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An investigation of
efficient control strategies
for a PWM inverter driven
induction motor
This item was submitted to Loughborough Universitys Institutional Repository
by the/an author.
Additional Information:
A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University.
LOUGHBOROUGH
UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
LIBRARY
AUTHOR/FILING TITLE
"ISsA
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AN INVESTIGATION OF
EFFICIENT CONTROL STRATEGIES
FOR A PWM INVERTER DRIVEN
INDUCTION MOTOR.
by
RIHMAN HILLAL ISSA, B.Sc., M.Sc.
A Doctoral Thesis
Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Award of the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
of
/
Loughborough University of Technology.
MAR. 1987
Supervisors: Professor I. R. Smith, B.Sc.,PhD.,
D.Sc., C.Eng., F.I.E.E.
S. Williams, B.Sc., PhD., C.Eng., M.I.E.E.
(D
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ii
SYNOPSIS
Compensation
reduces the no-load losses in the motor and improves the torque-speed
characteristic under load conditions.
performance also includes power factor correction when the motor is lightly
loaded,.together with an automatic boost to the motor voltage when loads
are applied at low speed.
--
-------------------------------------,------
iii
simulate the performance of the drive system and which are suitable
for running on the University mainframe computer.
iv
Synchronous speed
(r/min)
Motor Speed
(r/min)
Synchronous frequency
(Hz)
Rotor frequency
(Hz)
Carrier frequency
(kHz)
Reference frequency
(Hz)
n
f
f
f
f
s
Slip
V
s
Supply voltage
(V)
V
r
(V)
VDC
(V)
s' Xr
R , R
s
r
(Q)
(n)
, L
(H)
(A)
Magnetizing current
(A)
L
sm
(H)
(H)
M
sr
s'
m
rrn
p
CO
(H)
Stator winding
(W)
losses per-phase
(W)
Flux/pole
(Wb)
(~'m)
( Nm)
Moment of inertia
(kg.r.t )
T
T
e
m
(kg.m /s)
(Elec. Rad.)
(Elec.Rad./s)
Time step
(s)
Time
(s)
Sampling time
(s)
d/dt operator
A,B,C
d,q
Error signal
(V)
Reference signal
(V)
Feedback signal
(V)
vi
k.
Proportional coefficient
Integral coefficient
Derivative coefficient
vii
page nos
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
SYNOPSIS ,
ii
iv
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1:
CHAPTER 2:
vii
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
Thesis Objective
10
2.2
14
2.3
Static Inverters
15
2.4
CHAPTER 3:
16
Types of Inverter
3 .1.1
25
3 .1. 2
25
3 .1. 3
3.2
PWM-v~ltage
26
source inverter
27
PWM-Modulation Techniques
27
3.2.1
Level set-modulation
27
3.2.2
Squarewave-modulation
28
3.2.3
Sinusoidal-modulation
28
viii
Page No.
CHAPTER 4:
3.3
~9
:].4
30
3.4.1
Natural switching
30
3.4.2
Regular switching
32
4.2
CHAPTER 5:
CHAPTER 6:
Power Circuit
45
4 .1.1
Power supplies
45
4 .1. 2
Power switches
46
4 .1. 3
47
4 .1.4
50
Control Circuit
51
4.2.1
51
4.2.2
53
4.3
54
4.4
55
4.5
56
76
5.2
78
5.3
79
103
6.2
105
6.3
106
ix
Page No.
CHAPTER 7:
CHAPTER 8:
6.3.1
106
6.3.2
3-phase/2-phase transformation
110
6.3.3
o,Q
112
transfor~ation
6.4
Computer Program
6.5
6.6
Harmonic Analysis
115
118
Control Techniques
162
7.2
163
7. 3
System Development
165
7.3.1
165
7.3.2
166
7.4
Experimental Configuration
167
7.5
Experimental Results
167
Introduction
182
8.2
183
8.2.1
Analogue PID
183
8.2.2
Digital PID
185
8.3
186
8.4
187
8.4.1
The Microcomputer
187
8.4.2
188
8.4.3
188
8.5
System Software
189
8.6
Experimental Results
191
Page No.
CHAPTER 9:
CONCLUSION
9.1
209
9.2
211
REFERENCES:
212
APPENDICES:
Appendix A:
222
Appendix B:
Motor specification
223
Appendix C:
Appendix D:
224
235
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1. 2
1.3
Thesis objective
The
Each system is
if required.
The development
Although
(4 5 61
' '
= -P
Direct methods:
2.
variable-speed operation.
An example of
The advantage
Their limitations
Static converters
With the advent of power semiconductor devices, the motoralternator set has largely fallen out of favour, as static
inverters have been developed to provide a variable-frequency
supply which is both accurate and reliable(g,lQ}.
The
(ii}
(iii}
(iv}
(11}
The
4 20
second type of converter is the D.C.-link/3-phase bridge inverter(l - ).
In this case, the A.C. supply is first rectified to D.C., before subsequently
being inverted to A.C. of variable frequency.
The
Also in this
21 25
- ), which ai~ to synthesise pseudo (or quasi)
In contrast to the
1.2
While
these equations are complicated, and exhibit certain non-linear characteristics, they can be solved quite rapidly on a digital computer if sensible
simplifications are adopted.
(26)
2
machines, using the stationary-axis method introduced by Park( ?) for the
analyses of salient-pole synchronous machine.
3-phase machine
analyse~
The para-
29
Mag~nn~ss
actual servomotor.
and Schultz
( 30}
carr~ed
during the transient conditions following plugging, again using a differential analyser, and they assumed a linear change in the acceleration of the
machine when studying the transient performance following either a sudden
change in the voltage or plugging at various speeds and switching instants.
The study was however, entirely mathematical.
sundaram
(31)
starting transients
33 34
' } used a digital computer to solve the machine
They
32
s~mpson
(35)
to analyse the torque transients following connection of a 3.5 kW squirrelcage motor to the supply at zero speed and at 90% of synchronous speed,
and for different switching angles of the supply.
In a
number of studies,
a common approach has been to assume that the motor voltage has a precisely
defined waveform and analytical solutions have been developed using a
number of advanced mathematical
techn~ques
(36-44)
and 120
.
conduction angles.
Other aspects
46-48)
49 50
) developed a digital computer model for studying
techn~ques.
Inverters with 120 and 180 conduction modes were considered, and computed
results were compared to test results from a laboratory-scale system.
Thesis Objective
basic requirements:-
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
An
, used to drive
Chapter 5
Chapter 6 describes
Theoretical results
CHAPTER 2
VARIABLE SPEED INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE USING STATIC INVERTERS
2.1
2.2
2. 3 Static Inverters
2.4
10
This chapter presents an overview of the speed control of a squirrelcage induction motor using a variable-voltage, variable-frequency static
Expressions for the motor speed and developed torque are
inverter.
shown to be functions of both the input frequency and the supply voltage,
so that,by control of the magnitudes of these quantities, any desired
motor performance can be obtained.
produced.
ns
( 2 .1)
The stator field cuts the rotor conductors and induces currents in them,
which in turn interact with the stator field to produce a torque.
By
Lenz's law, this causes the rotor to turn in the direction of the stator
field, and it accelerates until it attains a constant speed n , slightly
r
(2. 2)
nr
(1 - s) n s
(2. 3)
11
s.f
(2 .4)
The voltage
V
r
k~
(2. 5)
windings.
and v
decrease.
s V
r
R + jsX
r
r
or
I
V
r
(2. 6)
R /s + jXr
r
so-called
As the motor
accelerates
from rest Rr /s increases, leading to a reduction in the
.
12
a maximum
speed Rr/s becomes very large, reducing the rotor current almost to zero
and producing negligible output torque.
I 2
___!:
( 2. 7)
= Pr
P
out
- rotor loss
or
R
I 2 _.E
out
(.!.....:..2!
s
(2. 8)
where
out
(1 - s)
(1 - s) w =
s
ws
T
e
(2.9-)
.r T f!
2~n
T~
2~n
(2.10)r
13
and substituting equations (2.3) and (2.6) into equation (2.10) leads to
sV
2nn (R
s r
2
r
2
+ (sXr) )
(2 .11)
Equation (2.11) shows that the torque is a function of the rotor voltage
Neglecting the effects of stator parameters, which infers
and frequency.
that v
and equating the result to zero, gives the slip at which maximum torque is
produced as
s
max
R
X
(2 .12)
into
max
Substituting the
tion (2.11) gives the maximum torque
max
V 2
r
(2.13)
4nn X
s r
2nn (R
s r
R
r
(2.14)
14
.'
2.2
~g
produced
~g
- I Z
s s
k
f
s
(2 .15)
where
=
\
supply frequency
zs
stator impedance
machine constant.
and
Since the torque produced in the machine is a function of the air-gap flux,
constant torque operation requires the voltage to frequency ratio to be
maintained almost constant, showing that the supply voltage must be
proportional to the supply frequency.
low, the voltage drop due to the stator resistance becomes significant,
resulting in a reduced grossmechanical torque.
15
Static Inverters
Figure 2.5
shows the elements of such a drive, where the A.C. input is first converted
into D.C.,by either a controlled or an uncontrolled rectifier, and then
inverted to provide 3-phase voltages of variable magnitude and frequency
for the induction motor.
(a)
(b)
(c)
There are many variations of these basic types, but the differences lie
mainly in the method used for commutation.
In some
output waveforms associated with each basic type of inverter are discussed
in more detail in Chapter 3.
16
, since
power supply.
In practice,
this transfer is achieved via the line-to-line short circuit path across
the D.C.-link provided by a voltage source inverter, or by the commutation
of current. from phase to phase in the current source inverter.
2.4
voltage.
components
(a)
loss Pco is
2
2
Pco = mRs II s + I har I
where m is the number of phases, and
.,,
har
(2.16)
is
.....
and K is the harmonic order.
(2.17)
17
(b)
the magnitude and freguency of the harmonics in the stator flux density,
produced by the non-sinusoidal excitation.
(c)
In many cases
reactance will have a lower harmonic current and lower harmonic losses.
In contrast, the current-source inverter provides current harmonics, and a
lower leakage reactance results in reduced harmonic voltages.
inverter is best suited to a machine with a high leakage reactance, for the
same reason as the voltage source inverter, and it is therefore suitable
for driving small high-reactance machines.
18
59
a static inverter
(60)
to assume that the harmonic slip is in fact one, when the stator and
referred rotor resistances become negligible in comparison with
reactances.
th~
'
'
19
Is
R'i
xr
lr
Xs
Im
Vs
vr
Ym
Gm
(a)
Is
Rs
Xs
lr
Rr
I Ill
Rr
Vs
Gm
ylll
(b)
FIG.2.1
( 1- s)
Torque
..
"'0
speed
s=l
BRAKING MODE
s>l
Figure 2.2:
GENERATOR MODE
s<O
:J
"'.
~ 1.0
------------------------
>
Gl
-0.8
i~ 0.6
0.4
Boosted
Volts
/"'
0.2
/
/ Constant :::L
/-f
I
I
10
20
Supply Frequency
FIG. 2.3
40
30
50
Hz
22
...
I
\
----
0-~-----~------~----~----~----~~--~
0
Speed
(b)
\
I
0~----~----~----~----~----~---0
Speed
FIGURE 2e4 Steady state torque speed curves
(a) constant supply voltage to frequency ratio
(b) . constant ai rgap f1 ux
3-phase
A.C.
Input
3- PHASE
3 -PHASE
,,,
///
RECTIFIER
DC
Voltage
INVERTER
'
///
1MOTOR)
3-phase
Output
(Variable voltage
& Variable freque ncy).
CONTROL
CIRCUIT
Fig. 2.5.
SCHEMATIC
24
Rs
+
Xrn
Xsn
.r
T T T
...
Gmn
Rr
Xmn
sn
'
Fig. 2.6.
INDUCTION MOTOR
PHASE FOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
PER
----------------------------------------------------------------
CHAPTER 3
3.1
3.2
Types of Inverter
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
PWM-Modulation Techniques
3.2.1
Level set-modulation
3.2.2
Squarewave-modulation
3.2.3
Sinusoidal-modulation
3.3
3.4
Natural switching
3.4.2
Regular switching
25
3.1
Types of Inverter
row (1,3 and 5) and one in the bottom row (2, 4 and 6), or vice versa.
This process produces square wave inverter phase voltages with an equal
mark-space ratio, as shown in Figure 3.l(c).
VAB
VA -VB
VBC
VB
VCA
VC
= vC- v-A
(3 .1)
26
With this
However, in
order to maintain constant motor flux, the motor phase voltage must be
varied directly with the frequency.
~uasi-squarewave
cUrrent source
inver~er
------ ----- --
----~---
replace~_the
------
large, to maintain the supply current constant and thus provide a current
source.
the thyristors arid the output current waveforms are shown respectively.
in Figures 3.2(b) and (c).
results in 120
conducting simultaneously.
This is
27
3.1.3
can~provide
both
PWM-Modulation Techniques
Level set-modulation
-vset all cause switching of the inverter output, such that vset
may
be used to adjust the value of the fundamental voltage, i.e. the pulse
width varies with the level of V t"
se
28
output phase voltage and Figure 3.4(c) the line voltage, obtained
graphically by subtracting two inverter phase voltages as given by
equation (3.1).
in Figure 3.4(d).
output waveform and to extend the lower end of the speed range.
An
Squarewave-modulation
(d) present respectively waveforms of the inverter phase and line voltage
and the motor phase voltage.
3.2.3
Sinusoidal-modulation
This involves
The output
~aveforms
29
3.3
Three methods
b)
c)
30
3.4
.
ida 1 pwm sw1'tc h'1ng s t ra t eg1es
. ( 62 63 ) ,
Th ere are three common s1nuso
The choice of strategy depends
Natural switching
~sed,
is greater than that of the carrier, the number of pulses per output
cycle is reduced.
At high output
This is
31
The
The centres of the pulses are not regularly or uniformly spaced and
The pulse-width cannot easily be expressed by simple analytical
expressions.
However the width modulated pulse shown in Figure 3.7(c) may be defined
.
by the transcendental
equat~on
(62)
tp
(3.5)
where
The technique
overcome using a sampling technique which has the potential for real time
pwm generation and is described in the next section.
32
3.4.2
Regular
s~itching
Regular switching
be
using two different samples of the reference, and each edge is modulated
by a different amount.
illustrated in Figure 3.9, the same sample is used to generate both edges
of the pulse and, consequently, both edges are modulated equally.
Practical
is stored in a sample-and-
The sample is
The widths
---
-------------------------------------33
(62)
.
have der1ved a
(3. 6)
where
T
to +1
2j-l
and transi.tion
Cl2j
[4j3 -M sin(2j-l)
-
Cl
to -1
1r
2Rt
f
Rt
c
m
(carrier frequency)
(reference frequency)
and
j
(3.7)
is 1,2,3
.... Rt
(3.8)
34
When M is greater than unity, some of the pulses in the output waveform merge into their neighbours, and overmodulation occurs.
When
are linearly
k f
( 3. 9)
rewritten as
( 3. 10)
35
Commutatin g un i ~
Rect1f1er
-phas "
nput
-------.,
I
I
;~
-~
~~
1
1
'
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
L...--------...J
Controlled
r ______ _j ____
Voc.l
::=
I I
I [
~ I
I
L------ ____ ...J
I
'V""
I
I
r-- - - - - . ,
"lr ~171
7~
'l ~
' d ~ i~ 5 II
' B
c
I "l ~
'
~4 i~ ; f-6
L ____
L-C
t i l t er
1----
~; b
'----
Inverter
(a)
1
2
POWER CIRCUIT
IZZ1
t%2%221
3 VZZZZJ
4
12%%221
(bl
VA
VZZZZJ
pzzzzJ
F7J
rzzzza
t%22%21
122%1
VZZZZJ
VZZ/1
rzzzza
VZZZZJ
CONDUCTION SEO.UENCE.
