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Documentos de Profesional
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2.
3
3.
Equilibrium analysis
3.1 Forging
3.2 Sheet and wire drawing
3.3 Rolling forging analogy
4.
5.
6.
References
Kalpakjian S., Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, Addison Wesley,
CUED Libraryy JN49
Edwards S.L. and Endean M., Manufacturing with Materials, Butterworths,
CUED Library JA146
Cambridge Engineering Selector (CES EduPack 2011 or 2012)
Web-based resource on Aluminium Technology: AluMATTER
htt //
http://www.aluminium.matter.org.uk
l i i
tt
k
H.R. Shercliff
October 2012
1
1.
11 O
1.1
Overview
i off deformation
f
i processes
Deformation processing (or forming) is the shaping of material in the solid state:
Machining is also a plastic deformation process, used for refining shape or finish, and adding
features (holes, threads etc.).
Each process class is used for a fairly specific geometric shaping activity, so there is little
direct competition between them. But other processes compete with forming, e.g.
- forging vs.
vs casting vs.
vs powder processing
- extrusion vs. welded assembly of plate
Why carry out deformation processing?
1. Geometry: forming long, thin-walled shapes (i.e. high aspect ratio, difficult to cast).
2. Low waste: forming processes mostly near net shape.
3 Tolerance
3.
T l
andd surface
f
finish:
fi i h usually
ll goodd (and
( d can be
b corrected
t d by
b machining)
hi i )
4. Microstructure: cast microstructures usually coarse need to be refined by
deformation (and heat treatment) to enhance properties.
5. Energy and cost efficient: temperatures below melting.
Some disadvantages:
1. High forces and complex control systems are required: can be high capital cost,
with expensive high strength steel tooling.
2. Multiple stages (including machining) often needed due to physical limits on
achievable shape changes and complexity.
3. Metals work-harden with cold deformation and often require intermediate annealing
to enable further deformation.
Non-steady-state processes
Rolling
hot or cold
Forging
usually hot
Extrusion
usually hot
cold
Wire drawing
cold
Machining
cold
Hot and cold refer to whether the material is pre-heated before forming but all
deformation generates heat, so even a cold-worked part may undergo some heating.
Th average temperature during
The
d i forming
f
i determines
d
i
the
h deformation
d f
i mechanism.
h i
Cold working
Hot working
plastic yielding:
T < 0.3 Tm, typical = 1105 s-1
Steels
Al alloys
300 500 oC
Equilibrium analysis: find a stress field which satisfies equilibrium and produces
yielding (hence flow) at every point.
Upper bound analysis: find a displacement field which satisfies compatibility and
allows the deformation to occur. Equate internal and external work done.
Numerical methods can handle the complex elastic-plastic stress-strain behaviour (such as strainrate and temperature-dependent yielding).
Elastic limit,
uniaxial yield stress, Y
plastic flow
Stress
Strain,
2.
Fundamentals of plasticity
xy yx
general stress
state
yy
xx
yx
zx
xy xz
yy yz
zy zz
3
1
in terms of
principal stresses
1 0
0
2
0
0
xx
0
0
3
(yy, xy)
(xx, -yx)
1 0
2 m
0
0 2 0 0 m 0 0
0
0 3 0
0 m 0
0
3 m
The yield criterion becomes a condition about the deviatoric stress tensor i.e. yield
occurs when some function of the deviatoric stress tensor reaches a critical value.
max 1 2 , 2 3 , 3 1
Usually
y define the principal
p
p stresses so that 1 2 3 . Hence:
1 3 Y
Von Mises yield criterion
According to the von Mises criterion, yield occurs when the elastic shear strain energy reaches
a critical value,, which leads to :
1 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 2 2Y 2
Both criteria can also be written in terms of the
yield stress in pure shear, k.
