1.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES & MEASUREMENTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

a. Definition of Physics
Physics, the most fundamental science, is concerned with the basic principles of
the Universe. It is one of the foundations on which the other physical sciences
astronomy, chemistry, and geology are based.

Physics is the study of the properties and nature of matter, the different forms of
energy and the ways in which matter and energy interact in the world around us.
To understand physics, we need to know Model, Theories and Laws in
describing a phenomenon.

The study of the laws that determines the structure of the universe with
reference to the matter and energy of which it consists. It is not concerned not
with chemical changes that occur but with the forces that exist between objects
and the interrelationship between matter and energy.

b. The goal of Physics

The goal of Physics is to provide an understanding of nature by developing
theories based on experiments
c. The beauty of Physics
The beauty of Physics lies in the simplicity of its fundamental theories and in
the way just a small number of basics concepts, equations, and assumptions can
alter and expand our view of the world.
d. The areas of Physics
Physics can be divided into five areas:
i. Mechanics :- which is concerned with the effects of forces on material objects.
Also covers the main concepts of physics, e.g. forces, energy and the properties
of matter.
ii. Thermodynamics :- which deals with heat, temperature, and the behavior of
large numbers of particles. Also explains heat energy in terms of its
measurement and the effects of its presence and transference. Includes the gas
laws.
iii. Electromagnetism :- which deals with charges, currents, and electromagnetic
fields. Also explains the forms, uses and characteristics of these two linked
phenomena.
iv. Relativity (Year : 1905) :- a theory that describes particles moving at any speed,
and connects space and time
v. Quantum Mechanics (Year: 1900) :- a theory dealing with behavior of particles
at the submicrospic level as well as the macroscopic world

Since the turn of the century, however, quantum mechanics and relativistic
physics have become increasingly important; the growth of modern physics has
been accompanied by the studies of atomic physics, nuclear physics (1896) and
particle physics.
e. Some terms of Physics
i.

ii.

iii
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.

ix.

x.

Astrophysics : - The Physics of astronomical bodies and their interactions.

Astrophysics also studies the physical and chemical processes involving
astronomical phenomena. Astrophysics deals with stellar structure and evolution
(including the generation and transport of energy within stars), the properties of
the interstellar medium and its interactions with stellar systems, and the
structure and dynamics of systems of stars and systems of galaxies.
Geophysics : - The branch of science in which the principles of mathematics and
physics are applied to the study the earths crust and interior. It includes the
study of earthquake waves, geomagnetism, gravitational fields, and electrical
conductivity using precise quantitative principles. In applied geophysics the
techniques are applied to the discovery and location of economic minerals (e.g.
petroleum).
Biophysics :- The study of the physical aspects of biology.
Theoretical Physics : - The study of physics by formulating and analyzing
theories that describe natural processes. Theoretical physics is complementary
to the study of physics by experiment.
Experimental Physics : - The study of physics by experiment
Mathematical Physics :- The branch of theoretical physics concerned with the
mathematical aspects of theories in physics
Thinking Physics : - The study of Physics which emphasis more on critical
thinking and teaching physical concepts
Laws :- A law is a descriptive principle of nature that holds in all circumstances
covered by the wording of the law. Some laws are named after their discoverers
(e.g. * Boyles law); some laws, however, are known by their subject matter to
describe them (e.g. * the law of conservation of mass), while other laws use
both the name of the discoverer and the subject matter to describe them (e.g. *
Newtons law of gravitation).
Theory :- A description of nature that encompasses more than one law but has
not achieved the uncontrovertibly status of a law . Theories are often both
eponymous and descriptive of the subject matter (e.g. Einsteins theory of
relativity and Darwins theory of evolution).
Hypothesis :- A theory or law that retains the suggestion that it may not be
universally true. Some hypothesis about which no doubt still linger have
remained hypotheses ( e.g. Avogadros hypothesis ) for no clear reason.