Vs
Vc
___J----~---~r---~L_
-.,
_J
36
', '\
"/
Voc
''
(d)
FUNDAMENTAL
/COMPONENT.
,.._
'
LINE
VOLTAGE
1',
~
(f)
F1g. 3.1.
CONTINUED.
37
L
+
Ioc
Voc
'a
'b
( Q)
----L~c.L.~:.::.mc..:.L- _ __J~U~L.../jc.L.ZJ~ 1
WAJ
fZ0z
WA
f723
------~~u~~z~aA_______ 4
u72l:.A.--------L<f2:.....::Z...&..2LJ2L...--___
5
6
( bl
'
FUNDAMENTAL
/COMPONENT
FUNDAMENTAL
~COMPONENT.
~_L1/3j,
G:Ci
(cl
38
'
3-phase
input
'
Voc
==
-~
';l ~
,
I
1,_4 ~ .,.I
ro
~;
177_61
tv/V/Z/1 E?.Z
inverter
V//////1
P'il
!222222ZJ
VI
.~
' ~, r-5
Uncon.t~olled
; ~3
' ~ ~ F-1 ~
6
(b)
r--
Voc
LINE VOLTAGE
..._
- -
00
(cl
~Voc .Jv"'ID 0
uu
39
4-
1. 0
0.5
0
-0.5
(a)
-1.0
4-
vov2 r-
....--
r-
(c)
- Voc
r--
L-...
L--
....
r--
1-
....-
r--
1.--
1L...
.__
L...-
L--
'--
40
V.
1 ,...
ft
I
I
.....
(a l
-1
L.
I"'
( b)
.... ,...... ,...... ,...
. "AB
(c)
,......
- Voc
'-
L.L.....
....__ ....__
41
1.0
(a)
vrx./2
,_.
( b) - VDC/21
'--
'--
. r- r-
....-
....-
VA-B 0
(c)
- Voc
I..-
'- ' - -
V,
DC
Va
(d)
fi---JLL.....JU-...L..I----L..L.-I~L-r-~.--.-r-1,..--,,...-,.....,,.......
~V,
3
oc
voltage
42
(a)
(b)
I
I
I
t,
I
I
,,r,
I
i
j.
(C)
Msin'Vmt
tp '
'
l R~f!rence Waveform
2. Carrier Wave form
3. PWM Output Wave form
4.Fundamental of Output Waveform
43
Sample-hold
Signal
Reference
Signal
(a)
Carrier Signal
(b)
(c)
'--
--
PWM
)ntrolSignal
----'
hold
44
Carrier Signal
\-\
I l
-I
r-
(a)
PWM Control
,..../Signal .
r-
....
L...- .
Msinwmt
I
I
I
I
I
(b)
t1
I.
I
t2
1. reference signal
2. sample-hold
modulating signal
3. carrier signal
4. PWM output
L fpl
t3,t
T
t4
-I
SAMPLING PWM
CHAPTER 4
4.1
4.2
Power Circuit
4.1.1
Power supplies
4.1.2
Power switches
4.1.3
4.1.4
Control Circuit
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
45
circuit and the control circuit and these are described respectively in Sections (4.1) and (4.2).
Experimental results,
4.1
Power Circuit
The power circuit consists of the power supplies and the semiconductor
inverter switches,together with their accompanying snubber circuits.
The following subsections describe in some detail the various elements
of the power circuit.
4.1.1
Power supplies
the high-frequency isolated supplies for the GTO gate drives and the
580V
D~rlink
The
isolated supplies required by the GTO gate drives are shown in the
block diagram of Figure 4.3.
require an isolated supply, whereas those for the lower three GTOs can
46
a turns ratio of 1:3, and steps the voltage up to about 65 V peak-topeak at the secondary.
T6.
Transformers
T3, T4 and TS are for the three upper GTO gate drives and transformer
T6 is for the lower GTO gate drives.
When TRl is conducting, diodes 05 to 010 conduct, charging the capacitor
connected to the positive supply in the GTO gate drives.
TRl is turned
off, diodes Oll to 016 conduct and the energy stored in the cores of
transformers T2 to T6 charges the capacitors connected to the negative
supply in the gate drives.
outputs to -12 v.
o.c.
supply is
o.c.
The resistor
is running normally.
used to discharge the
4 .1. 2
o.c.
Power switches
The drive efficiency depends partly on the inverter losses, which may
be significant, particularly in low power drives of less than 5 kW.
47
a)
The minimum forward blocking voltage must exceed the peak lineto-line voltage, to provide an allowance for regeneration.
b)
c)
There are four main types of semiconductor switch which satisfy these
requirements:
l)
Bipolar Transistor
2)
MOSFET
3)
4)
The GTO thyristor has a 4-layer pnpn structure, which has been developed
in recent years from the basic-structure of the conventional thyristor.
The structure and a transistor equivalent circuit are shown in Figure 4.5.
Like the conventional thyristor, a GTO can block a high forward voltage
while turned off, and it can pass a peak forward current far in excess
of its average current rating while turned on.
Typical operating
Switching
Device
Rating
Bipolar
Transistor
MOSFET
Snubber Circuit
Requirement
Switching
Characteristic
Complex
snubber circuit
required
Fast switching
Cost
High voltage
high current
expensive
Snubber circuit
not required
High speed
switching
Very expensive
Conventional
thyristor SCR
Snubber circuit
required
Slow switching
(turn-off)
Inexpensive
Gate-Turn-Off
Thyristor GTO
Snubber circuit
required
Fast switching
(turn-off)
Moderately
expensive
TABLE 4.1
No
"'
00
49
.
(65 ,66)
f
device are well documented in the l1terature
and only a brie
description will therefore be given here.
Turn-on is achieve~~f>ly~ng__ il. positive pu_ls<:__9_f_c_t]rre!lt_to_0_e
gate, followed by a small gate current of about 1/3 of the pulse magnitude
for the remainder of the on-period in order to minimise the on-state
,_______________
losses.
-~
--~--
----- --
----
---
-----------
.--~------
practice, it is
the anode current away from the device during turn-off and to limit the
magnitude of dv/dt during turn off, so as to prevent unwanted turn-on.
The rate of decrease of anode current during turn-off may be sufficiently
high to produce a large voltage spike across the GTO, due to the stray
inductance of the snubber circuit, and this implies that the snubber
must be connected as close as possible to the GTO leads.
This voltage
spike increases the turn-off losses and may possibly result in a breakdown of the GTO, although the turn-off loss can be minimised by using
a fast turn-on diode with a low forward voltage across the GTO.
In a
bridge circuit, the snubber need only be a capacitor connected between the
anode and cathode of each GTO, as shown in Figure 4.6.
Because of its
high surge current and di/dt ratings, the GTO can withstand the anode
current pulse caused by this capacitor during the turn-on period.
size of the snubber capacitor c
The
excessive may be defined by the peak discharge current, which must not
50
Good
4.1.4
i'
I
Figure 4.7 presents a block diagram for the inverter, which consists of
three complementary legs, one for each of three output phases.
The
was assumed under regenerative braking conditions (580 + 150 = 730 V),
and Mullard type BTV58-l000R GTO, with voltage and current ratings at
1000 V and 10 A were chosen for the drive.
Since the gates of the six GTO's are not all at the same potential,
thecontrol system was isolated from the gate drives by means of pulse
transformers.
The
51
4.2
Control Circuit
The
pwrn-IC, which is controlled by a frequency demand and a voltage controlled oscillator, is to provide three complementary pairs of output
waveforms, which when applied to the inverter switches in an appropriate
sequence produce the symmetrical 3-phase voltage waveforms given in
Figure 4.10.
its operation and the relationships between the various control signals,
clock inputs and the inverter output waveforms can be found in
reference (67).
in Table 4.2.
52
Clock
Input
Function
Relationship
FCT
VCT
RCT
OCT
TABLE 4.2
Relationships between
53
The FCT lock input which determines the output frequency of the inverter
is controlled by V f' as shown in Figure 4.8, via the speed reference
re
circuit-described in detail in Section 4.2.2.
The steady-state
The VCT
clock input which sets the inverter output V/f ratio is controlled by
the voltage controlled oscillator IC7.
The
cw
The four clock inputs FCT, VCT, RCT and OCT are routed
to the pwm-IC so that the inverter operating conditions can be
monitored.
4.2.2
The speed circuit of Figure 4.8 was designed for unidirectional operation,
with control over both the maximum rates of motor drive acceleration and
deceleration.
betwe~~
-~-speed
demand Vref
It is
VN.
A step-
54
frequency control for the pwm-IC clock input FCT via the voltage
controlled oscillator IC6.
RCT and OCT are obtained from the multi-vibrator circuit IC7.
The clock
frequency of IC7 is set by C7, Rll and R26, with fine adjustment being
provided by R26.
of the output waveforms from the pwm-IC are sufficiently large to drive
the inverter GTO-gate drives.
4.3
~s)
Jls)
55
When C20 is
fully charged, a lower steady-state current flows through R33 for the
remainder of the on-period, to minimise the on-state losses of the GTO.
Turn-off results when TR4 is turned on and current is withdrawn from the
gate via diode D47 into the smoothing capacitor C22 connected to the
isolated -12 V supply.
~H
to ensure rapid
4.4
current, and when this exceeds a preset value the outputs of the pwm-IC
are inhibited to disconnect the motor from the supply.
The 0.1 0, 5 W resistor Rl2 in the negative side of the D.C.-link provides
a voltage proportional to the D.C.-link current.
Isolation provided
56
This gives
ICl~c)
The
to -12 v, by press.
4.5
and the values of these inputs are now determined for the experimental rig
under consideration.
Speed variation is achieved by varying the frequency applied to the FCT
clock.
Table 4.2 as
3. 36 f
where f
kHz
57
The frequency
applied to the VCT clock input f C determines the inverter output voltage/
VT
.
frequency ratio.
To ensure normal
If the ratio
exceeds 0.5, the number of switchings per output cycle reduce and overmodulation occurs.
the inverter.
--------------
58
The current limit was adjusted by loading the motor until the motor
line current waveform was 10 A peak-to-peak and Rl8 of Figure 4.12 was
adjusted to trip out pwm-IC at this current level.
The inverter voltage waveforms shown in Figure 4.15 are at 50 Hz
operating frequency and a frequency ratio of 0.45.
motor voltage waveforms are shown in Figure 4.16.
The corresponding
The motor phase
voltage and line current waveforms of Figure 4.17 clearly shows that
line current lags the phase voltage.
A
3_$
CURRENT
3-PHASE
GTO-INVERTER
MAINS RECTIFIER TO
SMOOTHING CAPACITOR
sensmg
circuit
cb
~I
**
t
SMPS
FWO
OV
STOP
~
1-ANALOGUE
CONTROL
SECTION
Vref
PULSE AHPLIFIER
VR~FCT
~~VCT
ccw;Gi
vco
VCO
FCT
PWM 1C
HEF 4752 V
VCT
-V
IRCTIIOCTI
A
B
@l
H
'-
(b)E in
(c)tool
(a)Cin }a)Bin
023
BA~2
~15k
To control
circuit.
rl
" tl6 h
26
Lo L
BAWf--
62
R10
100
017'
.K1. . ~
ReA Cl Re"Uz
c9
13l-D
22n
~Ll.
R11
470
Rec 12)
~25
HD:-
22
BZh,-
16V
~87...!1
I Lifi
,.-
R7
'ifs;
____.!!'6] r2 .l1fw
4-.1
-1
.~~~-
~~
,.....--
R3
BAW62
CR37
Vm1 1
06
r-~l.Zrf-- 791
1 c1
I' ,.2
r,t
-12V
To gate
drives
To control
circuit
OV
Reefl
7lf"'
ReM
.,.
'lZ
fR1
"'
0
eB 11
ReB/2
12V
r-T-o-co-nt-ro_l-bo__rd--Fe--.-t--~~~~~~~~~~
35
~~On~~
L.
-ve de
Fig.4.2.
I
I
6x~VW56
~~;_rrz__ ...OL __ j
~
'P3s
CL
n
01
~
02
30;
L--=+::=+=t==:f.--..:1' 6V
-
L-=====t:t=====rll
47
05
~
:
.
C?
%~w
024
'
...!-"'
I U
1>.
'f l'/
2,~~-~j!l. ~ ~~~ --.,
100n
'..i:Jl
[)21
la lAin
Fs 1-3
1>.
T1
150}!
I n2SV
TRI
ReB (3)
15015~
~ill~
-&\
IQ WJ- .'~
21.0V:
N1C~S5 7;~
I "5
R2
27 CR52
lb)rl lblS'f'-~r
SYSTEM
..J
DC. LINK.
POWER SUPPLIES
Fs 4
+ve d.c.
B- UPPER 1-o
GTO
1-o
C- UPPER
GTO
l-<>
MODULE 1--o
MODULE f-.<>
MODULE
ON/0FF
SWITC H
B
(
r-
DIODE
BRIDGE
RECTIFIER
+
LOGIC
POWER
SUPPLIES
1-o
I-<>
A-UPPER 1-o
GTO
~
j(
)~
j~
~
B
(
A- LOWER 1-<>
GTO
r-<>
MODULE 1-<>
- ve
d.c.link
B-LOWER 1--o
GTO
1--o
MODULE 1-o
C- LOWER f.-<>
GTO
f-<>
MODULE f-<>
.~
rL
'"r
RESET
SWITCH
1:
-J
'
CONTROL
(AA[)
C~RR~
S
NS
c et.
FIG.4.3
62
T~
AT4043/48
4
1
r+l+--o + ev
to upper
4-~-+-r--<>-l 2 V GTOs in
in.Jerter
bridge
R4
+16V
s.an
unregulated
1 1W
QV
AT4043/4BH--:!
--~~1
+12V
T~
T5
regulated
AT4043/48
4
R2
12kn
01
BAW62
8
7
OV
DB
8AV10
rt~-+--o+
22nF
C1
560pF
C2
1 OnF
AS
470n
ovoJ-----4--~---------4--~--
8V
C4
150JJF
25V
to lower
GTOs in
inverter
bridge
FIG. 4.4
63
Anode
Gate
Cathode
Anode
+ ve
Cs/2
Oecoupling
Capacitor
Load ,
Cs /2
-ve
'
I
.
+
ve d.c.
DRIVE
CIRCUIT
ab
..... I '
DRIVE
CIRCUIT
SNUBBER
CIRCUIT
6~
u' ~
DRIVE
CIRCUIT
<::NIIRRI;R
'
'
'
'
u'~)""'
ciRcUIT
gF~~~IT
SNUBBER
CIRCUIT
G~
/"
I~R~m~~
I~I~CVU~T
a' ~
G~
I
I
I
~~~~~w
Q~
dt)
_0 ~
DRIVE ~
CIRCUIT
_d ~
1 E~R~mfR
Q~
- ve d.c.
A
IC4-S
MC 1458N
IC 6
NE566
HEF4047B
IC 7
ICS
IC 9
FIG. 4.8
HEF4752V
HEF40174B
IC11-14 HEF4093B
IC15
HEF4016 B
66
OCT
CW VAV Kl I
r--------- ----- ;>--- ;>--
I
I
FCT
T
I r--t'
I
I
r~l
counter
VCT
L VCT
counter
I
I
I
f-
f-
E
0
0
E
iI
RCT
counter
f- ~
L __ - - - - - ---~-
CSP
ORM
ORM
0/P I~
-ORC
t
ORC
OYM
OYM
0/P ,..._..r
t:::="t-< OYC
T
OYC
I
OBM
OBM
"""""
0/P b..
