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DC Meter / 1
CHAPTER 2 : DC METERS
2.1
This permanent magnet moving coil meter movement is the basic movement in most
analog (meter with a pointer indicator hand) measuring instruments. It is commonly called
d'Arsonval movement because it was first employed by the Frenchman d'Arsonval in making
electrical measurements.
This type of meter movement is a current measuring device which is used in the
ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter. Basically, both the ammeter and the voltmeter are current
measuring instruments, the principal difference being the method in which they are connected
in a circuit. While an ohmmeter is also basically a current measuring instrument, it differs from
the ammeter and voltmeter in that it provides its own source of power and contains other
auxiliary circuits.
2.1.1
a) Basic Construction
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The compass and conducting wire meter can be considered a fixed-conductor moving-magnet
device since the compass is, in reality, a magnet that is allowed to move. The basic principle of
this device is the interaction of magnetic fields: the field of the compass (a permanent magnet)
and the field around the conductor (a simple electromagnet).
A permanent-magnet moving-coil movement is based upon a fixed permanent magnet
and a coil of wire which is able to move, as in figure 2.2. When the switch is closed, causing
current through the coil, the coil will have a magnetic field which will react to the magnetic field
of the permanent magnet. The bottom portion of the coil will be the north pole of this
electromagnet. Since opposite poles attract, the coil will move to the position shown in figure
2.3.
The coil of wire is wound on an aluminum frame, or bobbin, and the bobbin is
supported by jeweled bearings which allow it to move freely. This is shown in figure 2.4. To use
this permanent-magnet moving-coil device as a meter, two problems must be solved. First, a
way must be found to return the coil to its original position when there is no current through
the coil. Second, a method is needed to indicate the amount of coil movement. The first problem
is solved by the use of hairsprings attached to each end of the coil as shown in figure 2.5. These
hairsprings can also be used to make the electrical connections to the coil.
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With the use of hairsprings, the coil will return to its initial position when there is no
current. The springs will also tend to resist the movement of the coil when there is current
through the coil. When the attraction between the magnetic fields (from the permanent magnet
and the coil) is exactly equal to the force of the hairsprings, the coil will stop moving toward the
magnet.
As the current through the coil increases, the magnetic field generated around the coil
increases. The stronger the magnetic field around the coil, the farther the coil will move. This is
a good basis for a meter. But, how will you know how far the coil moves? If a pointer is
attached to the coil and extended out to a scale, the pointer will move as the coil moves, and the
scale can be marked to indicate the amount of current through the coil. This is shown in figure
2.6.
Two other features are used to increase the accuracy and efficiency of this meter
movement. First, an iron core is placed inside the coil to concentrate the magnetic fields.
Second, curved pole pieces are attached to the magnet to ensure the turning force on a coil
increases steadily as the current increases. These same curved pole pieces are found in a motor.
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Thus the damping torque is never greater than the controlling torque. In fact it is the condition
of critical damping which is sufficient to enable the pointer rising quickly to its deflected
position without overshooting.
The deflecting torque produced is described below in mathematical form:
(Equation 2.1)
Where
B = flux density in Wb/m2 (Tesla)
I = current (A).
N = number of turns of the coils.
A = area ( length X wide), (m2).
Example 1:
Given frame of permanent moving coil is 6m2. The number of winding around coil is 50 and
flux 0.12 wb/m2. If 1mA current through the coil, calculate the deflection torque.
Solution
Td
= BINA
= (0.12 wb/m2)( 1mA)(50)(6m2)
= 36mNm
2.1.5 Damping
A problem that is created by the use of a rectifier and dArsonval meter movement is that the
pointer will vibrate (oscillate) around the average value indication. In physics, damping is any
effect that tends to reduce the amplitude of oscillations in an oscillatory system, particularly the
harmonic oscillator.
This oscillation will make the meter difficult to read. The process of "smoothing out" the
oscillation of the pointer is known as DAMPING. There are two basic techniques used to damp
the pointer of a dArsonval meter movement.
i.
The first method of damping comes from the dArsonval meter movement itself. In the
dArsonval meter movement, current through the coil causes the coil to move in the
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magnetic field of the permanent magnet. This movement of the coil (conductor) through
a magnetic field causes a current to be induced in the coil opposite to the current that
caused the movement of the coil. This induced current will act to damp oscillations. In
addition to this method of damping, which comes from the movement itself, most
meters use a second method of damping.
ii.