The principal stresses are then
1 = + k; 2 = 0 ; 3 = - k
k
k
Tresca: 1 3 = Y = 2k
von Mises: (1 2)2 + (2 3)2 + (1 3)2 = 2Y2 = 6k2
NB. the relationship between Y and k changes: for Tresca, Y = 2k ;
It is
i possible
ibl to test experimentally
i
ll which
hi h criterion
i i is
i better,
b
by
b measuring
i Y and
d k on the
h same
sample of material (and under combined tension and shear). The differences between the two
criteria are relatively small (at most 15%).
d1 d2 d3 0
Once the yield criterion is satisfied we need a flow rule to relate the plastic strain to the
stress. In an isotropic material the principal axes of stress and strain-rate coincide.
The Levy-Mises flow rule states that the plastic strain increment in each principal direction is
proportional to the deviatoric stress component in that direction i.e.
d1, d 2 , d3
1 m , 2 m , 3 m
d 3
d1
d 2
1 m 2 m 3 m
d1
d 2
d 3
1 12 ( 2 3 ) 2 12 (1 3 ) 3 12 (1 2 )
d2
2 12 (1 3 )
Thus: 2 = (1 + 3).
i.e. 2 will be the intermediate principal stress and 1 > 2 > 3
The maximum shear stress will be (1-
3) on planes at 45
45 to the 1 and 3 axes
By the Tresca yield criterion:
1 3 = Y = 2k
3 Equilibrium analysis
g g
3.1 Forging
Open die forging
p(x)
(x)
dx
2h
(x)
( )
p(x)
(x)
dx
2h
(x + dx)
(x)
p(x)
( )
x . 2h 2 . dx 0
d x
dx
h
Principal directions:
At the element centre, there is no shear (due to symmetry): x and y are principal stresses.
At the element surface, there is shear stress due to friction but consider the Mohrs circle for
a moderate value of :
Hence to a good approximation,
x and y (= p) are also principal
stresses at the surface.
Recall that for plane strain:
d zz 0
p x Y
dp
dx
h
d x
dp
0
dx
dx
dx
dp
dx ln (p) x C
p
h
h
Boundary conditions:
At x = w, x = 0. Combining this with the yield criterion p x = Y gives at x = w, p = Y.
Hence:
ln(Y ) w C
h
and thus:
exp w x
Y
h
( x 0)
When x < 0 the direction of friction is reversed, and the solution becomes:
exp w x
Y
h
x 0
NB: if we had used the von Mises criterion, p x 2Y / 3 , the expressions for p/Y
would be increased by the factor of 2/3.
10
friction hill
w = 4h
w = 2h
50
5.0
50
5.0
= 0.4
4.0
4.0
3.0
p/Y
p/Y
3.0
2.0
2.0
10
1.0
10
1.0
0.0
0.0
= 0.1
-1
-0.5
0.5
-1
x/w
-0.5
0.5
x/w
To calculate the total forging load F, integrate p(x) over the die surface (depth D into page):
w
F D p( x) dx
w
2DhY
w
exp
1
h
Note that the target result the load required to yield the slab depends on a combination of:
- material parameters: yield stress, Y
- process operating conditions: friction between die and workpiece,
- design parameters: the geometry of the slab depth D, height h, width w
Note in particular the sensitivity to the aspect ratio, w/h:
- the high value of p/Y sets a limit on how thin a component can be forged
- the thin flash formed at the edge in impression die forging accounts for a significant share of
the total load
Plane strain compression without friction
In the limit 0 (frictionless dies), the results become: p = Y, and F = 2DwY (using
Trescas criterion). Check this for yourself!
Recall that by the Tresca criterion, p = Y = 2k , where k is the shear yield stress.
Furthermore, by the von Mises criterion, p = (2/3) Y = (2/3) k/3 = 2k .
So the pressure on the dies in plane strain compression with frictionless dies is 2k (whichever
criterion is used). This geometry can therefore be used in a compression test to measure 2k
for the material directly.