OBC
~
Le OBC
f-
...
I
I
RCT l
-----...,
tes.t
c.c.t.
1..-.o
-----------...1
A B C RSYN
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
-----------------------------
67
. a.
r---
b.
V(A-Bl
c.
FIG. 4.10
SYSTEM WAVEFORMS
a.
b.
Carrier Waveform
Inverter Phase
Voltages
r-- -- - - - - - - - ------------------------------- --
--- -- ----l
1
I
I
I
r-------
I
I
I
I
R34
10
049
(21
kV
T7
I
I
50}1
(23
(24
2x1n
'iSfW
1000V
19
"'"'
C1? 390' p
I
IC 16
2
: HEF 40104 8
}J
L.----- - - - - -
PWM <?--{=}--t-<rl
16V
CONT~L
SIGNAL
-12Vo----~--'
ISOLATED
Fig,4.11
GTO THYRISTOR
MODULE CIRCUIT.
I
I
I
I
_______ _J
R12
V
o.,nsw
-ve DC.
LINK
-12V
DV
J(f't(d)
+8V
to pin
lJ
24 of
ICB.
ov
R14
2.2k
D13
BAW62
RESE~
R17
1~
SWITCH
R15
D43
R19
zot
62X
79
C3V9
,1\8
R13
151\
C13
16V 1501'
D44
ll)
BAW62
ov
1501'
16V
-12V
R23
101\
R21
101\
lJ
ov
IC18
R20
R16
151\
JCii!bl
-12V
R18
1\
270
C15
lOOn
CNY 62
D45
BZx79
C12
-12V
<Y>
"'
-70-
FIG. 4.13
-71-
FIG. 4.13
CONTINUED
- ..
~
- .. -.-- -
~~-
-~-
........
-.-.'-~---- -.
---~-----
'
----~-
FIG. 4.14
73
:-.:,. -
- ~
I'
'i.
<
t'T
11
~~.;,~~':'...:"1~~. f 1i' I !
'
i :
.;
I ,
-~~"!,~" ~ 1 I
I I I I i ! ,
I~ .......;.':'.'f.;!ln"
..;-o..;..;_..;-J~.;..; ~.
.; ..
.-..;..;..;...;..,;~..c:- ~ J -:I
i I
r "l'f...
(
.,
....
,.
< '
! 'I'
0
'I
'
I
i
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ... - : - - ...........
,
'
'
"
.......
~-_-_..
.. '
------
FIG. 4.15
...... ......
~
.. "':
'
---~
-~----
''
-------
11.
': ;i
Ll
:.
-
'
"
111
q,_,r
1I i
_ lt-'
,; i-'
'
'----
---
'
'
----.
..
,. '-
-- -'
-_--
------
--
FIG. 4.16
...
--
----- -
--
'
---
---
~-
---
75
.~
'
.~:~
-- ------------ . -------------------~----. -
..
FIG. 4.17
-----!-~-
. ---
-:------~
CHAPTER 5
5 1
5.2
5.3
76
b)
5.1
The circuit,
The
Vlim (max)
= -
VR3 x
R7
R6
77
v . to v . (max).
1l.m
1 J.rn
while
deceleratin~
negative value.
achieved.
(=
The voltage
Any
Figure
5.3
shows ultra-violet
Bode-diagram o= Figure 5.4 (showing the system gain and phase variation
with input frequency,
is obtained.
7B
This
shows clearly that the motor speed is linearly accelerated from standstill to full speed in the forward direction in about 9 s.
Motor
to
v.
5.2
Reducing the
frequency of this clock increases the inverter output voltage and vice
versa.
signal
A diagram of
79
Consideration of
Figure 5.10, shows that the amplitude of the motor line current during
starting is increased in comparison with that of the uncompensated system
of Figure 5.5.
from forward full speed to reverse full speed for an un-loaded drive
system with IR-voltage drop compensation are presented in Figure 5.11.
It is clear from the Figure that after deceleration to standstill in
about 8 s, the motor pauses for about 1 s before restarting and
accelerating to rated speed in the reverse direction, again in about
8 s.
5.3
(~~~ ) of 0.5.
- 80 -
VAB
VA
10K
10K
5
R4
10K
VR2 pt2
lOk
ov
ov
ICz
DECELERATE
+1
20K
ACCELERATE
os
Rs
ov
10M
10K
c
10 )J F
pt1
VRJ1.0k
20K
ov
ov
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
-10V
ov
cw
COMPARATOR
ov
INTEGRATOR
L-10V
Fig.S.1.
POLARITY
DETECTOR
ov
10n :~
~2k
7n
6
pt
.....
5 NE566 3
>~
5K
7
470P
4093
IC
C3V6
...1'
r-
:!:
5.6k
DV
j_ -12V
FIG.5.2.VCO
LL'
CD
N
-~DV
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.
83
..
2o5T/cm
20 cm/min.
FIG. 5.3
84
li
/\
I \
\
"'
I I
I \:.
I~ I iV
O.5v/cm-.
I~
hJ~JJ
-
.
-
...
-- . -
--
.
.
. -
"
.....
- ---~------- -=:_---:20:Cm(~!!'!_ --
-.
- --- -----
- 06!5v/Cm.
--
--
fl
~r ...
-
"
----
. .
_-J-:fl .
'
..
fl
- ..
-~
11
...
f--.
. --
-\1.
..
..
----
.. ---------~1!1111.""--- -
FIG. 5.3
CONTINUED
OdB
'
T
.....t:.
.: I>
'i'
-10tB
II
I ..
- 20d B
'
- 30dB
- 40dB
'
'
"'"'
0
50
:0
-100
0
_150
0
200
400
600
BOO
1000
HZ
FIG. 5.5
MOTOR SPEED AND CURRENT FOR ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION TIME - NO-LOAD
'
~.i
I
i
'
I
I
I
speed
400 r/rnin
'
.,.
I
I
I I
''
80 crn/rnin
___
FIG. 5.6
.....__
__
MOTOR SPEED CURRENT AND VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS FOR EQUAL ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION TIME
- NO-LOAD
-10
0>
0>
400
1.5 A/cm
FIG. 5.7
Fig.s.a.!al
IR-COMPENSATION CIRCUIT
~----------------:----------------
90
fo
~ drop
m-Jo 1 tage
compsnsation
decreasing
:pt1
increasing
:pt4
- V
fo
---:-
determined by :pt5
VRvcr
-V
rated motor
:phase voltage
Vout
0
FIG. 5.8(b)
boosted terminal
voltage
determined by :pt6
fo
1
I
\
~
\
7.00
C"
~
..,.e- 6.00
-."'
er::
5.00
11
.....;
d
a:
,_
f 1=20Hz
3.00
2.00
1.00
f 2:30Hz
FIG. 5.9(a)
400
tI
f ,=40Hz
01
I
I
f ,=50Hz
d
600
SPEED rpm
oL-----------~-----------L----------L---~---
200
4.00
:::;)
I
I
I
800
1000
...."'
9.0
8.0
7.0
<T
\I
..
,.E 6.0 ~
Q:
5.0
a:
4.
o\
~4
iI
3.0
2.0
. 0
200
FIG. 5.9(b)
f 4 =40Hz
i
I
o\
400
600
-SPEED rpm
\\
\
800
f ,70Hz
0\
!,=60Hz
o\
\1
1I
ol
01
\ f 5 =50Hz
iI
f 3=30Hz
\ f 2=20Hz
....
::>
I
I
\ f 1:10Hz
1000
"'"'
\
cl
1200
'
J
\
1400
step Input
voltage
5 V/cm
FIG. 5.10
MOTOR SPEED AND CURRENT WAVEFORMS RESPONDING TO STEP INPUT SIGNAL - WITH IR - VOLTAGE
COMPENSATION - 60% LOAD
!:!
1:
''
"
400r/mi~/c.m
,,
I
''
' '
I I
'I
''
::t
.,.,
~2cm/min
I
I
'I
11
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
.,
,, II
I
',,. I
' II
1':
"
I
11'1
I
I
'
'
'i
'
,, ,,
" II
I
''
I i
h
,.,, 'Ill
:j
' I
I, H
FIG. 5.11
'
I
,.,
I
I
"
11
11
"
q.; . ,.j,.
'
'
'
'
"'
i
'
'I
I
I
Ill
1:1
'
'
ill'
i '1"1
Ill
,Ill
"!'
'I
j;o!j'il
'il.l
I
'I
: ti 1:
1"1\-j;:;:
"I I !'Ill
I 11' !I
I I '1''1!
11
r.,
I I :1:1
i
I I 11
;j
'
I ill
I ill
1!.:
210 V/cm
<0
c.n
210 V/cm
210 V/cm
FIG. 5.12
, 4 ms/cm
270 V/cm
<0
0>
270 V/cm
270 V/cm
,:.
FIG. 5.13
. ......
- - - - - - - ------
. ...
. -....,.....- -
~~ .
-+---
.
. +I
.. --'----+ -
- .0:
-~~----~
INV.
PHASE VOLTAGE
290V/cm
I .
INV.
LINE-LINE
VOLTAGE'
290V/cm
. ....... .
FIG. 5.14
''.
---"'"'-~
.:;.._,,,
., ...
-:
..
.
-,
'.
'-
''
-.---------_ .
. '.
__
------ _ i_c:---,
..
'
'
,.
INV. PHASE
VOLTAGE
~-
,.
-_ --,---
--~--
'
290C/cm
'
--, . le
I 1-
. -_
~}_
... -
.11--.
-_: : ,_ .
- -- I -- ..
Ul
I 11
.
. ,
- ----
-. c
-:i
!:
-- ---
~~M ~~
-- '
''
,. ',,.
.~---.-.......
----
_-_. __--'
..
__
~:.~: :,~;!{:
- .
.-- --!--'-
-_ - - i: c__::_z:'::.:::.::.::'::.' - .
:-
_-.
... , ...-,
,..
',
. . --c--:
. : ,_;,;.
:: _,, .. , ;
,..
:: :. :
.
.L.
,_,'-- '--
1'
'''
..
"
. :- _- :::c::.: __ --- -
,- - -
. -4
__ _ _
.. -
,.
.
----------------
' : :rr!'
IW~Vi ........:. . I-
---
-__
., :
: ;.,;).'
~,.. r-
j,..
:::.-~~--~-----~~--~~-;
r---- -.. - .. :--- -- ----
;;"
, lOO cm/sec
... ..
-~-~---:
iililll
;'
. +--------- -'- -
--
-~.
' ' ..
..
I I I ~ ~r- ,I1, .
t
'
1:- ii
- ...::
.
90V/cm
,:jj,;l
111- ..
'
~--:
:r~~~mr
i -11
-: ... ....
..
. .
-;"y::<
':_.--. ."'"~---.'
...
..
:_:
_.___ -__
,-,,.
-r- -->-:. ., .
-
---
w~ ,..r~
~T
;---
--
'- .
"1
1-
j~
.. _: . _ --.-.:.::....
"'"'
---
-------.
INV. PHASE
VOLTAGE
(V)
290 V/cm
---------------
INV. LINELINE
VOLTAGE
(V)
290V/cm
I -~l!!~~~~'WVW'I\J
I --
. _ _
--I'I'~'~~:~A~\~~~M~H,___
.. , .....
- -
!i ~~~~,~Ill!~
r!~~~ilr!i! llillli ~~lk!lll! \I! "'''1\t~ili, l~ill~i~l~~~~!~!\1111 I \110 "'IH"" I' Ill I IMri
I
!:4Wil'
'''''~m~~M,mll'
1111n~m~M''" 11'
lOO cm/sec
FIG. 5 .16
'
--;-
'
..... 1-.
-t~--~
wv.
1 1 ,
'"',.,
PHASE
VOLTAGE
- ~-_-
290V/cm
I
.
-~-- ::-:---
'","" ""1:~ r~ f:
,.. i
~~
....
! HI
II
I~ ~ ~ ,,. ,.. ,M~ MI 1'l ~~~ I ~ ~~I :1:\ii!\1,.1~~'~1 ~ ~ ''' ' ~~~ "', ""'~~--~- ~~-,. I I :11 n'~~I ~i~-''"'"'""
---- ;,_ -1~ ~~ ww~~,~~J~ ~~ ~~ 1i I
,, ~~ ~~ "'~"'~~~~ ~u~ 11
r
I
INV.
LINE-LINE
VOLTAGE
290V/cm
-r-------
150 cm/sec
-i-- - .
FIG. 5.17 STEADY-STATE INVERTER VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS AT 50 Hz
'
1.
215
v;cm
...
I
(l)
1\)
1,4A/cm
150 cm/sec
FIG. 5.19
MOTOR PHASE VOLTAGE AND LINE CURRENT WAVEFORMS RECORDED AT FULL LOAD
CHAPTER 6:
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.3.2
3-phase/2-phase transformation
6.3.3
D,Q
transformation
6.4
Computer Program
6.5
6.6
Harmonic Analysis
- 103 -
6.1
It is shown in this section how the equations for the regular sampledswitching strategy, derived in Section (3.5.2); may be used in a computer
program to generate the inverter output waveforms.
program is presented in Figure 6.1.
from -v C/2
Transition
to+
C/2
1T
"'2j -1
and transition
from v C/2
0
(6 .1)
Rt
t.o - v C/2
0
1T
1T
[4j - 1 + Msin(2j-l)
where j = 1, 2 .
1T
(6.2)
Rt
modulation index.
and the
kf
(6.3)
- 104 -
are then calculated and substituted in equations (6.1) and (6.2), to give
a series of values for the switching angles (a , a an) corresponding
2
1
to the rising and falling edges of the pwm waveform.
By means of a
The program
2~
:3
may then be obtained by subtracting two of the three inverter phase waveforms,
to
give
VAB
VA - VB
VBC
VB - Vc
VCA
VC - VA
(6.4)
Output waveforms provided by the program for lOO% modulation at the system
rated frequency, i.e. f
1050Hz are presented in Figures 6.2(a) and (b), which give respectively
the inverter 3-phase voltage waveforms, and the system 3-phase line-to-line
waveforms.
- 105 -
of output.
sets of waveforms are in close agreement and have the same number of
switching pulses/cycle.
6.2
Each of these is
(51)
require the most computing time, due to the time-varying nature of the
various inductance coefficients, but the operating conditions to which it
may be applied are not restricted to the same extent as is the case with
the other two models.
- 106 -
Models based
on the d-q equations have been extensively applied to the study of the
dynamic performance of induction motors supplied from both siruusoidal and
non-siruusoidal voltage sources, and they have been particularly valuable for
predicting the harmonic content of the machine stator current.
reason, the
For this
The following
b)
windin~is
cosine function of the electrical angle between the axes of the two
windings
c)
- 107 -
RA+ pLA
VA
pMAB
pMAC
pMAa
pMAb
pMAc
pMBC
pMBa
pMBb
pMBc
R c""Plc'.
'pMCa
VB
pMBA
RB+pLB
VC
pMCA
pM~B
pMaA
0
0
is
pMCb
pMCc
pM aB
pMac Ra +pL a pM ab
pMac
p~A
p~B
P~c
pMba
~+p~
plbc
'b
pMeA
pMCB
pMcC
pM ea
pMcb
Re+ pie..
'c
'c
'a
(6. 5)
where sufficeG with capital letters and small letters denote respectively
stator and rotor quantities.
