and water-cement
ratio will hold good primarily for 28 days strength for fully compacted concrete.
Instead of relating the strength to water-cement ratio, the strength can be more
correctly related to the solid products of hydration of cement to the space
available for the formation of this product. This ratio is defined as the ratio of the
volume of the hydrated cement paste to the sum of volumes of the hydrated
cement and of the capillary pores.

Aggregate to Cement ratio

The aggregate-cement ratio represents the volume of cement paste in a concrete

for a given water-cement ratio. Higher the aggregate-cement ratio, lesser will be
the volume of cement paste and vice-versa. Higher aggregate-cement ratio
means, larger volume of concrete is occupied by the aggregates hence less
proportion of cement paste. The total volume of porosity in concrete formed after
the hydration would be lower for the lower volume of cement paste used. If the
total volume of porosity is lower then the strength of concrete will be higher.

It has been found that for a constant given water-cement ratio, a leaner mix leads
to a higher strength.
Grading, Surface texture, Shape, Strength and Stiffness of aggregate
particles
Grading
Strength of concrete is basically a function of water-cement ratio provided that
concrete is workable. For producing a workable concrete the important factor is a
good gradation of aggregates. However it should be understood that there is no
ideal aggregate grading because satisfactory concrete can be made with
various aggregate gradings within certain limits.
However, if a sample of aggregate is well graded, it would contain minimum
voids; requires minimum cement paste to fill up the voids in the aggregates.
Minimum paste will mean less quantity of cement and less quantity of water,
which will further mean increased economy, higher strength and greater
durability.

Surface Texture & Shape

Generally angular aggregate particles have rough texture and round aggregate
particles are smooth textured. From the bonding point of view it seems that
smooth textured rounded particles form a poor bond with cement paste. But the
smooth looking surface of rounded particles is also rough enough at the
microscopic level and the cement-gel that forms a bond with aggregate surfaces
also has particle sizes in level of microns. Both, surface and the cement gel
reacts at the sub-microscopic level; hence the theory that smooth surfaced
particles yields poor concrete is not fully justified.
Angular aggregates have higher specific surface area than smooth rounded
aggregate. With a greater specific surface area the angular aggregate may show
higher bond strength than rounded aggregates. Also, angular aggregates exhibit
a better interlocking effect in concrete that contributes in strength of concrete.

Higher specific surface area of angular aggregates with rough texture demands
more water for a given workability than rounded aggregates. From this point of
view for a given water-cement ratio, rounded aggregates give higher strength.
Superimposing all these facts, it can be concluded that:
For water-cement ratio below 0.4 the use of crushed aggregate has resulted in
strength up to 38 percent higher than the rounded aggregate. With an increase in
water-cement ratio the influence of roughness of surface of the aggregate gets
reduced and at a water-cement ratio of 0.65, no difference in strength of concrete
made with angular aggregate or rounded aggregate has been observed.

Strength & Stiffness of Aggregate

Usually aggregates used in the concrete have higher value of Modulus of

Elasticity than the bonding material cement-paste and concrete itself. Also,
strength of aggregate particles ranges from 80 MPa to 200 MPa; which is much
higher than that of low strength concrete.

(i) Low strength concrete

Aggregates of low strength and low modulus of elasticity can be valuable for
producing the low strength concrete. As the strength and stiffness of
corresponding matrix phase is always lower than aggregate particles, in low
strength concrete, use of aggregate particles of low strength and stiffness
preserves the integrity of concrete. It is to be remembered that strength of low
strength concrete is governed by the cracking of transition zone or by the
properties of cement-paste itself. In low strength concrete, as volume changes
occurs during loading, compressible aggregates preserves the integrity of
concrete while rigid aggregates might lead to cracking of the surrounding
cement-paste.
(ii) High strength concrete

High strength concrete with strength ranging from 50 MPa up to 200 MPa; has

been developed. In high strength concrete transition zone is made stronger by

addition of various kinds of admixtures; usually mineral admixtures, filling up the
micro-level voids.
Usually strength of high strength concrete is governed by strength of the
aggregate itself. Testing of high strength concrete shows the mostly broken
aggregate particles. So in high strength concrete, in order to enhance its
strength, aggregates of higher strength and stiffness should be used.

Maximum Size of Aggregate used

For any gradation of aggregates, larger the maximum size of aggregate used,
lower will be the total surface area in a given volume of concrete. Lower the total
surface area of aggregates, lower will be the water requirement for the given
workability, therefore higher will be the strength at the given water-cement ratio.
Later it was found that the use of larger size of aggregate did not contribute to
higher strength as expected from the theoretical considerations due to following
reasons.
The larger maximum size aggregate gives lower surface area for developments
of gel bonds which is responsible for the lower strength of the concrete. Secondly
bigger aggregate size causes a more heterogeneity in the concrete which will
prevent the uniform distribution of the load when stressed.
When large size aggregate is used, due to internal bleeding, the transition zone
will become much weaker due to the development of micro cracks which will
result in lower compressive strength.
It is to be noted that high strength concrete or rich concrete is adversely
affected by the use of large size aggregate. But in lean mixes or weaker concrete
the influence of size of the aggregate gets reduced. It is interesting to note that in
lean mixes larger aggregate gives highest strength while in rich mixes it is the
smaller aggregate which yields higher strength.

Age & Curing

The compressive strength of concrete is found to gain strength with age because
the process of hydration continues over a longer period. The rate of increase in
strength is independent of cement content or grade of concrete but it is a function
of humidity conditions.
The gain in strength is 100% in eleven years provided the concrete is kept in
humid conditions throughout. However, if the concrete remains in dry condition
(after initial 7 days of wet curing), the increase in strength is negligible beyond
one year.