The conversion to uniaxial yield stress Y depends on whether the material response is closer
to Tresca or von Mises.
11
Forging of a disc
(not on syllabus)
h 2
2 R
F 2 Y exp
1 2 Y R h
2
h
2
Note the similarities to the plane strain case the forging load depends on Y, , h and R,
and is particularly sensitive to the thickness to diameter ratio, h/2R.
12
ho
hi
draw
Assume zero friction.
Take compressive stress +ve.
Depth D into the page is large, so plane strain conditions apply, with d2=0.
zoom in on detail.
1 d 1
dh
2 sin
dh
2
dh
2 tan
3
Equilibrium:
hdh
Resolve horizontally. 1 d 1
2
h
2
h d 1 1 d h
Resolve vertically.
dh
dh
p
2 tan
2 tan
dh
2
dh
2 tan
dh
2
pdh 0
3 p
Yield criterion: no flow in the 2 direction so 2 is intermediate; the Tresca criterion gives:
3 1 Y
p 1 Y
hence
NB: In this case we want the stress in the x-direction (at exit), rather than the distribution of p
with x, so we dont switch to a differential in p, but eliminate p leaving a differential in 1.
Combining the yield criterion with horizontal equilibrium: h d 1 Y d h 0
Integrate and use boundary conditions at entry ( = 0) and exit ( = - draw
):
d
0
hi
dh
ho h
d 1 Y
-draw
h
draw Y ln i
ho
13
Notes:
1. This analysis used the Tresca criterion using von Mises instead, replace Y with 2Y/3
(as plane strain)
2. Note that draw may not exceed the yield stress Y (or the material fails in tension at the
exit). This gives a maximum draw ratio:
h
h
h
h
e 2.718 i.e. o 37%
Y ln i Y ln i 1 i
hi
ho
ho
ho max
3. A back tension back may also be applied at the inlet. This has no effect on the initial
analysis but changes one of the boundary conditions: at the inlet, h=hi , 1 = -back . Hence:
h
draw back Y ln i
ho
So the draw stress is increased by the back tension, reducing the maximum draw ratio.
But increased tension along the strip reduces the pressure needed to reach yield hence
back tension reduces wear of the die.
4. The same analysis can be applied to plane strain extrusion, simply by another change in
boundary conditions: at the inlet, = + ext (compression), and at the outlet = 0.
The inlet material must then be enclosed, but the compressive stress is not limited by the
yield stress so greater reductions in section are possible.
5. The analysis can readily be extended to include the effect of friction on the die (giving
additional terms in the equilibrium equations).
Wire drawing
Wires are drawn in tension through a sequence of
well-lubricated conical dies. Typical reduction in
area per pass = 10
1040%.
40%. Work hardening is needed
to avoid tensile failure at the die outlet, but the
material may then require intermediate annealing.
Wire drawing may be modelled using an equivalent axisymmetric analysis to sheet drawing.
The resulting expression for the draw stress, for the case of Coulomb friction on the die wall, is:
cot
1 A 2
1
draw Y 1
cot A1
Note that the observations above on the maximum draw ratio and the effect of back tension
apply equally to wire drawing,
drawing and a change in boundary conditions to an inlet compression
switches the analysis to extrusion of a solid cylinder.
14
3.3 Rolling
Rolling is a steady-state, continuous process for forming long prismatic shapes.
Cast Ingot
"Bloom or "Slab"
Flat Rolling (sheet, strip, plate)
ll radius
di R
roll
ho
hi
vo
Note that the friction direction reverses in the roll bite at the neutral plane, i.e. the point where
the local speed of the strip = the peripheral roll speed, v = R .
Note also that conservation of volume means that hivi = hovo .
15
2h
hi ho
2
2w
The roll bite is therefore directly analogous to the geometry used for analysis of plane strain
forging, assuming the neutral plane falls on the plane of symmetry.