L
a
In equation (6.5)
= Lb = Lc = Msr
+ i
L = M + i
c
sr
r
where i
s '
s,
[R] [I]
+ p[L] [I]
( 6. 6)
where
[V]
[I]
[ R]
R 1
c
- 108-
[V]
[R + G] [I] + Lp[I]
(6. 7)
dL
=
dt
de
dL
de
dt
and
~-
ILl
!I
M
s
M
s
M.
M8rcos (8 +
case
cos(8 -
srcos(9 +
J >
M cos8
sr
cos8
sr
1M
,.
sr
~)
3
sr
M8 rcose+
2w
3>
M cos(9- 2 ..-)
sr
3
,.
,.
Jl
H 5 rcos
rcostl "3)
fJ +
,.
3>
sr
cos(& -
,.
sr
H rcoS:9
5
M
sr
">
cos fl--)
3
cosfl +.!.!...)
3
MS'l."cose
(6.8)
L
Mr
M
I
lM
sr
cos(&2..~)
3
M5rcos(9+ Jl
sr
cos
L
where suffices s and r denote respectively stator and rotor.
- 109 -
[G]
d8
sr dt
sin(&
e + 2,
3
2
sin ( e sin(
sin(6 +
sin(&
sin(8
2'
-3)
sine
3)
sir.&
sine
-~
3
2
+ 3)
sin(& +
sin&
sin(9 ; )
sin(& -
sinCe - T)
sin&
z;)
sin&
z;)
1l')
sin(& +
2
sin(8+T)
,.
{6.9)
The equations may be re-arranged and the time variation of current vector (I]
may be obtained using numerical integration.
The developed motor torque is
where P
= pairs
J
p
la
where kf is the
1 p
2
[I]t [dL ]
d8
[I]
(6.10)
+
roto~
kf PS + Tm = Te
friction coefficient and
(6.11)
is the inertia.
(6.12)
- 110 -
6.3.2
3-phase/2-phase transformation
With
the A-phase stator winding of the 3-phase machine coincident with that
of stator phase a of the 2-phase machine, the mmfs developed in two models
may be equated, and assuming that the turns/phase of the two machines are
identical, the relationship between their currents in the abbreviated
form are:
(6.13)
where
[C ]t is the transpose of [C I,
c=
fi ~)
3
lrz
and
,. 1
-2
13
1
{i
r?.
(6.14)
- lll -
For invar1ance
( 6.15)
substituting
or
=
sinca [IaAO]
hence
or
[V B ]
Cl
( 6. 16)
A similar argument may be presented for the rotor voltage and current
transformations and a complete current transformation may be defined as,
IA
IB
= [Cl]
Ic
I
ar
Ib
I
transpose of [C ], and
1
(6.17)
- 112 -
{6.18)
when equations {6.16) and {6.17) are substituted in equation {6.6), the
impedance of the new system
[Z~al
{6.19)
which gives
+
0
pL
s
R
+ pL
pMcose
pMsine
-pMsine
pMcose
where M =]_M
2 sr
6.3.3
D,Q transformation
- 113 -
the
~-coil
is at an angle
[I
dq
(C21 [I~a 1
(6.21}
where
[C21
case
- sine
sine
case
(6.22}
[Zdq1
[C 1t <z~a1 [C2]
2
(6.23}
which gives
R + pL
s
s
0
[Zdq]
pM
R + pL
s
s
pM
SM
-a 11
pM
0
0
R + pL r
r
-eL r
pM
SL r
R + pL
r
r
and inductances
diag [R , R , R , R 1
s
s
r
r
(6.24}
- 114 -
L
s
[Ldq]
L
s
L
r
L
r
(6.25)
R +pL
s
s
vsd
V
sq
pM
pM
pM
-L
Isd
Isq
Lr 6
R +pL
r
r
Me
-Me
rq
pM
R +pL
s
s
vrd
V
R + pL
r
(6.26)
Ird
r
rq
(6.27)
where
=
[Isd' I sq , I rd' I rq ]t
and
0
-M
-L
(6.28)
Since the above equations are functions only of the motor speed p6, they
can be solved analytically when the speed is considered constsant.
However, for variable-speed application, equation (6.27) may be rearranged in the form
- 115 -
(6.29)
and a step-by-step solution for the current vector [Idql may be obtained
using numerical integration.
by the motor is
(6.30)
and the mechanical equation for the drive is defined by equation (6.12)
6.4
Computer Program
These
new currents, together with the new voltages obtained from equation (6.18),
form the initial condition for the next step.
At each step,.the
- 116 -
6.5
is combined with that for the d,q-model of the induction motor given
in section (6.4) to form a program called (pwm/dq), for the prediction
of the complete system performance.
211
:3
has the same shape as that of the motor phase voltage (Figures 6.ll(a) and
(b)), whereas
t~at
- 117 -
The
After the
The motor
- 118 -
SO
Hz respectively, and
6.6
Harmonic Analyis
When the pwm voltage and current waveforms obtained from the inverter/
induction motor program are supplied to the harmonic analysis program,
listed in Appendix (C), the absolute magnitude of the real-part of
the harmonic coefficients are obtained as a percentage of the fundamental.
The analysis program uses the Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT).
At any given f'req,rency the spectrum is naturally the same for each phase.
Figures 6.21 -6.24. present a comparison between the predicted and
experimental harmonic content of the inverter phase voltage waveforms
for various operating frequencies.
symmetric all even harmonics are absent, although the significant 3rdharmonic and its odd multiplies are clearly visible.
The obvious
Figures(6.25-6.32)are respectively
spectra of the motor phase voltage and line current for the operating
conditions of Figures(6.21-6.24).
in the 3-phase floating neutral system is obvious and the lower order
harmonic components are shown greatly reduced or even eliminated, but
high frequency components usually centred at the reference frequency
and its multiples are introduced.
READ
REFERENCE FREQUENCY, fm
CARRIER FREQUENCY, fc
MODULATION INDEX, M
TIME,
T:O
C}-----18 =6 + 2
NO
Rt
>
CALCULATE Rt=fc/fm
YES
:r
OUTPUT: -
ET-----1__________8~=~~~------~
-.o
I
1=1
E NO
_,.-------{
YES
>--N"'O'---\ B
WRITE AND PLOT
INVERTER PHASE VOLT AGE
INVERTER LINE VOLT AGE
YES
r--------r,T=~T.~H--------~~--~D
Vdc/2
,.
'
x 103
0. 40
0.2 7
0. I 3
.00
I~
-. 2 7
-. 4 0
600
M,O 9.
1m"50
400
M0.9
p(
.oT(secl
fm'50
200
0
-200
.00
0.50
2 oT!secl
-400
-600
x1o3
. 0.40
0.2 7
0. I 3
-. 0 0
VAB
600
- . I ~ .0
I 0
-. 2 7
-. 4 0
400.
200
.oT<sec)
1.00
-200
XI03
0.40
0.2 7
0. I 3
".00
-400
600
.I ~
27
.4 0
.oTisec)
I.
I' oT<secl
600
400
200
0
.00
FIG. 6.2
-2oci
1 . 50
x1o2
2'. o Tr sec l
-400
-600.
VCA
::: l( sec)
VB
X103
0 40
0.27,
0. 13
.00
. ll
33{sec}
27
40
v,
"se
x1o3
0 40
0 27
0 13
00
. 13
. 27
40
(.a)
3;(sec)
....
"'....
II
SIMULATED
3~(sec)
'CA
FIG. 6.3
3l( ser)
1b)
- 122-
oDI
~ec
__ ';__
.... -----------
--
--r---~--
-~--
"I
------~--:j
__ --_:t
-- ---
=~';-,..;::
--~
:")
-~----~------
--
:"'~J: -----+'--;'
_____ '
!-Jt-IH1-i-h-H+i-or'r-d---+~-,~~~~-~~~~~~~J0:~-~~~~G~1~})}86~~~~
INV.
PHJ\SE VOLTAGE
290V/cm
. ;::. r .:.
INV.
LINE-LINE
VOLTAGE
290V/cm
-123-
<103
V
0 40
0 27
0 13
I) I)
33
T (.,
27
e cl
41)_
SIMULATED INVERTER
P~ASE
VOLTAGE
WAVE~ORM
.33
T(secl
WAVE~ORM
"
.._., .
__..,. :;..:._~_ i.:_
- ......
"
.........
..
NV, PHASE
OLTAGE
90C/cm
NV. LINE-
urn VOLTAGE
90V/cm
cm/sec
o:.'
- - ..
."1
'
; .,
-----;.
~ ..
'.
-124-
-s
b<
. 51)1 sec l
0_
SIMULATED INVERTER
P~ASE
VOLTAGE WAVEFORM
"''l
400
200
0
00
200
0 50
2. Sl)lsecl
400
600_
..---------..__...... ....
' ~~:--.,~-~~
..
-'--'--'---'-- -------.
INV. PHASE
VOLTAGE
(V)
290 v/cm
;::::::>'~~........,..,.. .,.,,, i
1 .:.;_,~ .
t+rl ~~~)I'"'''""""''"''"''"
.:--:.,- ;.:-~--rL~~-~l_)i.i.:c c;+~--L
~M'~ I i i I I I i ~~~~~~~,.J~~}
INV. LINELINE
VOLTAGE
(V)
2901!/Cm
., !
lOO cm/sec
- '25-
,,
SIMuLATED
::l
"
I)()
()
51)
20'):
WAVE>O~M
I)')
T
e c-
~ I~1Ji~~~
-~1)1)
. 600.
.. ,
VOLTACE
I 'I
I
')
P~ASE
200:
tNV[~T[~
.,
'
~ """1-'.-,.._;r~-,....
.....
,_..1,.... ,_
'
'
'
'
I . . j-' ~-- ~ M ..
t : ~: -i i : ! l :
-: I
,.....,..;:4il"""-,.:.;;:.r~:~
,_ ,....
I 11 11 .,.,.. li
Jll
. .
INV.
-~'
.. _, - jt~ ~--
LTAGE
90V/cm
150 cm/sec
J::~I~ltTAL
1
~h!
~AV::FO?J:S
P.:SSUI.TS OF
AT 50Hzo
t;--f--
LINE-LINE
n~RT!:R VOLTAG~
!.1 I
FIG.t:..7.sn::_'I..AT!::D A'!-l'D
j-~,-
TI{t-~
i~
D~
9~-oc
-o
IX
IX
a. 3-phase motor
b. 2-phase motor
~--FIX
oc phase
phase
l_o Fe
L_J2
Fe
.2...
2
d. mmf representation
Fe
- 127 -
YES
PRINT RESULTS.
~------------,---------------------
XI03
0.
V:
0.
0.
0.
313( sec I
X103
X
0
0. 50
V
0
0
0
0
. Ol)(ms l
3131 ms)
....N
ro
.50
Vb- SIMULATED MOTOR PHASE VOLTAGE WAVEFORM
Vbc-
Xl03
XI03
0
V
0.
V
0.
.Ol)(ms)
3~( ms
(b)
(a)
FIG. 6.10
(a)
50 Hz and
4.
I
I
- 129 -
~op
0
5
0
11
0-
5 (}.
~ IT
le
~ IT
~ UIJ\
0 50
. ~0 0
I
~
I
~ rn-
')(/m" '
4 ~:.!)
y 45J
~~?l'')r~~~~~~~~~+LMY~~~~~~~~
~
- I
P 50
5(}.
00
:1 '
-300
450_
(a )
VO -
VOLTAGE
~=50
WAVEFOR~~
V 450
300
150
0
-I 50
.33
T(sec
-300
450_
tm --30
VD - VOLTAGE WAVEFORM
V 450
30 0
!5 o,
0
- I 50
30 0
-45 0
~-
0.
33
0.22
T(sec)
(b)
VQ FIG. 6.11
VOLTAGE WAVEFORM'
'
..
>
4.";:,1
65
-450
X 101
1 00"3
0.67j
! !
!
'
'
f
I
0.33~
f I
{'
Ar
~~,..."~A""
V M~ 'f ' '1' '" 15. 65
D
""0.33.
-0.67
TIME lsl
(bl-MOTOR PHASE ClJRRJ:NT
-1 . 00
FIG. 6.12
0.67
:;;:0.33
~
T ME ( s l
-0.67.
-1 . 00
X 1 01
1 00,
,_.
,_.w
! !
! !
dl-0-AXIS
-1 oo,
FIG. 6.12
CONTINUED
STATOR CURRENT
---
X101
1 00~
0. 67 ~
0. 33~
~
.A J.
::;:o.oo
-o
u. ..._ ....
~(
-0.33,
I E (sl
-0.67,
I
- 1 . 00
\(el -d-AX!S
ROTOR CU RRENT
....
w
N
X 10 i
1
oo_
0.67
0. 33.
~
<:f
II
I
'
:So.oo
o,.
'
I
I
o.
11
'
II
'
'
'
j I I
,~ I
I
II I
I
~ .~
I
I I I I I I I'
I I I I II I ~ A l'..v~ ..
I I
!
;
0.3\S
-26
I V '0'.-s~"
"
....
..... "lf'(j
,.
.65
I \ v
-0- 33:
I ' \ T~ ME (.I
-0. 67.
-1 - ()()
13
1\
f.
\{
~ ~
~ 'I
(fl-q-AXIS
FIG. 6.12
ROTOR CURRENT
CONTINUED
0.86
n.
'~
0
lJJ
0..
0. 71.
0.57
(Jl
0.43
0.29
0. 14.
o.oo
o.oo
~
0. 1 3
0.26
'
0.39
( g J -MOT OR SPEED
0.65
0-52
TIMEC"l
,_.
w
25
(h) -MOTOR DEvELOPED
URULit-:
20
~
z
l_t_;
:::>
10
0
Cr'
0
f-
")
0.26
0. 1 3
. G'5
TIME CsJ
-5
--1 0
0.39
FIG. 6.12
CONTINUED
450
10
>
55
-225
s)
-450
X 1 01
1 . 00
0.67
0.33
11
-0.67
-1
TI ME (s l
.oo
0.67
0.33
0.44
-0.33
o.ss
TIME<sl
(el
-0.67
d-AXIS
ROTOR CURRENT
-1 . 00
X 1 01
1 . 00
0.67
0.33
o.ss
0 1
~
-0.33
TI ME (s J
-0.67
(f)
-1 . 00
FIG. 6.13
CONTINUED
q-AXIS
ROTOR CURRENT
0.67
~
::;0.33
Cl
--=o.33
TIME ( 5 l
-0.67
(cl
-1 . 00
X101
1 . 00
0.67
0.33
~
:=:o.oo
--0.33
0
.55
0 11
TIME ( 5 l
(d)
-0.67
-1 .oo
FIG. 6.13
CONTINUED
0-AXIS
STATOR CURRENT
1 . 00
~
0.86
c.
1..
~
Cl
lJ.J
lJ.J
CL
0.71
o.S7
(/)
0.43
0.29
0. 14
o.oo
o.oo
( 9)
0. 11
0.22
MOTOR SPEED
0.33
0.44
o.ss
TIME (sl
25
20
~
1s
lJ.J
::::1
0
10
0::
0
1-
0. 1 1
-s
-10
0.22
TIME (s J
FIG, 6.13
CONTINUED
.ss
~----------------------~----------------------------------------------
45
.,
>
22
35
-225
-4
X 1 01
1 00
....w
"'
0-67
0-33
.,
...,o. 33
.so
-0.67
TI ME
-1 . 00
Cs
0.86
a.
L
~
Cl
UJ
UJ
a..