The second method of damping used in most meter movements is an airtight chamber
containing a vane (like a windmill vane) attached to the coil.
As the coil moves, the vane moves within the airtight chamber. The action of the vane against
the air in the chamber opposes the coil movement and damps the oscillations.
There are two general classes of damped motion, as follows:
1.
2.
Periodic, in which the pointer oscillates about the final position before coming to rest.
Aperiodic, in which the pointer comes to rest without overshooting the rest position.
The point of change between periodic and aperiodic damping is called "critical
damping." An instrument is considered to be critically damped when overshoot is
present but does not exceed an amount equal to one half the rated accuracy of the
instrument.
A problem that is created by the use of a rectifier and dArsonval meter movement is that the
pointer will vibrate (oscillate) around the average value indication. This oscillation will make
the meter difficult to read. The value of the damping ratio determines the behavior of the
system. A damped harmonic oscillator can be:
i.
Critical damping ( = 1)
When = 1, there is a double root (defined above), which is real. The system is said to
be critically damped. A critically damped system converges to zero faster than any
other, and without oscillating. An example of critical damping is the door closer seen on
many hinged doors in public buildings. The recoil mechanisms in most guns are also
critically damped so that they return to their original position, after the recoil due to
firing, in the least possible time.
ii.
Over-damping ( > 1)
When > 1, the system is over-damped and there are two different real roots. An overdamped door-closer will take longer to close than a critically damped door would
iii.
Under-damping (0 < 1)
Finally, when 0 < 1, is complex, and the system is under-damped. In this situation,
the system will oscillate at the natural damped frequency d, which is a function of the
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natural frequency and the damping ratio. To continue the analogy, an underdamped
door closer would close quickly, but would hit the door frame with significant velocity,
or would oscillate in the case of a swinging door.
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2.1.6
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Liquid damping
Similar principle as air damping only the vane moves in a liquid chamber with a
proper concentration.
c.
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2.2
DC VOLTMETER
A basic dArsonval movement can be converted into dc voltmeter by adding in series resistor
multiplier as shown in figure 2.9.
IM
RM
RS
V
Current in series;
IS = IM
(Equation 2.2)
IM RS + IMRM
(Equation 2.3)
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(Equation 2.4)
Exercise 2
A basic D Arsonval movement with a full-scale deflection of 50 A and internal resistance of
500 is used as a DC voltmeter. Determine the value of the multiplier resistance needed to
measure a voltage range of 0-10V.
Solution:
= 500
= 50 uA
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R2
Rm
V1
V2
Im
_
Figure 2.10 : DC Multi-range Voltmeter circuit.
(Equation 2.5)
(Equation 2.6)
(Equation 2.7)
Exercise 3
Convert a basic D Arsonval movement with an internal resistance of 100 and a full scale
deflection current of 1mA into a multirange dc voltmeter with voltage ranges of 0-15V and 050V.
Solution
i.
Range 0 15V
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ii.
Range 0 50V
2.2.7
DC Meter / 11
"#
!
$ %
When a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across a circuit component, the voltmeter
circuit itself is in parallel with the circuit component. Total resistance will decrease, so the
voltage across component will also decrease. This is called voltmeter loading. The resulting
error is called a loading error. The voltmeter loading can be reduced by using a high sensitivity
voltmeter.
The exercise below can show the loading effect when using voltmeter with two value
sensitivity.
Exercise 4
R1 = 200K
200
R2 = 50K
Find the voltage across the resistor 50K as shown in figure above if using
a. Voltmeter with sensitivity 1000/V
b. Voltmeter with sensitivity 20000/V
And voltmeter range for both measurements is 0 50V.