Hence the rolling pressure distribution will be a friction hill, as in forging, and we can estimate
the rolling load directly using the result for plane strain forging (assuming the Tresca criterion):
2 DhY
w
exp
1
h
Provided the friction coefficient is reasonably low, we can assume w/h << 1. This allows the use
of the approximation exp(w/h) 1 + w/h+ (w/h)2/2 , giving:
2DhY w 1 w
h 2 h
It is more convenient to express the rolling force in terms of the roll radius R and heights hi and
ho. Consider the contact geometry:
2
2w R hi ho R2
2
hi ho
2
2w
Typically
hi ho
R giving
2
2w
R hi ho
R (hi ho )
F D Y R (hi ho )
h
h
i
o
As before, this result combines parameters of the material, process and the geometry of the strip.
Estimation of rolling torque and power
The roll closing force F acts at an offset distance w from the roll centre. The rolling torque is
thus approximately T = F . w, and the power requirement (for each roll) is then P = T . for
a rotational speed . This analysis is crude but gives the correct trends.
16
Effects of tension at the inlet (back tension) and outlet (front tension)
Front and/or back tension are used in rolling, and have the effect of:
- reducing the pressure needed to cause yielding (as in sheet/wire drawing)
- reducing the magnitude of the friction hill (and shifting the neutral plane)
- reducing the rolling load, torque and power
The analysis with forward/back tension follows the forging analogy, but with a change in
boundary conditions at entry and exit.
Notes:
1. If a sufficiently large back tension is applied, the neutral point can be shifted to the outlet,
and the rolls begin to slip. This can be used experimentally to estimate the friction coefficient .
2. In multi-stand tandem rolling, the forward tension on one stand = the back tension on the
next. Why must this tension be carefully controlled?
17
4.1 Forging
Consider again plane strain forging of a long square block between frictionless dies:
B
C
B
D
O (fixed)
O (fixed)
F
h
Equate external rate of work with internal rate of energy dissipation:
External power = F . v
Internal power =
all interfaces
18
To find the relative sliding velocity of the blocks, construct a velocity diagram (hodograph):
Interface
bc
bd
ce
ed
o,e
length
h / 2
h / 2
h / 2
h / 2
velocity
v / 2
v / 2
v / 2
v / 2
internal power
khDv / 2
khDv / 2
khDv / 2
khDv / 2
Total
2khDv
a,b
F 2k h D
v/2
A
B
O
fixed
2 (v/2)
v/2
E
O
v/2
a, b
F=2khD
as before.
19
B: h > b
b
h/2
p
2.83
2k
p 3b 7 h
2k 2 h 18 b
C: h b
D: h << b
p
1
2k
p 1b h
2k 2 h b
4
Pressure p/2k
3.5
3
A
2.5
B
2
1.5
C
1
0.5
0
h/b
10
20
4.2 Extrusion
Extrusion uses compressive loading to
y hot)) through
g a die
force a billet ((usually
to make a shaped, prismatic section.
With soft metals (e.g. hot aluminium)
very large reductions in area can be made
in a single step.
Die design
For solid cylinders, square or angled dies may be used. With a square die, a dead metal zone
forms, leading to intense shearing (and heating).
The design of dies for complex hollow sections is considered in a later case study.
For upper bound analysis, we consider plane strain extrusion of a flat strip.
Upper bound analysis of plane strain extrusion
Consider extrusion of a strip of thickness 2h from a billet of thickness 4h through a square die.
Assume sticking friction on the die wall, and consider half of the problem (due to symmetry).
The width of the strip (out of the page) is D. This geometry is referred to as direct extrusion.
Die O
C
F/2
Ram
D
l
2v
h
centre line
21
Velocity diagram:
o,c
d
g /h
length
l/h
2
2
2
Interface
OA
AB
BC
BD
velocity
y /v
(oa) 1
(ab) 1
(bc) 2
(bd) 2
Internal
power /(hDkv)
p
(
)
l/h
2
2
2
b
Total
l/h + 6
l
F .v / 2 h D k v 6
2 D k l 6h
F/2
Ram
D
l
2v
The analysis is identical, except that O now moves with A so no shear work is done on
interface oa.