0. 71
0.57
(f)
0.43
0.29
0. 14
o.oo
o.oo
(C )
0.70
1 . 40
2.80
2. 1 0
MOTOR SPEED
3.50
TIME <s l
25
20
~
UJ
:::>
0:::
0
1-
0.70
-5
-1 Q
FIG. 6.14
CONTINUED
1 . 40
2. 1 0
T !ME (sl
.so
450
>"'
35
-225
-450
<aJ
X'i0
. 1 . 00
0.67
0.33
.so
0.7
"' 33
""0.
-0.67
T I ME ( s J
(bJ
-1 . 00
FIG. 6.15
0.86
a.
'-
0
.W
w
a..
0. 71
0.57
(f)
0.43
0.29
0. 14
o.oo
o.oo
.-.---
0.70
1 . 40
12 10
3.50
2.80
TI ME (s l
25
~~
20
15
w
::>
10
a::
0
f-
0.70
FIG. 6.15
1 40
CONTINUED
2.10
TIME(s)
2.80
X1o-1
3.50
>
450
rn
>
225
.85
-225
.I
-450
x1o1
1. oo_
0.67
0.33
-0.67_
-1 . 00_
II
i
TIME (s l
o.67
3o. 33.
: o. ooJ--m-HtttrttttHttttttttttttt<t+H+t+ttt++++++-1+1+-\+H-\~AA J.t~.+Aw~:-A.Aw~.w.u++UW~:.w.AuuAJ
~
d.
1f5~ VV"V"~ V" lie. 1c
V Y'(J. ss
"'
1-\.iA
-0.33,
T I ME Cs l
-0.67
-1 . OOc
....
A
x1ol
1 . 00
0-67
0. 33:
TIMECsl
(d)
0-AX IS
-0.67,
FIG. 6.16
-1.00:
CONTINUED
STATOR CURRENT
0.67
0.33
(eJ
ROTOR CURRENT
d- AXIS
-1 . 00;
Xl01
1 . 00
0.67:
0.33
.. A
~0. 00
q.
--0.33;
rr
-0.67
- 1 oo_
.
T!ME(sl
(f)
q-AXIS
FIG. 6.16
CONTINUED
ROTOR CURRENT
0.86
a.
'-
0. 71 .
w
w
0.57"
0..
(f)
0. 4 3.
0. 29.
0. 14
o.oo
o.oo
0. 1 7
0.34
0. 51
TIME ( s l
MOTOR SPEED
(g)
0.68
25
(h)
20.
~
(5
w
=>
10
0:::
0
I-
5
. 0. 1 7
0.34
-5
-10
FIG. 6.16
CONTINUED
0.85
.,
t -146-
X\03
0.40
Va
50
-.so
0.25
o.so
T(sec)
... ~
v,
TIME
C "
-.so
-. 25
o. 50
FIG. 6.18
-------;.+,"
.148-
400
Va
200
Xl0-2
TlME (ace.)
-200
-400_
MOTOR PHASE VOLTAGE WAVEFORM AT 40-HZ
1 X16
-.so
<
. . 25
x1o-2
T (sec)
I O. 5
Va
175.
0-]~~~~~~~~~~~~rrr~~
4
48.27
9 60
f
sec .
- 175.
-350.,
MOTOR PHASE VOLTAGE WAVEFORM AT 50-HZ
XIOI
- 50
E-. 25
0
0.00;
.60
48.27
48.93
x1o-z
49.60
o. zs
T Is ec I
0. 50.
SIMULATED MOTOR CURRENT
FIG. 6.2-~.
AT
M~.9.
OPERATING FREQUENCY OF 50 Hz
fm50 Hz
- 150 -
x1ol
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
2
I
11
0
4
I0
13
16
I I
19 22 25
28
31
34
I I
37
40 43
11
46 49
HARMONIC ORDER
50 Hz VA
FIG. 6.21
- 151 -
x1ol
10
9
8
Cl
::0
....
...J
2
I
II
5
13
17
2.1
11
2.5
2.9
33
37
Ill I
11
41
45
49
53
'' 11
57
HARMONIC ORDER
40 Hz VA
FIG. 6.22
161
- 152 -
XIOI
10
9
8
w
0
=>
,_
-'
0>4rr~~~mm~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
I
I I
16
21
26
3I
36
41
46
5 I 56 61 66 71
HARMONIC ORDER
76
8I
30 Hz VA
FIG. 6.23
- 153 -
x1ol
I I
8
7
"',_
0
:::J
-...J
0>4n~mm~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rrm~~U4~
I 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81 86 91
HARMONIC ORDER
20 Hz
FIG. 6.24
VA
- 154 -
XIOI
10
9
8
UJ
6
5
:::>
I-
-'
3
2
.
0~~~~~~~11~~~~~~~1~~~~11~
4
7
I 0 I 3 I 6 19 22 25 28 3 I 34 3 7 40 43 46 49
HARMONIC
ORDER
50 Hz Va
FIG. 6.25
- 155 -
XIOI
10
8
7
Cl
6
5
:::>
....
-..J
~
11ARMONIC ORDER
50 Hz
FIG. 6.26
Ia
- 156 -
XI0 1
10
7
6
"'
UJ
Cl
::;)
,__
--'
0..
:1i
3
ol~~~~~~~~IM'~~~~~I~II~,~~~~-1~
5
9
13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 161
HARMONIC ORDER
40 Hz Vo
FIG. 6.27
XI0 1
10
9
8
0
::>
6
5
....
...J
13 17 21
25 29 33 37 41
45 49 53 57
HARMONIC ORDER
40 Hz
--~---------
FIG. 6.28
---
- - . - ----
---
Ia
--
- 158 -
XI0 1
10
9
8
7
6
5
:::>
....
_J
01~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'~'1~11~~~~
I
II
16
21
26
31
36
41
46
51 56 61 66 71
HARMONIC ORDER
76
81
30 Hz Va
{
I
I
11
~
I
@,Hz
FIG. 6.29
:30 Hz
2.5 KHz ,
B~l:
15.0
H~
- 159 -
XI 0 I
I0
7
6
"'
::::>
-'
a..
:0:
<
3
2
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
5
9
1 3 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57
HARMONIC ORDER
30 H z I a
FIG. 6.30
- 160 -
XIOI
I I
9
8
7
.
UJ
:::>
....
-'
4
3
11 I
,,
11 .1
~1~~~6~~1~1~16~2~.1~.~2~6~3~1~3~6~4~1~4~6~5~1~5~6~6~1~66~7~1~7~6~8~1~86~9~1~
HARMONIC OROER
20 Hz Va
FIG, 6.31
- 161 -
x1ol
10
9
8
.
"-'
0
::::>
6
5
t-
-'
0..
Ol~~~rrmrrmmmmm~~~rrmrrmrrmrrm~~~mmmn
13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 91
HARMONIC ORDER
20 H z I a
L___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -
FIG. 6.32
CHAPTER 7
7.1
Control Techniques
7.2
7.3
System Development
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.4
Experimental Configuration
7.5
Experimental Results
- 162 -
Closed-loop Techniques
If the
Typical
control methods such as slip control, flux control and phase-locked loop
.
(68.69. 70)
A number of
(b)
voltage sensing, or
(c)
current-slip control.
The last method is that most commonly used, due to the ease of setting
of both the controlled motor current and the slip.
relationship between the current and slip can be most
by referring to the steady-state characteristic.
The required
easily obtained
- 163 -
7.2
more efficient operation, and this principle forms the basis of many power
factor controllers and energy saver schemes' 7t i
The control scheme presented here is based on maintaining the motor
speed constant at the desired value and regulating the motor torque
according to the load conditions, in order to improve the performance
(a)
(b)
~g
where
k-
Vr = Vs - I s Zs
( 7.1)
s
(7.2)
. - 164 -
= sf
is a machine constant
k 1~g
( 7. 3)
fr
T
m
for~
is a constant
where k
is a constant
(7.4)
The
This
requires the load torque to be sensed and summed with a shaped voltage
reference signal, derived from the speed-error signal
direct V/f control.
w , to produce
er
~Tm,
the
motor speed will tend to decrease, and the speed-error between the
demanded and the actual speed will be increased to provide an increase
in the motor stator frequency.
- 165 -
If an increase in
load torque is demanded, the rms value of the motor terminal voltage
is increased in proportion to the load torque, and hence a family of
new improved motor torque-speed curves at any given drive speed is
achieved as illustrated in Figure 7.3.
section of a load-torque curve Tml and the motor torque curve determines
the point for which the required motor supply conditions are obtained.
This leads to an improved motor performance at every load point,
especially for light load conditions.
7.3
System Development
speed control circuit developed for this purpose from Figure 5.3 is
shown in Figure 7.4.
- 166 -
motor shaft.
the speed-error signal and obtained using the absolute value circuit
of Figure 7.6(a) provides a positive output voltage, irrespective
of the change in sign of the speed-error signal.
The
cirqu~input/
for no-load operation, and the maximum value limited by the zener
voltage V
torque error signal from the PI-controller, which is fed to the vco
circuit, whose output is the clock input frequency VCT of the pwrn-IC.
This in turn controls the inverter output voltage and hence the
motor terminal voltage.
- 167 -
7.4
Experimental Configuration
Experimental Results
Figure 7.9
s~ows
As explained
The
motor speed changes smoothly from zero to the set value corresponding
- 168 -
In this case the motor speed tries to rise, but the reduction in
the drive frequency and the motor current causes it to be held constant.
- 169
... .-~\/
,/
//
\/
Tmax
........... / / /
//
1\
:
'
I\
I
:\ ;\
j\
t\
I \
'
. I
I
I
0+------------------~~--~w~3~,--~\~~t~--~w~'--0
,.. y
Vref
;::.
HEF
PI-SPEED
Wer
COO ROLLER
"'"
f 4752
Wr
""'
GTO
PWMINV
Ws
I...-.+
: ~f.-
'
Wr
/
/
/
TG
~LOAD~'~:~:_:,
bridge and
amplifier
- 171 -
Torque
Speed
Desired speed
FIG. 7.3
10k
'
1-lOv
10k
1-0k
VRz
o4
'--'
01
.....
- ;./
ov
-10v
lA
03
V>
02
~
V1
10k
10k
VR3
" ov
20k
~
ov
-- OV
..-lOOk
22k
-'
22k
22k
,___,
22k
'-' t"tov
0
-Y
ov
1k
Yr..J
411(
~0 10k
os
~O}pf
~
ov
10 k
10k
~
ver
,.........,
10k
22k
20k
r-
-'- ov
rv
ov
ov
-VN
10k
7 ~T
ov
1k
~
..1~
ov
J,___/
.IT"\.
071
'
~
VOs,
Ds
VN
22k
22k
IOk
'
CW
lCg
- -- ov
lCs- 741
Diodes 1- 7 OA202
-8 BZX81
caV3
3.
1\
----...--01/
10.
nF
22
lOOn
6
OV6
P....---oVCT TO IC HEF4752
7
BZX61
C8V3
PIN 17
5.6k
pt4
470
SKn VRVCT p F
ov
VR4
1(9
-12V
1(10
PI-TORQUE CONTROLlER
-4--+-0V
FIG.75.TORQUE
REGULATING
vco
CIRCUIT .
- 174 -
R
R3
R6
R2
T FROM v
SPEED
N
TROLLER.
VREF
R4
Ov
R1
VRS
470n
Ov
R1-R5:10kn
R6=5kn
R7=1kn
01-5
vz
0
(b)
FIG. 7.6
Characteristics
V in
OA202
> 47 (\
+ BRI!XjE
G2
..--
Slffi.Y
Bllffi
1~
.'
+,;!On
100p
+INPUT
R3
: G1
STRAIN
GAillE R4
'VV
1K
INPUTI 'nln* .......
~.
60136
1K
WIRE\o.O.ID
r
,;lf\
24 1-
3 IC 22 1RS 20
6
308. 18
10 815
16
12
13
+vs
f~'
680 (\
J;m
~1RIDGE
SUP LY
10n
m~-rn
fmn ~ Ln
' ~-
BC lOO
~~
IN827
10K
ra.
>sET ZERO
-BRIDGE SUPPLY
~
' 10)1
"
~
FIG. 7.7
TPUT
ov
IN827
680 J\
-vs
- 176 -
a)
Inverter and
the controller
b)
The Motor
c)
Complete system
Fig. 7.8
G>
&
"'
0
+'
't1
G>
+'
&1
I
I
I
t
-ze
f
I
..
f
I
f
::l
I
f
.QI
c:r
......
"tJ
_.0
600
800
0
200
400
*
I
I
;k
I
~
I
f
I
I
)'(.
I
I
r
I
1000
,_.
....
....
- 178 -
QJ
:J
C'"
'-
0
......
"C
ro
0
....J
constant
voltage
2
- 179 -
1000 r/min
motor speed
400 f:/min/cm
motor currrent
1.0 A/cm
''
~-
__ , ~ '
Time
lOO cm/min.
FIG. 7.11
Speed
1000 r/min
Speed
500 r/min/cm
~--
r--- -.
~-
- r -
~-=-~-
_r-...:_,_~.L-~:::.~
.-~..:-:r:_=.f~._-:?~-' :~~
-
,.,.
''
~--- i
.. '"I
-----'
.'
current
1. 5 A/cm
....00
0
t ,,
Time
50 cm/Plin
'
FIG. 7.12
RECORDED MOTOR SPEED AND LINE CURRENT WAVEFORMS FOLLOWING THE SUDDEN APPLICATION OF LOAD
1000 r/min
'
'
' ,'
I '
-->'
'
I .-
~ ,~-
'i'
,,
.,;
--~--
."
''t
Current
1. 5 A/cm
Time
So cm/min
FIG. 7.13
RECORDED MOTOR SPEED AND LINE CURRENT WAVEFORMS FOLT"O\H!IG REMOVAL OF LOAD
CHAPTER 8
8.1
Introduction
8.2
Digital PID
8.3
8.4
The Microcomputer
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.5
System Softwa:::s
8.6
Experimental Results
- 182 -
8.1
Introduction
in the
controller properties,
(b)
(c)
is, however, that the computation is sequential and the control algorithm
processing must be stopped and a hold (latch) circuit must be implemented
which retain the previous information until the updated results are received.
In electromechanical systems, including motors, some of the time constants
- 183 -
the order of milliseconds and for this type of application the use of a
microcomputer is justified.
8.2
8.2.1
Analogue PID
value of the
e (t)
(8 .1)
the performance.
chosen with regard to the properties of the elements in the control system.
- 184 -
However,
k e (t) + k.
P r
~
de
(t)
(8.2)
dt""
The coefficients k , k. and kd are all chosen to obtain the best perforMance
p
The response
- 185 -
8.2.2
Digital PID
different ways.
sensed via a transducer, and the feedback signal e (t) is sampled at discrete
a
intervals of time T using an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) .
As a
where
rn
e (nT)
(8. 3)
e (nT)
ed(nT)
e (nT)
a
and
ed(nT) - ea(nT)
= k
rn
+ k.
rn
(8.4)
t.T
block diagram as in Figure 8.4, the corresponding digital PID expression is:
n
e (nT)
m
k e (nT)
P r
I
k=l
k.e (kT)
1
+~
t.T
[e (nT) - e ((n-l)T)]
r
(8.5)
- 186 -
The controller output is converted to an analogue signal using a digitalto-analogue converter (DAC) and maintained by a zero-order-hold until the
next
8.3
wer (nT)
( 8 6)
0
w (nT)
s
er
(nT)
I
k=l
k.w
J.
er
- w ( (n-l)T) 1 + w (nT)
er
r
(8.7)
- 187 -
8.4
The Microcomputer
74
The
basic parts:
(a)
(b)
read/w~ite
or random access
memory (RAM) ,
(c)
In order
- 188 -
8.4.2
2.5 V/ (r/min).
usual to have tri-state output circuits, so that when the ADC is active
there is no loading of the system bus, but when the computer requests data
from the converter the output circuits change to a low impedance state in
order to drive an appropriate digital pattern into the system bus.