1.2 QUANTITIES & UNITS

All things in classical mechanics can be expressed in terms of the fundamental
dimension or unit:
Dimension
Unit
Length
L
meter
Mass
M
kilogram
Time
T
second

For example:
Speed has dimension of L / T (i.e. Km per hour).
Force has dimension of ML / T2 etc...

Length:
Distance
Radius of visible universe
To Andromeda Galaxy
To nearest star
Earth to Sun
Radius of Earth
Sears Tower
Football field
Tall person
Thickness of paper
Wavelength of blue light
Diameter of hydrogen atom
Diameter of proton

Length (m)
1 x 1026
2 x 1022
4 x 1016
1.5 x 1011
6.4 x 106
4.5 x 102
1.0 x 102
2 x 100
1 x 10-4
4 x 10-7
1 x 10-10
1 x 10-15

Time:
Interval
Age of universe
Age of Grand Canyon
32 years
One year
One hour
Light travel from Earth to Moon
One cycle of guitar a string
One cycle of FM radio wave
Lifetime of neutral pi meson
Lifetime of top quark

Time (s)
5 x 1017
3 x 1014
1 x 109
3.2 x 107
3.6 x 103
1.3 x 100
2 x 10-3
6 x 10-8
1 x 10-16
4 x 10-25

Mass:
Object
Milky Way Galaxy
Sun
Earth
Boeing 747
Car
Student
Dust particle
Top quark
Proton
Electron
Neutrino

Mass (kg)
4 x 1041
2 x 1030
6 x 1024
4 x 105
1 x 103
7 x 101
1 x 10-9
3 x 10-25
2 x 10-27
9 x 10-31
1 x 10-38

Units...

SI (System International) Units:

mks: L = meters (m), M = kilograms (kg), T = seconds (s)
cgs: L = centimeters (cm), M = grams (gm), T = seconds (s)

Derived Units :
Newton, Joule, Watt, Ohm . and etc.
British Units:
Inches, feet, miles, pounds, slugs...
fps : L = foot, M = pound, T = second

We will use mostly SI units with mks system, but you may run across some problems (rarely
happen) using British units. You should know how to convert back & forth.
The 7 International System of Units (SI)

Quantity

SI Units

Symbol

Length

meter

Mass

kilogram

Kg

Time

second

Electric current

Ampere

Temperature

kelvin

Luminous Intensity

candela

cd

Amount of Substance

mol

mol

Derived Units
Quantity

Unit

Force

Newton

Abbreviation In terms of Base

Units
N
kg ms-2

Energy & Work

Joule

kg m2s-2

Power

Watt

kg m2s-3

Pascal

Pa

kg / (ms2 )

Pressure

Factor Charge
Prefix Coulomb
Symbol
Electric
10-1
deci
Electric
Volt d
Potential
10-2
centi
c
Capacitance
Farad
10-3
milli
m
Inductance
Henry
10-6
micro
m
Magnetic
Flux
Weber
10-9
nano
n

Factor
C
1
10
V

Prefix

A Symbol
s
deka
3
kg m2 / (A sda
)

102
F
103
H
106
Wb9
10

hecto
h
A2 s4 / (kg m2 )
kilo
k
kg m2 / (s2 A2 )
Mega
M
2
kg m / (A s2 )
Giga
G

10-12

pico

1012

Tera

10-15

femto

1015

Peta

10-18

ato

1.3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Standard
Prefixes : used to
denote multiple
of ten

Grab the whole picture !

Measurement
s

Units

Instruments

Quantiti
es

Scalar Quantities
Vector Quantities

Dimension
Analysis

Accuracy & Uncertainty

Significant Figures

DIMENSIONS
Many physical quantities can be expressed in terms of a combination of fundamental
dimensions such as
[Length]
[Time]
[Mass]
[Current]
[Temperature]
[Amount]

L
T
M
A

The symbol [ ] means dimension or stands for dimension

There are physical quantities which are dimensionless:
numerical value
ratio between the same quantity angle
some of the known constants like ln, log and etc.