Hence: F 2 D k 6h
4.3 Machining
Machining processes use a hard tool to selectively remove a softer material. Most components
g some machining.
g Numericallyy controlled machines ggive high
g reproducibility
p
y and
undergo
accuracy.
There is a wide range of machining processes: turning, shaping, milling, drilling, tapping, grinding.
The underlying mechanism is largely the same: plastic deformation of a thin surface layer or
groove of material.
g shear strains are imposed
p
on the chipp and strain-rates are high
g ((103 s-1) this can cause
Large
temperature rises of the order of 1000C in steels.
22
Velocity diagram:
T
( ) ( )
Rake angle
d
vcw
/2- v
sin / 2 ( )
sin / 2 )
vcw
v cos
cos( )
d
d
v cos
D . vcw . k
D
k
sin
sin
cos( )
i.e.
F
k d cos
sin cos( )
D
The optimal solution will be the minimum value of F/D which is when f sin cos( )
is a maximum with respect to :
f
cos cos( ) sin sin( ) cos( ) cos(2 ) 0
Principal solution :
(/2 /4).
F
2 k d . cos
D
1 sin
In practical machining, there is a secondary shear zone associated with friction on the rake face
of tool (neglected above). This can be included by adding a term for the power dissipation on
the tool, e.g. assuming sticking friction over the length of the tool face, with a relative velocity
given by the chip exit velocity.
velocity
23
power input
Q
T
To assess whether there is time for temperature gradients to even out, we compare the speed of the
material with the speed of heat conduction.
To do this, estimate the thickness of the deformation zone, d , and an interaction time, t (the time
that
h material
i l takes
k to pass through
h
h the
h deformation
d f
i zone).
) The
Th distance
di
that
h heat
h could
ld travell in
i this
hi
a
t
a
t
a
time is approximately
, where
is the thermal diffusivity. If d >>
, temperature
gradients will remain.
24
(Revision mostly)
25
26
Solution treat
Quench
Quench
Age
Age
YIELD
STRESS
or
Artificial
ageing
Natural
ageing
HARDNESS
die design
extrusion loads and speed, and optimisation of cooling schedules
surface finish, product distortion and cracking
temperature and microstructure evolution (deformed grains, age hardening)
28
T (oC)
HOMOGENISATION
EXTRUSION
QUENCH
PREHEAT
DIRECT
CHILL
CAST
INGOT
AGE
TIME
Microstructural evolution: key ideas
- deformation and thermal histories are closely coupled
- shaping and microstructure control are achieved simultaneously
- the deformation/ageing stages inherit microstructure from upstream processes
(e.g. casting and homogenisation)
- deformation processing must leave the material with good properties for
downstream processing (e.g. heat treatment and welding), and for the
products performance in service
Example of complex multi-process microstructure evolution
Prior processing history (casting and homogenisation) can have an important effect
on extrusion and age hardening.
Al alloys contain intermetallic second phase particles and dispersoids (Al with Fe,
Mn or Cr) formed during casting/homogenisation. Their size and number density
depends on composition, and homogenization temperature & time.
Dispersoids are used to control recrystallised grain size (by PSN), but can act as
nucleation sites for precipitation of coarse, non-hardening phases during
quenching. This effectively removes solute from the supersaturated solution, and
hence lower peak aged strength. The tendency for an alloy to suffer from this is
known as quench sensitivity.
Quench sensitivity is a particular problem when it is difficult to impose a fast
cooling rate e.g. thick rolled plate, or extrusions of complex shape (which are
more likely to distort).
29
HARDNESS
T
TE
T6 peak
aged
hardness
Alloy 1
Alloy 2
log(TIME)
2
5
10
20
50
o
log(COOLING RATE) ( C/s)
30