The
8.4.3
After the output data from the microcomputer is read from the data-bus at
the I/O user port, it is interfaced to the drive system using a circuit
- 189 -
When the ENABLE signal is held low, the data input drives the
device directly.
In this
The
Figure
8.1~
Figure 8 .10.
8. 5
System Software
The software required for the control system has to perform the following
functions:
(a)
(b)
input the speed demand, sample the motor speed and calculate the
speed error signal.
(c)
(d)
produce control signals for enabling and disabling both the ADC and
DAC and for controlling the ADC conversion process.
- 190 -
The overall aim of the system software is to bring the motor speed to the
desired value during starting, to maintain it constant against load changes
and to ensure stability of the drive system under all operating conditions.
The source program is written entirely in low level assembly language to
ensure speedy processing.
The
obtained.
the ADC and the subsequent processing time produces a sampling time T of
approximately 10 ms.
er
(nT)
= wd(nT)
- w (nT))
r
forms the input to be manipulated using the PID control algorithm given by
equation (8.7).
calculation.
The sampling time is synchronized with the ADC conversion process, which
is about 10 ms in this case.
- 191 -
latches to hold the w (nT) signal until the next sampling time.
r
At an
appropriate time, the numbers wd (:1T) and wr ( nT) are read and the digital
processing may begin.
8.6
Experimental Results
The
demanded speed and the controller coefficients were entered from the
computer keyboard and the controller coefficients were carefully selected
to meet the required performance.
(P)
and proportional gains respectively of 2.0 and 3.0, all values.being set up
via the kayboard.
occurred and that a small steady-state error of about 120 r/min is obtained.
Figure 8.13(b) shows the system speed response when the gain is increased
to 3. 0.
about 75 r/min, but the starting time is increased from 2 sin Figure 8.13 (a)
to 2.5 sin Figure 8.13(b).
All controllers with a proportional term only suffer from the defect of
a steady-state error.
-------------------------------------------------------------- 192 -
The resultsgiven in Figure 8.14 confirm that the system response does not
over-shoot, so that the derivative action can be omitted from the control
algorithm process without affecting the system performance.
In the final
form a controller with only the two terms (P+I) was preferred to the three
term PID controller. Speed and current waveforms illustrating the drive system
response (with PI controller) following the application and rejection of
load were obtained experimentally.
= 1.0
and ki
= 0.6),
clearly show
state duration is maintained constant, with only a very short transient speed
change following a change in the load conditions.
- 193 -
MANIPULATED
VARIABLE
e r(t)
ed(t I
"'
DEMANDED INPUT
em(t)
MODIFICATION
ELEMENT
MOTOR
SYSTEM
P(t)
CONTROLLED
vARIABLE
ea( t l
FEED BACK
ELEMENT
J-e_r(_tl_+---1
+
kc!
de,.(tl
dt
p (t)
MOTOR
n-.--1 SYSTEM ~-+---
e a(t)
H t-------1
I. 20
1.10
3
1.00
Q_
0.90
.....
o.
0.80:
1
QJ
(f)
0. 70.
0.60.
0. 50.
0.40:
0. 30
0. 20:
0.10
0 00
-,
'." ".:.,_2.....
I ime
-,,;,.8
. I "
Sec.
CON'TROI.LER.
{l)P
{2)PI
(3)PID
I ' ..
5.4
I .
GO
.
MICROCOMPUTER
KEYBOARD
ed(nT)
E{j(nT)
+
er(n T)
~z::
PlO
CONTROLLER
ALGORITHM
em(nTl
...
em(t)
DAC
HOLD
p (t)
PLANT
e3 (nT}
ea(t)
ADC
TRANSDUCER.
MICROCOMPUTER
LJer(nTl
Wd (nT l
KEYBOARD
...
L:
PlO
Con troll er
Algorithm
...
F
_f
Werm!nT)
... +
F
,
L
'
(nT)
DAC
f-+
>
r--fvco ~
l..Jvco !
buffer
pwm
GTO
v 4752f- INV.
IC
C";.\
\@)
111
";-
I
I
I
I
wr (nTl
ADC
Fig. 8.5
~
d mptifier
tACH~
- 197 -
lll
rAO
r-
I
I NO( X
REGISTER
,z
..
0
0
IN DU
REGISTfR
~
~
f=
t--
.,
.--
~~
STACK
POINT
REGISTER
L-
,
1-;
ALU
f:::g
..
..
..
z
""'
ACCUMULATOR
0
0
..
AIO
"
..
DECODE
,
"'
t-- t--
....
%
l:=:
PC L
1-
r-
i5
PCH
"--
Al2
INPUT
1"-
DATA
lATCH
DATA
BUS
IUFF111.
L-
--
F
r-
...-%
AIJ
,__
,--
o y
INSTfiiUCTtoN
~
~
r-
'--
t-- h
.,
I -1
...
LOGIC
AS
INTf IIUtU"T
f::
STATUS
TIMING
CONTROL
CLOCI'I.
GENULUOA
REGISTER
L._ Ill
OUT
11 lOUT
,I'
INSTRUCTION
r-
.,
AEGIS TEA
L-
00
01
02
03
D
'
D7
Fig8.6(a) 6502
Block
Diagram
IRQ
INTERRUPT
CONTROL
FLAGS
PATA
DATA
INPUT
LATCH
,...
ENABLE
BUS
BUS
BUFFERS
OUTPUT
PA
DATA
BUFFERS
') PORT A
PIA
PORT
REGIS TEAS
PERIPHERAL
AUXILIARY
c AI
PORT A
........
,.....,
FUNCTION
c A2
PORT B
CONTROL
HANOSHAit.E
CLK
LATCH
HIGH
CSI
COUNTER HIGH
CS 2
CHIP
LOW
.
.
TIMER
ACCESS
CONTROL
c Bl
SHIFT
LOW
'
INPUT
LATCH
2
COUNTER
RS
c B2
CONTROL
RS I
RS
REG
LATCH
LOW
LOW
HIGH:
BUFFERS
OUTPUT
L::::
PB
DATA
DIR
l
TIMER
PORT
REGISTERS
Block Diagram
PORT B
00047 ~F
""
00047)JF
..
"11
6.6kn
6.6kn
0.0047
)JF
b
741
6.6kO
6.6kll
-7
1.0 kn
00047
)JF
"
2.2 k!\
741
22kn
10 k!\
-L
ov
Vo
- 200 -
10K.II.
+15V
10k.n.
-15V
(a
E.O.C.
(PB3) OUTPUT ENABLE
CLOCK
se
13k.n.
sk.n.
1
2
3
18
"'
13
12
11
10
17
1G
4 A/ 0 15
5zN 42714
lo
skn vl-'
LSB
MSB
3~f\
13k.n
~2kD
L.r
I I
~
1-0pF
-SV
ov
+SV
(b)
SV
R
Clock
"--1.:. 5
IC
7490
1;6 7404
1;4 7400
.;. 2 1 - - - - - - - 1
otart
ov
sv
6.2mrz
crystal oscillator
converoion
signal
sv
(I)
0
1-'
I
~1+---f
Cll2 signal
from the Minicomputer
I/O port
ov
sv
ov
Fig.B.9.TIMING CIHCUIT JJ'OR THF. ZH427 ADC.
R=330n
C=220pF
12V INPUT
+5V OUTPUT
470/\
(( 4
12"
7805
t>rr.J:
. +10nF
...I,.
ov
>390/\
: ~ 220)JF
L..
FROM
PET
(/0
PORT
11
PA1
PA2
PA3
I
IC I
D/A
(PB3J
PA6
PA 7
ENABLE
IC2
-15V
15V
~.'--.
VOJT
2 74~
~~v, =;=47
'--NULL
-'-O'J
pF
22kJ>
VR1
22lr.n. OFFSET
'Klk<>-
< VR2
F1g.
8.10.
0v
PAS
ov
15V
!!::100)JF
~
100,uF
2 2)JF
ZN428
PA4
ov
(( 3
DC- OC
CONVERTER
5V
15V
DV
-15V
DV
.sv
PA 4>
~ "=lO
-'-
OMMON
OUTPUT SECTION OF
THE SPEED CONTROLLER.
b
...JL-
tlkn. GAIN
ov
DV
- 203 -
START
0}------~
c) - - - - - - - . . t
ENABLE A/D.
CONVERTER.
INITIALISE THE
CONVERSION PROCESS
AND INTEGRATING TIME
AND SAMPLE THE MOTOR
SPEED.
8}-------~
PRODUCE THE
ERROR SIGNAL
wer(n Tl= wd (n T)-wfn T)
DO THE CONTROL
CALCULATIONS (PlO)
w (nT) =
er
SLIP LIMIT
Fig. 8.11.
NO
SIMPLIFIED FLOWCHART.
- 204 -
NO
B >---.....;_<
YES
DISABLE THE A/D.
ENABLE THE 0/ A.
OUTPUT THE
PROCESSED OAT A.
NO
(>----<
YES
YES
D>-----<
Fig. 6.11.
CO-NTINUED .
----------------------- 205 -
,.-
--.
. .- .
'
l'
I'
FIG.
8.12.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
l l
- 206 -
500
~------~:_---~055+---------------------------------------------~
t aJ
. -j
T!ME(s)
'
'
-----~---_;
___ .. -----.-;
500
.... --r--
5I
c:
0
...k-~..L-L
]ll i
I
f!
i:
+
.!it SOr/m.
4
(b)
..
,-- -t---;------!--.- r : .
-----~
'
_; : .:.~~-.
--
-- -:--;.-- --!
soor/nin
--------------------.--------------
MOTOR
SPEED
kp
= 1.0
ki = 0.6
"'0
...,
66r/min
TIME(s)
RESPONSE WITH
PI- CONTROLLER.
. I
. ,;
::-
-----~-
_:, ~Y~;----:->--,:_
~:=~~:J:::.tt---:;n
........___ ;
,.....
'' .
._,..
Speed
500 r/min/cm
_J 'fi~~~~:tt__ijl
"'
--+-...!.-:
Speed
1000 r/min
--- .,.
''
~~
11
-i
Current
i'
"'
'I
ro
-:-~;==-:i:h~t~-- u-_
1.5 A/cm
Ti~e
50 c!'l/min
I
FIG. 8.15.
MOTOR SPEED AND CURRENT WAVEFORMS FOR SUDDEN APPLICATION AND REJECTION OF LOAD
- 209 -
CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSIONS
9.1
(a)
(ii)
It is easy to introduce
1
\
The use of the d,q model in conjunction with the regular switching
strategy model, greatly simplifies the analysis of the combined
inverter drive and enables accurate predictions to be made of the
current waveforms and their harmonic contents.
The simulated
- 210 -
a~a
These
(ii)
(e)
- 211 -
Experimental
9.2
schemes is recommended.
- 212 -
REFERENCES
1.
Hindmarch, J.,
Alger, P. L. ,
11
New York,
Publishe~~,l965.
Company, 1968.
7.
9.
213 -
~liley
Usher, T.E. and Beck, S.D., "Adjustable Speed a.c. drive with SCR
frequency inverters", Electro-Technology, Vol. 71, No. 8, August 1963,
pp. 58-62.
ll.
12.
l3
l4.
Allin, G., Creighton, G.K. and Hall, J .K., "Operation and analysis
of an inverter-fed-motor system", Proc. IEE, Vol. 199, No. 11,
Nov. 1972, pp. 1587-1594.
15.
- 214 -
16.
17.
113.
19.
Paul, M., Chiera, J.A. and Turnbull, F.C., "A wide-range static
inverter suitable for a.c. induction motor drives", IEE Trans.
2.0.
frequency", Proc. IEE, Vol. lll, No. 8, August 1964, pp. 1423-1434.
21. John son, R. W., "11odulating inverter systems for variable speed
induction motor drives", IEEE Trans. Power App. and Systems,
22. Aksel, A., "A delta-sigma modulation speed control system for
induction motors", PhD. Thesis, Loughborough University of
Technology, 1978.
- 215 -
23.
Vol. lA-18,
24.
25.
26.
Stanley, H. C. ,
11
"Trans. AIEE
27.
11
Trans.
20.
Trans.
29.
30,
- 216 -
31.
32
33.
11
IEE Conference on
34.
35.
"Digital computation of
36.
Charlton, W.,
11
37.
38.
- 217 -
39.
Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-87, No. 3, March 1968,
pp. 624-631.
41.
42.
- 218 -
45.
Robertson, S.T. and Hebbar, K.M., "A digital model for threephase induction machine", IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
De Sarkar, A.K. and Berg, G.T., "A Digital simulation of threephase induction motors", IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
variable-frequency
51
IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-84, No. 11, Nov.
1965, pp. 1080 - 1088.
52
- 219 -
53.
54
55.
rectifier~inverter
induction-motor
Lipo, T.A. and Krause-, P.C., "Stability analysis of a rectifierinverter motor drive", IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
57.
non-sinusoidal waveform", Proc. IEE, Vol. 115, No. 12, Dec. 1968,
pp. 1777-1782
- 220 -
59.
11
GO
61.
62.
61.
64.
65.
- 221 -
66.
67.
Starr, B. G. and van Loon, J.C.F., "LSI Circuit for AC Motor Speed
Control", Mullard Technical Publication, M82-0015.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72..
c.,
"Microprocessor Control of
pp. 35-41.
73.
11
IEEE, Trans. on Ind. Elec;, Vol. IE-29, No.3, August 1982, pp. 212-216.
74.
Howard
w.
(Book).
- 222 -
APPENDIX A
used which has a rated voltage equal to or less than the mains supply
voltage.
3/2
11
ac
(line)
vdc(nom)
444 V
11
vdc(nom)
= 250
- 223 -
APPENDIX B
Motor specification
= 0.045 kg.m2
moment of intertia
R , R
5.09 ()
L , L
s
r
0.499 H
sm'
rm
-0.233 H
0.034 H
respe~tively.
M
sr
= 0.697
= 0.465
H
H
magnetising inductance
maximum mutual inductance between stator
and rotor circuits
Ll
APPENDIX C
----
-----------,
- 224 -
C
C
c
c
c
==================================
PWM/DQ-PROGRAM
COMBINED INVERTER/INDUCTION MOTOR SYSTEM ANALYSIS
===================================
PARAMETER <NI=100J
INTEGER IA,N,NN,IUNIT,!FAIL
INTEGER I 111 , I W2
INTEGER I , J, I K
INTEGER DL
REAL*B VA<NIJ,VB<NIJ,VC<Nil,VP(3J,VT<NI,3J
REAL*B JR,IPP,CFF,PI,W,R120
REAL*B X01AAF
REAL*B RS,RR,LS,LR,LSS,LRR,LM,LSM,LRM,MSR
REAL*B A<4,4J
REAL*B T
REAL*B FM,TMAX
REAL*B H
REAL*B U<6,7J
REAL*B UNIT<4,4J,WKSPCE(7J
REAL*B F<6J,Y<6J
REAL*B RP(4,4J,G<4,4J
REAL TIME<NIJ
REAL YVAL(NI J
REAL*B VMAX,TORQ,TORQM
REAL*B AT(Nll,YRES<NI,6J,TMARR<NIJ
COMMON/BLK1/UNIT,RP,G,VMAX,W,JR,PI
COMMON/BLK2/CFF,IPP,TORQ,TORQM,R120
COMMON/BLK3/VA,VB,VC
COMMON/BLK4/AT,TMARR
COMMON/BLK5/VT
COMMON/BLKB/YRES
EQUIVALEN E <Y< 1 J ,THETAJ, <Y<2 J ,SPEED>, <YL:l J, IP< 1 J J
c
c
c
c' .