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Solution
a. At range 50V and the sensitivity voltmeter is 1000/V
Actual voltage value across R2,
R2
&'
&( )&'
V2 = -------- X V
*
R1 + R2
+,
+,)++,
*-
= 40 V
R1 = 200K
200V
V Rin = 50K
R2 = 50K
200V
./
012
3 12
0
./
Req = 25K
3
./ -
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&45
&45 )&(
*
,
,)++, *-
$$ $$V
6789:9;9:<
=9:>;?@:!7:7A
*
C
=9:>?B:;?@:!7:7A
----
*
C
"
C
"""C
"""C
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R1 = 200K
200V
V Rin = 1M
R2 = 50K
012
E 12
Req = 47.62K
./
0
E
./ "FG-
So, the reading at voltmeter is
Voltage across Req,
&45
&45 )&(
*
"FG-
*-
"FG- E -
%H IV
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=9:>;?@:!7:7A
*
C
=9:>?B:;?@:!7:7A
JK"G
*
C
"
I C
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2.3
DC Meter / 15
DC AMMETER
The PMMC galvanometer constitutes the basic movement of a dc ammeter. The coil winding of
a basic movement is small and light, so it can carry only very small currents. The PMMC can
use to build an ammeter with connected the shunt resistor and meter in parallel. A low value
resistor (shunt resistor) is used in DC ammeter to measure large current. Basic DC ammeter:
IM
ISH
RM
RSH
(Equation 2.8)
&
L
L
(Equation 2.9)
L
&
MN
(Equation 2.10)
L
&
O
(Equation 2.11)
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Exercise 5
A 1mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100 is to be converted into a 0-100 mA.
Calculate the value of shunt resistance required.
Solution
L
L
!
!
!
= 1.01
Individual Shunts
IM
ISH
RM
RSH1
RSH2
RSH3
RSH4
&
L O
(Equation 2.12)
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b.
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Ayrton Shunt
Julat
10mA
R2
RSHT
RM = 50
IM = 2 mA
Julat
100mA
R1
RSH1
(Equation 2.13)
(Equation 2.14)
# To calculate the total shunt resistor, determine from the lowest range.
RSHT = (.. + Rn + R2 + R1) =
&
O
(Equation 2.15)
L
P&MNQ )& R
(Equation 2.16)
Exercise 6
Refer the circuit above, calculate shunt resistor ( R1 and R2) when using range - 10mA and
100mA.
Solution
To find total shunt resistor use the lowest range 10mA.
RSHT = (R2 + R1) =
+
+O
= 12.5.
For shunt resistor at 100mA (highest range)
L
$
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L
-
-
$ $
2.4
OHMMETER
The PMMC can change to be ohmmeter with connected voltage source and limited current
resistor in series. The type of Ohmmeter is series ohmmeter and parallel ohmmeter. The
purpose of an ohmmeter is to measure the resistance placed between its leads. This resistance
reading is indicated through a mechanical meter movement which operates on electric current.
2.4.1
Series Ohmmeter
R1
Rm
A
Rx
V
R2
B
AB Terminal Short
AB Terminal open
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When Rx connected;
& &
S
(Equation 2.17)
U P E E R
(Equation 2.18)
Exercise 7
Given PMMC with resistance 100 was using in series ohmmeter. R1 = 500, R2 = 400 and
supply voltage = 10V. When connected with Rx, the reading shows 0.5mA. Find the value of Rx.
Solution
R1 = 500
A
Rm = 100
10V
Rx
R2 = 400
B
U
P E E R
U
P E
E "R
!
V
RM
R1
A
Rx
V
R2
B
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0
W
E - E X
-
YC
ZM
(Equation 2.19)
, the ratio between current reading when Rx is connected and full scale
current.
Req
[
Vin
[
\]
&Q
where E
- 0X
- EX
0
E -E X
-
(Equation 2.20)
RT
A
[
12
E U
U
12
[
U
12
0
E
[
E
Rx
Vin
B
(Equation 2.21)
Exercise 8
R1
Rm
1.5V
Rx
R2
B
a)
b)
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Solution
a)
&
&
,^)+^
__`abc
b) At FSD
= X 100A
= 50A.
U P E E R
+d
At FSD
= X 100A
= 25A.
U P E E R
d
"
At FSD
= X 100A
= 75A.
U P E E R
ed
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2.4.3
DC Meter / 22
R1
Ix A
I
Im
Rx
B
Figure 2.16 : Individual Shunt Ohmmeter circuit.
U
U U
U
&
(Equation 2.22)
O
A
IM
+
Vin
Rx
RM
S1
B
Figure 2.17 : Operation of Shunt Ohmmeter.