Dimensional Analysis
Dimension analysis can be used to:

Derive an equation.
Check whether an equation is dimensionally correct. However, if an equation is
dimensionally correct, it doesnt necessarily mean it is correct.
Find out dimension or units of derived quantities.

Derived an Equation (Quantities)

Example 1:
Velocity = displacement / time
[velocity] = [displacement] / [time]
= L/T
= LT-1
v = s/t
Example 2: The period of a pendulum
The period P of a swinging pendulum depends only on the length of the pendulum l and the
acceleration of gravity g.
l
T k
g
What are the dimensions of the variables?
t T
mM
L
g LT-2
Write a general equation:
By using the dimension method, an expression could derived that relates T, l and g
T ma bgc
whereby a, b and c are dimensionless constants
Thus
T = kma bgc
Write out the dimensions of the variables
[T] = [ma][ b][gc]
= MaLb(LT-2)c
= MaLbLcT-2c
1
T = MaL b+c T-2c

Using indices
a =0

T k

l
g

-2c = 1 c = -
b+c =0
b = -c =
a b c
T = km g
T = km0 g-
l
T 2
g
Whereby, the value of k is known by experiment
Exercises
The viscosity force, F going against the movement of a sphere immersed in a fluid depends
on the radius of the sphere, a, the speed of the sphere, v and the viscosity of the fluid, . By
using the dimension method, derive an equation that relates F with a, v and .
Fl
(given that
)
Av
To check whether a specific formula or an equation is homogenous
Example 1
s= vt
[s] = [v] [t]
L.H.S [s] = L
R.H.S [v] [t] = LT-1T
=L
Thus, the left hand side = right hand side, rendering the equation as homogenous
Example 2
Given that the speed for the wave of a rope is C
dimensional analysis.
C2

F
m

F
m

L.H.S. [ C ] = [ LT-1]2
= L2T-2
R.H.S. [ C ] = MLT-2, [ m ] =M

F MLT 2 LT 2
M
m

F
, check its homogeneity by using the
m

Conclusion: The above equation is not homogenous (L.H.S R.H.S)

Exercises
Show that the equations below are either homogenous or otherwise
v = u + 2as
s = ut + at2
Find out dimension or units of derived quantities
Example
m
Consider the equation T 2
, where m is the mass and T is a time, therefore dimension
k
of k can be describe as
m
T 2
k
m
T 2 4 2
k
m
k 4 2 2
T
m M
k 2 2
T
T
= MT-2
unit: kgs-2
thus, the units of k is in kgs-2

Exercise
The speed of a sound wave, v going through an elastic matter depends on the density of the
elastic matter, and a constant E given as equation v= E - -. Determine the dimension for
E in its SI units
Dimensional Analysis
Example:
The period P of a swinging pendulum depends only on the length of the pendulum l and the
acceleration of gravity g. Which of the following formulas for P is correct?
Given: l has units of length (L) and g has units of (L / T 2).

l
l
(c) P 2
g
g
Realize that the left hand side P has units of time (T )
a) P= 2(lg)2

(b) P 2

Solution:
2

L
L4
(a) L. 2 4 T Not Right!
T
T
L
T2 T
L
(b) T 2
Not Right!

(c)

L
L

T2 T

T2
This has the correct unit! This must be the answer!

1.4 SCALAR AND VECTOR

Scalars:
Scalars are quantities which have magnitude without direction
Examples of scalars
Mass
Temperature
Kinetic energy
Time
Amount
Density
charge

Vector:
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude (size) and direction

It is represented by an arrow whereby

the length of the arrow is the magnitude, and

the arrow itself indicates the direction

The symbol for a vector is a letter

with an arrow over it

Two ways to specify
It is either given by

a magnitude A, and

a direction

Or it is given in the x and y components as

A
A

Ax

Ax

Ay

Ay

Ax = A cos
Ay = A sin
The magnitude (length) of A is found by using the Pythagorean Theorem
A Ax2 Ay2
The length of a vector clearly does not depend on its direction.
The direction of A can be stated as
tan

Ay
Ax
Ay

Ax

tan 1

Some Properties of Vectors:

Equality of Two Vectors

Two vectors A and B may be defined to be equal if they have the same magnitudes and
point in the same directions. i.e. A= B

A
A

Negative of a vector:
The negative of vector A is defined as giving the vector sum of zero value when added to
A . That is, A + (- A) = 0. The vector A and A have the same magnitude but are in
opposite directions.