SUBROUTINE REFERENCES
D02YAF, FCN, F01AAF
F01AA<A,IA,NN,UNIT,WKSPCE,IFAILJ
.D02YAF<X, H, N, Y, FCN, U, IW1, IW2J
EXTERNAL FCN
CALL GINO
CALL T4010
call piccle
call movto2<0.0,0.0J
10
PI=4.0*ATAN<1 .OJ
R120=2 .O*PI/3 .0
TMAX=.650
DL=100
H=TMAX/DL
.DO 10 1=1,6
Y<I >=0.0
IW1=6
IW2=7
N=6
IA=4
IUNIT=4
- 225 -
c
C
c
IFAIL=O
NN=4
============
INPUT DATA
============
RS=5.09
RR=5.09
LS=0.034
LR=0.034
LSS=0.499
LRR=0.499
LSM=-0.233
LRM=-0.233
LM=0.697
MSR=0.465
VMAX=314.173
FM=20.0
W=2.0*Pl*FM
IPP=3.0
JR=0.045
CFF=0.0015
TORQM=O.O
DO 40 !=1 ,4
DO 40 J = 1 , 4
RP ( I , J l = 0 0
40
RP(l,!l=RS
WRITEI*,700l
700
FORMAT(/'
RPC1 >
RPC2l
WRITE ( *, 701 l ( (RP (I , J J , J =1 , 4 l , I= 1 , 4 l
701
FORMATC3X,4F10.4l
RP (3
49
c
c
C130
C150
20
DO 49 1=1 ,7
WKSPCECIJ=O.O
AC1,1 l=LSS-LSM
Al1,2l=O.O
AC1,3l=1 .5*MSR
A(1,4l=O.O
. 'A<2,1 l=O.O
A12,2l=LSS-LSM
, A!2,3l=O.O
~ 1'2, 4 l =LS*MSR
AI 3 , 1 l =1 5 * MSR
A!3,2l=O.O
Al3,3l=LRR-LRM
Al3,4l=O.O
Al4,1 l=O.O
Al4,2l=1.5*MSR
Al4,3l=O.O
Al4,4l=LRR-LRM
WRITEI*,130l
FORMAT(!'
Al1 l
A12l
Al3l
A(4l'll
WRITE ( *, 150 l ( (A ( I , J J , J =1 , 4 l , I= 1 , 4 J
FORMAT 13X,4F10.4l
CALL F01AAFIA, lA, NN, UNIT, !UNIT, WKSPCE, IFAILl
IF IIFAIL.EQ.Ol GO TO 20
WRITE ( *, 120 l
RP ( 4
l' I l
- 226 -
120
140
C197
C199
c
c
201
C
C
C51
100
FORMAT(/'
UNI Tl 1 l
UNIT< 2 l
WRITE <* , 1 40 l <<UN I T <I , J l , J =1 , 4 l , I =1 , 4 l
FORMAT!3X,4F10.4l
G!1 ,1 l=O.O
G!1,2l=O.O
G! 1 ,3 l=O.O
G!1,4l=O.O
G!2,1 l=O.O
G!2,2l=O.O
G(2,3l=O.O
G<2,4l=O.O
G<3,1 l=O.O
G!3 ,2 l= 1 .5*MSR
G!3,3l=O.O
G<3,4l=<LRR-LRMl
G <4 , 1 l = -1 5 *MS R
G!4,2l=O.O
G(4,3l=-<LRR-LRMl
G<4,4l=O.O
WRITE ( * , 19 7 l
G(1 l
G(2)
FORMAT(/'
WRITE ( * , 199 l <<G <I , J l , J =1 , 4 l , I =1 , 4 l
FORMAT<3X,4F10.4l
UNIT!3 l
G !3
UNIT<4l'/l
T=O.O
IK=O
DO 100 IK=1 ,DL
CALL FCN<T, Y, Fl
DO 201 I=1 ,6
U( I , 1 l =F <Il
CALL D02YAF!T, H, 6, Y, FCN, U, IW1, IW2l
TORQ=1 .5*1 .5*IPP*MSR<Y<4 l*Y(5 l-Y(3 l*Y<6l l
AT<IKl = T
TMARR<IKl = TORQ
YRES (I K, 1 l = Y<1 l
YRES!IK,2l = Y!2l*!10.0/PI l
YRES!IK,3l = Y!3l
YRES!IK,4l = Y!4l
YRESHK,5l = Y!5l
YRES!IK~6l = Y!6l.
CALL. P~M<T, VP l
'VT<IK,.D=VP<1 l
VT!IK,2 l=VP<2 l
VT<IK,3 l=VP!3 l
T=T+H
WRITE (*,51! T, TORQ, Y<1 l , Y( 2 l , Y( 3 l , Y( 4 l , Y( 5 l , Y( 6 l
WRITE<*,51l T,Y<4l
FORMAT<8<3X,E12.5ll
IF!MOD<IK,50l.EQ.OlTHEN
PRINT*,IK,' POINTS HAVE BEEN CALCULATED SO FAR'
IF<MOD<IK,100l.EQ.OlWRITE<*,*l''
END IF
CONTINUE
CALL DBLSNG!TIME,AT,NI l
CALL DBLSNG<YVAL,VT<1,1l,Nil
CALL GRAPHS<TIME,YVAL,NI,1 l
CALL DBI.SNG<YVAL, VT<1 ,2), NIl
CALL GRAPHS!TIME,YVAL,NI,1 l
CALL DBLSNG!YVAL,VT<1 ,3l,Nll
G!4l
'll
- 227 -
c
c
c
220
30
C
C
C
c
c ...
c
SUBROUTINE FCNCT, Y, Fl
INTEGER I,J
REAL*8 JR,IPP,PI,CFF,W,R120
REAL*8 T
REAL*8 RPC4,4 l ,GC4,4 l ,UNITC4,4 l, VPC3 l ,VDQC4 l
REAL*8 FFC4l,FC6l,YC6l
REAL*8 VMAX,TORQ,TORQM
COMMON/BLK1/UNIT,RP,G,VMAX,W,JR,PI
COMMON/BLK2/CFF,IPP,TORQ,TORQM,R120
CALL PWMCT,VPl
VDQC1 l=!2.0VP!1 l-VPC2l-VPC3ll/3.0
VDQC2l=!VPC2l-VPC3ll/SQRTC3.0l
VDQ!3l=.O
VDQC4l=.O
F!1 l=YC2l
FC2l=!TORQ-TORQM-CFF*YC2ll/JR*IPP
DO 220 !=1 ,4
FFCil=VDQ!ll
DO 220 J=1,4
FFC I l=FF!l l-YCJ+2 l*RP! I ,J l-YCJ+2 l*G!I ,J l*YC2 l
DO 30 I=1 ,4
FCI+2l=O.O
DO 30 J=1 ,4
FCI+2l=FCI+2l+UNITCI,Jl*FFCJl
RETURN
END
SUBROUTINE PWM
SUBROUTINE PWMCT,VPl
RT IS THE FREQUENCY RATIO
M THE MODULATION DEPTH
FM MODULATING FREQUENCY
PARAMETER CNI=100l
REAL8 ALFAC3000l
REAL*8 ATCNil,VACNil,VBCNil,VCCNil,VPC3l
REAL*8 VaCNil,Vb!Nil,VcCNil
REAL*8 T,M,K,V,IU,TN,D
COMMON/BLK3/VA,VB,VC
PI=4.0*ATAN!1 .Ol
FM=SO.O
R120=2.0PI/3.0
RT=21
M=FM*0.018
K=PI/RT
V=540.00/2
WM=2.0PIFM
DO 999 Kl=1 ,3
WRITEC*,55l
.....
- 228 -
55
100
200
300
c
c
11
90
10
c
c
30
35
40
C
999
' .
FORMAT(/'
ALFAC2*J-1l
ALFAC2*Jl'/l
DO 10 J=1 ,RT
IF CKI.EQ.1 l GO TO 100
IF CKI.EQ.2l GO TO 200
IF CKI.EQ.3l GO TO 300
ALFAC2*J-1 l= CK/2.0l*C4*J-3-M*SINC C2*J-1 l*Kl l
ALFAC2*Jl=CK/2.0l*C4*J-1+M*SINCC2.0*J-1 l*Kll
GOTO 10
ALFAC2*J-1 l=CK/2.0l*C4*J-3-M*SINCC2.0*J-1 l*K-2.0*PI/3.0ll
ALFAC2*Jl=CK/2.0l*C4*J-1+M*SINCC2.0*J-1 l*K-2.0*PI/3.0ll
GOTO 10
ALFAC2*J-1 l= CK/2.0l*C4*J-3-M*SINC C2.0*J-1 l*K+2.0*PI/3.0l l
ALFAC2*Jl=CK/2.0l*(4*J-1+M*SINCC2.0*J-1 l*K+2.0*PI/3.0ll
IIRITEC*,90J ALFAC2*J-1 l ,ALFAC2*J J
FORMATC2CF10.4,2Xll
CONTI NUl!
IU=-V
DO 30 J=1 ,RT
IFCALFAC2*J-1 J.LE.D.AND.D.LT.ALFAC2*Jll GO TO 35
CONTINUE
GO TO 40
IU=V
CONTINUE
ASSIGN CALCULATED VALUES TO ARRAYS
IF CKI EQ. 1 l VAC I Kl =I U
IF CKI . EQ. 2 l VB (I Kl =I U
IFCKI.EQ.3l VCCIKJ=IU
CONTINUE
RETURN
END
cC***************************************************************
.
c
c
SUBROUTINE GRAPHSCX, Y, NPTS,DEVJ
INTEGER DEV
INTEGER LENT, STLENG
DIMENSION XCNPTSJ, YCNPTSJ
CHARACTER *60 YTITLE, GTITLE
901
DO 901 I = 1 , NPTS
PRINT *, I , XC I J , YCI l
CONTINUE
PRINT *'
PRINT *
PRINT *,'Input the TITLE of the iraph'
READ 1,GTITLE
PRINT *' Input '
PRINT
PRINT
*'.
*'.
- 229 -
CALL IIINDOIIC2l
CALL PENSELCINK, 0, Ol
CALL CHASIZCCHSX, CHSYl
C Set axix parameters
XLEN = 200.0
YLEN = 100.0
xo
= 65.0
= 50.0
YO
NINTSX = 10
NINTSY = 5
- 230 -
XX = XO+XLEN-48.0
CALL MOVT02<XX*XS, 40.*YSl
CALL CHAHOL (' *UT*L I ME SEC *.' l
XL = ((XO l - 15.0 l * XS
NN = STLENG<YT!TLEl
X1 = <YLEN/2.0> + YO
X2 = <NN/2.0)*3.0
YL = X1 - X2
CALL MOVT02<XL, YL*YSl
YL = YL*YS
CALL CHAANG<90.0l
CALL MOVT02<XL, YLl
LENT = STLENG<YTITLEl
YTITLE <LENT+1: l = '*.
CALL CHAHOL<YTITLEl
YTITLE<LENT+1 :l = '
CALL CHAANG<O.Ol
CALL PTITLE<GTITLE, XS, YS, XO, YO, XLENl
CALL CHAMOD
CALL MOVT02(0.0, O.Ol
CALL PICCLE
PRINT *, >
READ<*,*)
CALL MOVT02<0., 150.*YSl
CALL CHAMOD
RETURN
END
C***************************************************************
c
c
10
20
C***************************************************************
- 231 -
X2 = !NN/2.0l*3.0
XL = X1 - X2
CALL MOVT02!XL*XS, 25.0*YSJ
LENT = STLENGCTITLEJ
TITLE!LENT+1:J = '*'
CALL CHAHOL!TITLEJ
TITLE!LENT+1:J ='
CALL CHAMOD
CALL MOVT02CO.O, O.OJ
RETURN
END
SUBROUTINE DBLSNG!X,Y,NPTSJ
REAL X( NPTS J
REAL *8 YCNPTSJ
DO 5 I : 1 , NPTS
XCIJ = SNGL!Y!IJJ
5
CONTINUE
RETURN
END
- 232 -
C
C
OUTPUT WAVEFORMS
HARMONIC ANALYSIS
INVENT~R
c
c
c
LISTING OF SYSTEM
SUBROUTINE C06EAF TO CALCULATE THE HARMONIC ORDER
CHARACTER INFIL128,0UTF1L128
INTEGER !FAIL,J,N2,N,NJ,M
INTEGER TITEL 1201
REAL 8 AI 1 1 000 l , B I 11 000 l, X( 11 000 l
COMMON/BLK1/Y,H,YA
COMMON/BLK2/A,B,X
DIMENSION Yl10010l,HA11000l,YNI10010l
PRINT
PRINT,'PLEASE ENTER NO. OF POINTS N AND NO.
HARM.
