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Control Theory

of upsets and the process area(s) requiring improvement/adjustment, and verication techniques to ensure that
the adjustment(s) have resulted in the desired change.
Because of the open-loop decision-making nature of SPC,
many believe that SPC charting should be done manually.
This view is based at least partially on the assumption that
a human observer will pay closer attention during periods of
upsets and therefore will be better prepared for the troubleshooting and problem-solving phases of the process. Those
sharing this view prefer to keep the observer actively involved
in the SPC process.
In the name of productivity and to make better use of our
powerful computing tools, many organizations have implemented forms of automated SPC charting and monitoring.
When automated, the SPC calculations and charting are usually implemented in a Plant Information Data Base and may
be displayed either in that system and/or a process control
computer. Most of those who have automated the rst phase
are still performing the nonmonitoring portions of the SPC
process manually. A few of the more aggressive automation
types are attempting to implement diagnostic and process
adjustment activities with articial intelligence or other computer models.

determine the tuning parameters for the total process. In other

words with SPC, the control is usually on a process scale and
not for individual loops.
What does it mean for a process to be in statistical control? A process is considered in control if it is experiencing
only normal upsets and variation that have often occurred in
the past. A process is out of statistical control when the
change is sustained and it brings the controlled variable outside
the limits of its normal range of variation. In that case one should
try to identify the cause of the change in order to decide how
to respond to it.
Understanding the types of variation allows one to predict
the performance of a stable process. If an in-control process
is making large quantities of out-of-specication product, the
control limits need to be changed. Process control limits are
not design specications but are values that describe past
performance of the process. Therefore, in order to change the
SPC limits, one needs to change the process.

Continuous Processes

It needs to be emphasized that all statistical techniques are

not valid for all data sets. SPC tools that were developed for
discrete manufacturing need to be adapted and/or interpreted
differently when applied to a continuous process environment. Many statistical techniques involve assumptions that
are not valid on all data sets. These may include issues such as
the randomness of the data, the shape of the distribution,
and data collection technique issues. It should also be noted
that choosing an appropriate chart(s) for the data set and/or
problem can greatly simplify the SPC process. Different
charting techniques can offer a different view of the same
data set.
SPC techniques are the heart and soul of todays Six
Sigma quality programs. Six Sigma is a very popular and
powerful process improvement tool, which is implemented by
a team. The team is usually led by operations people and
includes process control engineers and operations, quality, or
middle-management personnel. It is normally targeted at
measuring the Process Capability of both manufacturing and
nonmanufacturing processes and then focuses on improving
those processes.
What Is Statistical Control?
All processes exhibit variation. There is no cause for adjusting the total process unless the variation exceeds statistically
acceptable limits. If the process is within acceptable statistical limits, changes would only introduce instability. Just as
a PID controller needs to be tuned to properly control a loop,
so the SPC process can be thought of as a procedure to help

2006 by Bla Liptk

SPC TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

SPC problem-solving techniques include:

Analysis of processes for stability and the effects of

process modications (control charts and capability
indices)
Dening problems and setting priorities (Pareto
charts)
Identifying causes for good and bad performance (cause
and effect diagramsshbone charts/diagrams)
Quantifying relationships between process or product
variables and other variables (scatter plots or other
correlation tools)

Control Charts
The most widely used SPC tools are control charts. On these
charts, the measurements of product samples are plotted to
show their centering (XBar chart) and dispersion values (R
chart). The centering value is the average of the samples. The
dispersion value is the frequency distribution from that average. These charts are used to distinguish random, uncontrollable variations in measured parameters from variations that
are controllable and should be corrected. To control product
quality, the aim is to keep the product variation within the
random pattern.
Figure 2.34a shows a centering and a dispersion chart.
Both charts have similar components: centerline, upper limit,
lower limit, and sample size. The centerline, also called the
average, is shown with a solid line. The average of all the
samples should be at this value. The upper and lower limits
are shown by dotted lines. If the average is achieved, the
averages of n samples should be less than the upper limit and
greater than the lower limit. Variations within the limits are