A
-A

Scalar Multiplication:
The multiplication of a vector A by a scalar
- will result in a vector B
B = A
- the magnitude is changed but not the direction
Do flip the direction if is negative
If = 0, therefore B = , A = 0, which is also known as a zero vector
(A) = A = (A)
(+)A = A + A

Vector Addition

The addition of two vectors, A and B

- will result in a third vector, C called the resultant
C = A+ B
Geometrically (triangle method of addition)
put the tail-end of B at the top-end of A
C connects the tail-end of A to the top-end of B
C
B

A
We can arrange the vectors as we like, as long as we maintain their length and direction
More than two vectors?
x4
x5

xi

x3

x1

x2

xi = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5

Vector Subtraction:
It is equivalent to adding the negative vectors.

C=

A-B
B

C = A + (-B)

-B

A-B
Rules of Vector Addition

Commutative

A+B=B+A

A+B

A+B

Associative

Distributive

Parallelogram method of addition (tail-to-tail)

The magnitude of the resultant depends on the relative directions of the vectors

Unit Vectors

A Vector whose magnitude is 1 and dimensionless.

The magnitude of each unit vector equals a unity, that is

Useful examples for the Cartesian unit vectors [ i, j, k ]

- they point in the direction of the x, y and z axes respectively

Component of a vector in 2-D:

A vector A can be resolved into two components

Ax and Ay

The component of A are:

Ax = Ax = A cos
Ay = Ay = A sin
The magnitude of A:
A Ax2 Ay2
The direction of A:
tan

Ay
Ax
Ay

Ax

tan 1

The unit vector notation for the vector A is written

A = Axi + Ayj

Component of vector in 3-D:

A vector A can be resolved into three components Ax , Ay and Az.

A = Axi + Ayj + Azk

If

Dot Product ( Scalar ) of two vectors:

If = 900 (normal vectors) then the dot product is zero.

|A B| = AB cos 90 = 0 and i j = j k = i k = 0

if = 00 (parallel vectors) it gets its maximum value of 1

|A B| = AB cos 0 = 1 and i j = j k = i k = 1

The dot product is commutative.

Use the distributive law to evaluate the dot product if the components are
known.

Cross product ( vector) of two vectors:

The magnitude of the cross product is given by

The vector product creates a new vector.

This vector is normal to the plane defined by the original vectors and its
direction is found by using the right hand rule.
If = 00 (parallel vectors) then the cross product is zero.

If = 900 (normal vectors) it gets its maximum value.

The relationship between vectors i , j and k can be described as

ixj =-jxi =k
jxk=-kxj=i
kxi=-ixk=j

The resultant has a magnitude A + B when A is oriented in the same direction as B.

The resultant vector A + B = 0 when A is oriented in the direction opposite to B, and
when A = B

C= 48.2 km

No. The magnitude of a vector A is equal to (Ax2 + Ay2 +Az2).Therefore, if any

component is nonzero, A cannot be zero. Proof of this generalization of the Pythagorean
theorem.

A = -B, therefore the components of the two vectors must have opposite sings and equal
magnitudes.