READ <.IN,M
PRINT
PRINT,'ENTER NAME OF INPUT FILE '
READ I,' I AI' IINFIL
OPEN15,FILEINFIL,STATUS ='OLD' l
PRINT,'ENTER THE OUTPUT FILENAME'
READI*,' lA I' llNFIL
OPEN16,FILEINFIL,STATUS='NEW' I
IF IN.LE. i I STOP
READI5,1 IXIJI,J = 1,Nl
CLOSE15l
IFAILO
CALL C06EAF IX,N,IFA!Ll
Alil=XI1l
6(110.0
N2= <N+I l /2
DO 60 J=2,N2
NJ=N-,1+2
ACJlX<Jl
AINJJ=XIJl
l:HJ lXINJ l
BINJl=-XINJl
CONTINUE
NMAX NJ
lP IMODIN,2l.NE.Ol GO TO 80
AIN2+1 lXIN2+1 l
. BIN2+1 1=0.0
C
C
60
'
80
C
C
C
C
70
C
C
NMAX = N2 + 1
CONTINUE
DO 70 L2,NMAX
JL-1
YILl=DSQRTIAILl*2+BILl2l
H=1/DSQRTI1+1FJ/4200.0l*l26ll
YILlHYILl
YINLl=DSQRTIAINL12+BINLl2l
YN1Ll=Y1Ll/YI21*100
YNILl=YINLl/YI2l100
CONTINUE
PRINT,'ENTER NAME OF OUTPUT PILE '
R!OAD<, IAl' JOUTPIL
OPENI6,FILE=OUTPIL,STATUS = 'NEW' I
NORDER = MININMAX,Ml
DO 100 J=2,NORDER
HA I J l = J -1
M'
- 233 -
YRITE!6,999941 HA!JI,Y!JI
CONTINUE
CLOSE!61
c
99994 FORMAT <2X,2F10.51
NPTS = NORDER - 1
CALL PLOT!HA!21,Y!2l,NPTSI
STOP
END
100
SUBROUTINE PLOT!HA,YN,NPTSI
PARAMETER !NWOHDS 40, NFORM 21
REAL HA!NPTSI,YN!NPTSI,X!101 I,YNP(101 I
INTEGER TiTLE!NWORDSI
HARONlC ORDER PL01'
(''
c
c
10
VYMAX = YMAX!YN,NPTSI
DU 1 0 [ " 1 , NPTS
X!ll 0.0
YNP!II YN!II/VYMAX 100.0
CONTlNUE
c
150
55
PRINT 150
I
fORMAT ('1T4010
2C1051N
READ (*,*I
KP
i'RlNT 1
FORMAT ('INPUT FREQUENCY:' I
READ <.~51 TITLE
FORMAT !40A21
IF ( KP. EQ. 1 I CALL '1'40 1 0
!F !KP.EQ.21 CALL C1051N
CALL ERRMAX!1001
CALL DE VPAP !29?. ,300., 1 I
CALL PICCLE
CALL WINDOY (21
CALL MOVT02 !35.0,225.01
CALL CHASIZ !10.0,10.01
CALL CHAHOL ('HARMONIC ANALYSIS.' I
CALL CHASIZ (2.0,2.01
DRAW LINE
CALL MOVT02 (45.0,220.01
CALL LINT02 !270.0,220.01
CALL CHASIZ !2.,2. I
CALL AXIPOS !1 ,45.0,40.0,100.0,21
CALL AXIPOS (1,45.0,40.0,100.0,1 I
CALL AXlSCA !5,NPTS,1 .O,HEAL!NPTSI,1 I
CALL AXISCA ~1 ,10,0.0,YMAX!YNP,NPTSI,21
CALL AXlDRA (1,1,1 I
CALL AXIDRA !-2,-1 ,21
CALL GRABAN!X,YNP,NPTS,O.OI
CALL
CALL
CALL
CALL
CALL
CALL
CALL
CALL
MOVT02
CHAHOL
MOVT02
CHAANG
CHAHOL
CHAANG
CHASIZ
MOVT02
!120.,32.01
!'HARMONIC ORDER.' I
!37.0,74.01
(90.01
('AMPLITUUE!7.1.,' I
!0.01
!4.,4.1
!120.0,20.01
- 234 -
t,
CALL CHAARR(TJTLE,NWOROS,NFORMI
DRAW LINE
CALL MOVT02 ( 4:i. 0, 10. 0 l
CALL L!NT02 (265.0,10.01
CALL UEVENU
RETURN
END
c
c
c
c
C
THIS FUNFION
~~TURNS
c
REAL Y\NPTSI
YMAX "
YI1 l
DO 10 I " 2,NPTS
10
YMAX" MAX(YMAX.Y(!'ll
CONTINUE
RETURN
END
l l
APPENDIX D
- 235 -
1 (1(.1
~3T=260C10
260
280
290
300
320
:3:30
340
350
:360
370
39CJ
DDF.:I4:::::~:i945~7.~
4~:10
I t:)Rt=/:;:;594? l
41 (1
F'CI~:==~5946C:
4;;-~o
FB~~;=S94~56
4::::0 I
44C1
Ff;.:=~:i9469
;~.;:::;;;::t:;,C1l;)O
455
456
460
465
4?0 Lm1 #J
4:=:0 :o:TH
4:::~~.:.;
D~:;LO
~:::TJ=i
[I~~H I
11-~
IT I Al_ I:;;[
~;Utl
5,6,7,8,9,0,1,2,3,4,5,6~7,8
- 236 -
500
510
520
530
540
STI"' ::;pI D
;ROUTINE TO PRODUCE INTEGRAL TERM
;REGISTERS INTHI,INTLO,IS To BE
;INITIALISED AT START
;INTEGRAL TERM=SIGMA KI*ERROR~AKI
STFI tJs
5:::0 LDI''I E
~:;so STI"I t'lfH
600 LDf~ I< I
.:;: l 0 :3TI'I 11LO
6:20 .J:::R 1'12E:
630 12 LSR AKI SHIFTS FOR DIVISION
640 BEQ IS NO MORE SHIFTS REQ'D
650 LDA :::E
660 E:tlE I 1
6?0 CLC SE +VE THUS FEED O'S
6::::0 I'WF: t'IHI
6S<O f<:OF< 1'1LO
7~:;:1~~~ CL'/
710 E:'/C !2
?80
?90
:::00
:::10
:::~:0
::;:so
84J
850
860
870
880
::::91-3
9(UJ
9Hl
920
9:3~:::1
940
950
960
9i'O
980
982
9:34
990
- 237 -
1000
101>3
1 ~J2~3
1 (13~3
1 OlO
1 \.~l~i~)
1060
1. 070
1 nnn
10:30
1100
1110
11::20
11 :3~3
1l.40
STi"' tl:3
LDA [I
:3Ti=t t1H I
LDI"' I<D
:::T1"1 t1UJ
.J:o:l;.: t1 ;;: r::
02 LSf.~ flf':D
E:EC! D:::::
LDI=t r1:::;:
E:t-lE D :1.
1;.:01:;;: t1LO
cu::
1':01': t1H I
F:OI~: r"ll_O
CL'l
E:'/C D;:~
11~50 Dl :".:EC
116>::' F:OF.: tHH
:1. ~:,~-J
1200
1210
1220
123>3
124>3
1250
126>c'
121'0
12:30
1 :2:3<:
1::::oo
1:31>3
1320
1 :3:30
1 :340
1350
1:360
1:370
1 ~:SO
1 ~:90
14>30
1410
1420
14:30
1440
1450
1460
1470
14:30
1490
15>30
1510
15213
1530
1540
1550
156>3
1570
1580
1590
1591
- 238 -
150l2
159:3
1594
1595
E:EO P 1
LDA #0
E:EO P2
F'1 LDf'l [l::;:HI
F:TS
1?00
1?10
1?20
1?30
1740
1750
1"?60
M28
LOA
E:EO
LDA
EOP
ADC
STI~
1"1H I
m::o
1::::no
fic)
LDI'I I''IHI
1910
ECI{;~
:tJ:2~5~:5
19~2~Z1
::;:TA f1H I
19:::n LDI~ t1LO
1940 EO I;,: #~~~55
19~3~J CLC
196(1 ADC #1
1970
19:33
1993
2(n30
2010
2020
20:30
2040
::;:TA t1LO
8CC t1~5
IHC t1H I
t15 F.:TS
FOPt'lT :3EC FOF.:t1S ERF.:OR TERt1 It-~ E
LDR RN AND DERIV TERM IN D,
::;:se Ct-~ H~ Tl-m::: Cot1PLEt1Et-JT
:3TA E :3 I Cit~S It-~ SE At~D SD
2(150 8C:3 Fl
2060 LDA #1
207(1 8NE F2
2383 F 1 LOA #3
209(l F'- STA :3E
"'
2100 SEC
21H3 LOA Cl
2120 :38C et~
2130 :3TA 0
LOA #1"'
- 239 -
2160
21"70
21::::0
2190
2240
2250
2260
22?0
22D<C
2290
:2:300
;2:310
:.;:::3;;~0
2:3:30
;2:;:32
:23:34
2:34;2
2:37~3
:2:XK
230::5
2:39~J
2400
241 o
2420
;<:4:32
24C::4
24:36
24 ;'o
2480
2490
25(u:;:t
:2510
E:tlE F4
F:3 LDA #0
F4 3TA SD
F.:T::>
1<3 LDfl CIJ
::;:TI=t c: 1
LDI=t PCF:
OF:I=t tt~~24
::::T1~1 PCP CE::2= 1 ':;::TflF.:T COtl
1<1 LDA IF!~
AND #2 CHECK CON FINISH
E:EO 1<1
L.OI~ :M:O
::::TI=t DDF:ti
L.CII'i :$E:340
At-lD #24 7
STA $E840 PE::3 OFF ENABLES A TO D
LDA I Of~: A
::::Tn (tl
.J::::R F' ID
LDA #2!55
STfl DDRA PORT=O/P
LDf1 1 :c:;'
STA IORA PUT RESULT ON BUS
LDI=t $E:340
ORfl tt:3
STA SE840 P83 ON ENABLES D TO A
LCII~i
r=cr;:
l=ltJ[I #;;-~;;~:~:
STA PCR MAKE C82=0
I IK:: 1:36
E:t-lE f<:3
1 1
252~3 LD T Ct~
253(1 .JSR :t027C
254'.3 .J::::F.: $DCE3
2550 Lm: #~5
.,,;;...
256~3 K'"'
LDf1 w-
-.:.:::.
2570 ~TSI;;: SFFD2
DE::.::
2590 BtlE 1<2
2600 LD'~ NDS
2610 ,TSF.: SD27C
2620 .]:3F.: $DCE:3
26~a3 LDA #H)
264~3 JSR $FFD2
2650 LDA #1:3
2660 ..r::::R SFFD2
2670 J:3F.: SFFE4
268~3 Ct1P #64
269~3 BtlE K5
27(U] F~TS
2?10 f(5 ,Tt1P K:3
-
.. -
..-.
.. ....
.-..-..
.-.~
.-...
.-..-. ""\-...
.-...." .--..c::
-~c
- 240 -
~n
LUT BYT
U,lO,l~,l~,l~,lt,lr,l~,l~,~~.~~.~~.~,~0,~~,~,v,~
,~u,~u----
30 BYT 35,37,38,40,40,41,43,44,45,45,47,47,48,50,51,51,52,53,54,54,55,57,57
10 BYT 58,60,61,61,62,63,64,65,65,66,6E:,70,71,71,73,73,74,75,77,78,80,81,81
~0 BYT 83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,94,94,95,96,97,98,98,100,180,101,102,10~
60
70
80
90
1:: 1T 1 T
BYT
BYT
BYT
1 ~::14
00
10
20
30
BYT
BYT
BYT
BY'T
152,153,155,157,158,158,159,160,161,161,162,164,165,166,168,168,170
170,171,172,173,174,175,175,176,178,180,180,181,181,182,183,184,186
187,187,189,190,191,192,192,193,194,195,196,198,198,199,200,201,202
203,203.r204,205,207~208,288,209,218,210,211,212,213,213,214,215,216
105,105,106,107,108,108,110,110,111,112,11~,113,114,115,116,117,118
118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,132,133
134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,147,149,150,150,151
40 BYT 217,218,219,220,221,222,222,223,224,225,225,226,227,228,228,229,230
50 BYT 231,231,232,2:33,234,235,236,23.?,23~~,239,240,241,241,242,242,243,244
60 BYT
2~~5,246,247,247,248,249~250,251,252,253,254,255
7.:1 Hm
90 POKE 250,1:E8=59456~00=59459~PA=594~~1~POKEE8,PEEK(E8)AND231 :POKE 00,255
70 IHF'UT"EIHEF.: I<:EC!Uli;:EIJ :3F'EEIJ 0::1":Pt1> "'"" :::>P=ItH(S/4) :POI<E ;26JOO . ::>P :Pf?II-fT
::;::~3
CL:$:=~
"
11
I Jll::l_lT n E~.rn::F: rlf~::-:: (31~ I J l ( :l .r :2 .r 4" ~ ... ;~"~~::i6) n .:~ 1:3 :: DF.:::::: I J.rr ( L.OCi ( ;;~56/Ci) ,..'L.CH3 ( ::2) +. 4)
POKE 26010,DR:POKE 136,0
PF.:HH"Ef'ICH UHIT OF CiFlHi COEFFICIEt--IT =L'" ';256,..-'G
IHPUT''EHTER PPOPORTIOHAL CiAIH '';PG:POKE 26001,PCi
I llPUT "0-HEP DER I '/fiT I \lE OH I ll " ' IJCi : 1=01<E ;2600:3 . DO
HII0 'UT"EtlTEi;: :1:1'-HI::OF:HL Of1II'I "" IO ::POKE :::::OOO;;, . IU
::;o F'f;: I IH "Et--I'TI::J<: HDD IT l OI"IHL D I ',' I :.3 I Clll F'()l;: I< I "
6(1 I HPUT 11 ( t .r 2 .r 4 ~ ... ;~::~:~6) !I .~ I~DI:~:
70 IF I~DP=O TI-IEI'-l F'F<:IrH""!J'' .'CL!c :F'f':II-i'T'CL:>: :PPIIrT ":::::r.::D" :OOTO :3150
90
00
10
20
:30
40
80 POKE 26023,(L.QG(A0R)/L.OG(2))
90 FOP 1'-126020 TO 26026:F'OKE H,0:FOP 1'-126011 TO 2601:3:POKE H,O
00 :;:;'T'S26426 :PI<: I IH : F'F.: I tIT "r.;:EC!U I F:ED ::WEED=" .: :::;
:tO F'I;:II..IT"I.1f:i:'':HItWI C;f1H-i'"" .G ::PI~II-fl'"O'/EF.:11LL PF.:OF'OPTICHH'IL GfiHl=" ,,c;,. ';256;.1'F'O
'2~3 F'l:;;: I I~T ''I)','Er;;:ALL DEF~: I \'AT I ','E 01:1 I li:::~ ,, .~ GW-00.'2~:~6
:::0 F'RHlT"O'/EF:i'ILL HHEOF.:flL Of1Hl=" .' IO>I<0.:;::56/I'IDP
'40 PRIHT:PF.:IHT:GOTO 3070
'50 FOF.: 1'-1=26010 TO 26013:F'OKE H,0:HEXT
'60 IHPUT''EHTEP MAXIMUM OHIH
'';D1:D=256/D1:DF.:=LOU<:D>/LOU<2>:S=0
'70 POKE 26024,0:POKE 26025,0:POKE 26026,0:ITEPM=0
'10:0 PP I IH "lotfTEI': l"lDD IT I OllHL D I ',' I:=; I otl 1:c11;: I< I"' :I HF'UT 1=1[11;:
~90
::oo
POKE
26023,LOG<ADR>~LOG(2)
F'P HlT "ENTEF.: C 1 . C2 . f<D . I<P . f< I , [1:3F'" : HIF'UT C 1 n . C214 . fc:D . f<:P, f< I . DP
: 10 . C214=C 11'1 : C lH=CtlA : H-lPUT" EtHEF: Ct1" .' Ct~n
120 POKE 26000,DP:POKE 26001,KP:POKE 26002,KI:POKE 26010,DR
1
:::::aJ POKE 26~32~3 .r C2A : FOI<E 26~::121 .~ C 11:~ :POKE 260~~2 .~ CliF~ : PO~<E 26~3~3:3 .~ I<D : ~::; r'~326~J29
l40 ITERM=ITEPM+KIWO::DP-CNfi)/140F::SKPW<DP-CNH>+ITEF:M+KD*<2*C1A-C2fi-CNH>
:6~3 :31=2~56*PEE~<(26(112>+PEEK<26~J11)
:A$=""
- 241 -
18150
l 0160
10170
10180
101:30
1 0200
10210
1 0~220
POKE SS+4,AI
PF.: I tH" 0\'ERl"'LL I IHEGF:HL GH I t1 ,=",;I G.'l"' I
HlPUT"Et-HEF: OEF.:I'/ GHH1 <KD) ( . 1 2~55 ".;DG :POKE :o::=.:+3 . DG
PF.:INT''ENTEF: ADDITIONAL DERIV GAIN DIVISOF.:''
H1PUT" <l'ii<:D) 1 . 2 . 4 1.:28 ".;l'iD :POKE :=.:3+5 ... 1:'1[1
FF.: I tiT" O'v'EF.:ALL DE F.: I V CHi I 11 =" ' f<D.'I"'D
POKE SS+23,0:POKE SS+24,0:POKE SS+25,0:REM ZEF.:OES INTEGRAL F.:EGISTEP:
POf':E ::;:::;:+22 . 0: F.:Etl PU: .: :,:;::;~ED t10~l=O
:20010
:20020
:200:2 :l
200:c~c
:20023
:200:24
~:00~~~5
,,:002?
20030
20035
20037
20040
20050
20060
200;'0
.F<:EI"'D'T'.
l"i1PEEKCS3+11):1"i2=PEEKCSS+12)::J"i3PEEK<3S+13)
PPIHT Fl3;Fl2;H1;256*A3+A1
PI~: I HT" 11[1:3 ( BA:3 I C) "~" .: 1= I
I llf'UT" Et-ITEIO.: IJEI.l ::;:FEED "; Ct1::.;: POkE :::::::+;2::2 . CIJ;~: OOTO 21)0:30