S1 is using for cut-off the battery (Vin) when not using the circuit.
When Rx = 0 ( AB terminal short), no current in circuit and the pointer is mark as 0 ohm.
When Rx = infinity (AB terminal open), the current (IM) in circuit is maximum. Adjust R1 until
the meter movement is full scale, and the pointer is mark as (Infinity).
AB Terminal Open
AB Terminal short
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Example 9
R1 = 4.5K
Ix A
I = 5A
Im
V
Rx
Rm = 500
B
Solution
At 0A scale, U
&
U
O
+P++^R
PO+Rd
At FSD, U
dP++^R
PORd
At FSD, U
dP++^R
PORd
GGF
At FSD, U
dP++^R
PORd
f
2.4.4
Function
i.
ii.
iii.
Meter resistance
A resistance of the meter's armature coil.
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iv.
2.4.5
DC Meter / 24
Unknown resistance
A resistance that unknown value in a circuit.
R1
R1
R
m
When point A short B, Rx=0 (Maximum current
flows in circuit) so R2 is adjusted for pointer
pointing at Rm zero position (which means
current only flow through Rm). Normally it
known as 'Zero Adjusted'.
R2
E
E
Open
circuit
R2
R1
R
m
R
m
R
m
Open
circuit
When point A-B open, Rx=infinity (No current When point A-B open, Rx=infinity (Maximum
flows in circuit) so pointer is pointing to infinity current flows in meter) so pointer is pointing
position.
to infinity position.
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R1
R
m
R1
A
Rx
R2
A
B
R
m
B
2.5
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Check the setting of the range switch and choose an appropriate scale.
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Sensitivity of meter
he accuracy with which a meter can measure a voltage, current,
Sensitivity is define as the
resistance, or other quantity.
Multimeters must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V otherwise their resistance on
DC voltage ranges may be too low to avoid u
upsetting
psetting the circuit under test and giving an
incorrect reading. To obtain valid readings the meter resistance should be at least 10 times the
circuit resistance (take this to be the highest resistor value near where the meter is connected).
If you are buying an analogue multimeter make sure it has a high sensitivity of 20k
/V or greater on DC voltage ranges, anything less is not suitable for electronics. The sensitivity
is normally marked in a corner of the scale, ignore the lower AC value (sensitivity on AC ranges
is less important), the higher DC value is the critical one. Beware of cheap analogue multimeters
sold for electrical work on cars because their sensitivity is likely to be too low.
Analogue
nalogue meters take a little power from the circuit under tes
testt to operate their pointer.
They must have a high sensitivity of at least 20k /V or they may upset the circuit under test
and give an incorrect reading.
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iii.
2.5.2
Select a range with a maximum greater than you expect the reading to be.
Connect the meter, making sure the leads are the correct way round.
Digital meters can be safely connected in reverse, but an analogue meter may be
damaged.
If the reading goes off the scale: immediately disconnect and select a higher
range.
DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
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SELECTOR SWITCH
Figure 2.6.1.Model 8000A block diagram Digital Multimeter
2)
3)
The DISPLAY section consist of four LEDs, analog control, decoder driver. The output
from Digital IC are in binary number, will past through BCD (Binary Coded Decimal). and
decoder driver where the measured value displayed decimal value.
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2.6.
ii.
Touch the meter probes together and check that the meter reads zero.
If it doesn't read zero, turn the switch to 'Set Zero' if your meter has this and try
again.
iii.
2.7
The sensitivity of analogue multimeter depends on the voltage ranges. All digital
meters contain a battery to power the display so they use virtua
virtually
lly no power from
the circuit under test. This means that on their DC voltage ranges they have a very
high resistance (usually called input impedance) of 1M or more, usually 10M ,
and they are very unlikely to affect the circuit under test.
2.
When measuring voltage using digital multimeter. The steps are the same as
analogue multimeter, but Digital meters can be safely connected in reverse, but an
analogue meter may be damaged.
3.
When measuring current using digital multimeter. The steps are the same as
analogue multimeter, but Digital meters can be safely connected in reverse, but an
analogue meter may be damaged.
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2.5.8
DC Meter / 31
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.