Tan = Ry / Rx
= (Ax + By) / (Ax + Bx)

1.5 MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS

Terminology:
True value standard or reference of known value or a theoretical value
Accuracy closeness to the true value
Precision reproducibility or agreement with each other for multiple trials
Types of Errors
i. Systematic errors
Sometimes called bias due to error in one direction- high or low

Known cause
Operator
Wrong calibration of glassware, sensor, or instrument

When it is determined, it can be corrected

May be of a constant or proportional nature

ii. Random errors

Cannot be determined (no control over)

Random nature causes both high and low values which will average out
Multiple trials help to minimize

Accuracy and Precision

The Uncertainty:
Example:
True value of thickness of a book is 5cm.
Student A uses meter ruler and measures the thickness to be 4.9cm with an
uncertainty of 0.1cm.
Student B , with Vernier caliper, found it to be 4.85cm with an uncertainty of 0.01cm.
We may say,
Student A has more accurate value, but less precise.
Student B got a more precise value, but less accurate (due to the faulty caliper. Uncalibrate !)
However, after sending the caliper to be calibrated, student B performs the
measurement again and found the thickness is 4.98cm. So, now he has more accurate and
more precise value.
Note: We always report a measurement in a way that would includes the uncertainty
carried by the instrument.
Combining uncertainties + and Adding or subtracting quantities then sum all individual absolute uncertainties
2.1 0.1 + 2.0 0.2 = 4.1 0.3
2.1 0.1 - 2.0 0.2 = 0.1 0.3
This method overestimates the final uncertainty.

Combining uncertainties x and

When Dividing or multiplying quantities, then sum all of the individual relative uncertainties
(2.5 0.1) x (5.0 0.1)
= (2.5 4%) x (5.1 2%) =12.5 6% (or 0.75 or 0.7)
(21 6%) / (5.0 4%)
= 4.12 10% or 4.2 0.42 or 4.2 0.4
However it will overestimate final uncertainty.
The Significant figures
The number of Significant figures of a numerical quantity is the number of reliably known
digits it contains.
For measured quantity, it is defined as all of the digits that can be read directly from the
instrument used in making the measurement plus one uncertain digit that is obtained by
estimating the fraction of the smallest division of the instruments scale.
Note: Exact quantities are considered as having unlimited number of significant figures. We
need to be concerned with significant figures only when dealing with measurements that
have required some estimation.
For example,
Reading of the thickness of a book is
5.0cm or 50mm from meter ruler (with 2 sf)
5.00cm or 50.0 mm from vernier caliper. (with 3 sf)
The rules of significant figures:
1. Any figure that is non-zero, is considered as a significant figure.
2. Zeros at the beginning of a number are not significant
Example: 0.254 ----------------- 3 s.f
3. Zeros within a number are significant.
Example: 104.6 m ---------------- 4 s.f
4. Zeros at the end of a number after the decimal point are significant.
Example: 27050.0 ------------------- 6 s.f
5. Zeros at the end of a whole number without a decimal point may or may not be significant.
It depends on how that particular number was obtained, using what kind of instrument, and
the uncertainty involved.
Example: 500m ------------------- could be 1 or 3 sf.
Convert the unit:
500m = 0.5km ( 1 sf )
500m = 50 000cm ( 5 sf )

Addition and Subtraction processes

The rule:
The final result of an addition and/or subtraction should have the same number of significant
figures as the quantity with the least number of decimal places used in the calculation.
Example:
23.1 + 45 + 0.68 + 100 = 169
Example:
23.5 + 0.567 + 0.85 = 24.9
Multiplication and division processes
The rule:
The final result of an multiplication and/or division should have the same number of
significant figures as the quantity with the least number of significant figures used in the
calculation.
Example:
0.586 x 3.4 = 1.9924
= 2.0
Example:
13.90 / 0.580 = 23.9655 = 24.0
Estimating the slope
1. Simple conservative method
Plot error bars on the graph
Draw maximum (mmax) and minimum (mmin) slopes.

The simplest method is to plot the data (and associated error bars) and draw 2 lines through
the points. One with a maxiumum slope that still manages to go through all of the error bars
and one with the minimum slope that does likewise.

The average slope and uncertainty on the slope are given above.
This is a very simple method but usually overestimates the uncertainty especially if the data
is reasonably linear to start with and the error bars are large.